Radiation Quantities & Units

Exposure – a dosimetric quantity for ionizing electromagnetic radiation, based on the ability of
the radiation to produce ionization on air. The quantity is only defined for electromagnetic
radiation producing interactions in air
Absorbed Dose – is the amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of material
KERMA is kinetic energy released in a material
Equivalent Dose – is the amount of radiation exposure receive by a radiation worker
Activity – is the number of atoms disintegrating or decaying per unit time

Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter

Ionizing radiation is the number of ion pairs formed per unit path length
Range is the maximum distance traversed by Ionizing Radiation (IR)
Linear Energy Transfer (LET) is the energy transferred by ionizing radiation to the medium or
matter per unit path length
LET is directly proportional to specific ionization and inversely proportional to range
Alpha particles (α) are emitted from the nucleus of heavy nuclide. Its average energy is about
4-7 MeV. It has a very short range in air. It is least penetrating of ionizing radiation
Beta (β) particles are high speed electrons. Difference from electrons is origin
X-rays and gamma (δ) rays are sparsely ionizing radiation. Sparsely means low specific
ionization

Interactions of Electrons/Negatrons with Matter

Three types of Electrons interacting matter
Excitation – emits in a form of heat or infrared
Production of Characteristics radiation – occurs in low energy x-ray. Projectile electron
interacts with inner shell electron, removing an electron. An outer shell electron will fill up the
vacant inner shell electron producing characteristics x-ray
Production of Bremsstrahlung radiation – occurs in high-energy x-ray.
Bremsstrahlung produces from x-ray tube that hit the patient. A German words means “braking
up of electrons”
Filter is put into an x-ray tube to absorb characteristics x-ray

X- ray interaction with matter

The following are five fundamental interactions between x-rays & matter
Classical Scattering is a change in the direction of an incident x-ray without a loss in energy.
Occurs in low energy x-ray; scattered photon (ES) = incident photon (Ei)
Compton Effect occurs when the incident x-ray ionizes atoms and the x-ray then change
direction with a loss of energy. Interacts with an outer shell electron and removes it; scattered
photon (Es) < incident photon (Ei). It occurs with high energy x-ray
Photoelectric Effect occurs when the incident x-ray is absorb in one of the inner electron shells
and emits a photoelectron with energy nearly equal to the energy of the incident x-ray. Occurs for
a moderate ionization; Incident photon (Ei) removes an inner shell electrons
Pair Production occurs when the incident x-ray interacts with the electrostatic field of the
nucleus. The x-ray disappears and two electrons appear, one positively charge (positron) and one
negatively charge (electron). Incident photon does not interact with any orbital electron
Photodisintegration occurs when the incident x-ray is directly absorbed by the nucleus. The x-
ray disappears and the nuclear fragments are released. Incident photon (Ei) penetrate the nucleus
producing nuclear fragments
Removed electron in photoelectric effect is called photoelectron
Removed electron in Compton effect is called Compton or recoil electron
In pair production, incident photon (Ei) ≥ 1.022 MeV
LINAC or Linear Accelerator is a machine that produces an x-ray of 4-20 MeV
Energy of gamma ray of cobalt (Eδ cobalt) = 1.25 MeV
In photodisintegration, energy required is 7 MeV
Nuclear fragments in photodisintegration are proton (p), neutron (n) and alpha (α)
Grid is used to prevent characteristic x-ray to minimize fogging in the device
The interactions that occur most frequently in the diagnostic x-ray range are the Compton effect
and Photoelectric effect
Diagnostic x-ray range = 150 KeV
Differential absorption is the x-ray image results from the difference between those x-rays
absorbed by photoelectric interaction and those x-rays that pass through the body and form
remnant radiation. Is the property of radiograph showing differences in x-ray photons that are
absorbed and x-ray photons that are not absorbed
Attenuation is the reduction of the x-ray beam intensity as it penetrates through the thickness of
tissue
Half value layer (HVL) is the thickness of material required to reduce the intensity of the x-ray
beam radiation to reduce its one-half of the original value
Factors affecting attenuation are energy of the beam, atomic number of interacting material,
and density of interacting material
Differential absorption and attenuation of the x-ray beam depends on the following two factors:
The atomic number (Z) of the atoms in tissue
The mass density of the atoms in tissue
Radiologic contrast agent such as iodine and barium use the principles of differential absorption
and attenuation to image soft tissue organs within the body
Iodine is used in vascular, renal, and biliary imaging
Barium is used for gastrointestinal imaging

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the force associated with electrons in motion
The development of the Battery as a constant electricity source by Alessandro Volta in the
1700s prompted further investigations of the electric and magnetic forces
Hans Oersted demonstrated that electricity can be used to generate magnetic fields
Michael Faraday observe the flow of the current in a changing magnetic field and describe the
first law of electromagnetics (Faraday’s Law)
Heinrich Lenz expanded on Faraday’s experiment
Lenz law states that the induced current will flow in a direction such that it opposes the action
that induces it
Induction, or the production of electricity in a magnetic field is describe in two ways – Self
induction and Mutual induction
If steady or direct current flows through a wire, a constant magnetic field would be created
through a wire
It the current changes direction as in alternating current, the magnetic field is constant
Self induction occurs when the changing magnetic field of a single wire induces an opposing
electromotive force
Mutual induction is the process of inducing a current flow through a secondary coil by passing a
varying current through a primary coil
In Electric motor, electric current produces mechanical motion. It is an electrical device that
converts electrical energy into mechanical enrgy
In Electric generator, a magnet is move near a coil of wire and electricity is induced in the wire.
This converts mechanical energy to electric energy
In Transformer, electric potential and electric current are changed to higher or lower intensities.
Only operate with a changing electric current (AC)
Transformer is used to change the magnitude of current and voltage in an AC circuit
The transformer law states that current and voltage changes across the transformer are directly
proportional to the ratio of the number of turns of wire from primary to the secondary side
Three types of energy losses in transformer are Resistance losses, Hysteresis losses, and Eddy
currents
Three types of transformer are closed core, autotransformer, and shell type
The Rectifier is another electronic device use in the x-ray tube circuit. It changes alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC)
The x-ray tube is a type on vacuum tube rectifier
Modern rectifiers are microchips called semiconductors and are used in computer hardware
Alessandro Volta uses zinc & copper plates to create an electric current
Any charged in motion creates an electric field. Thus, electrons through a wire produce a
magnetic field around that wire
A solenoid is a coil of wire
The right-hand rule determines the direction of the magnetic field lines surrounding through a
wire. When gripping the wire with the right hand, the thumb points in the direction of the current
flow. The fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field lines
An Electromagnet is a ferromagnetic material wrapped in a coil of wire
Faraday’s law says that an electric current will be induced to flow in a circuit if some part of that
circuit is in a changing magnetic field
The magnitude of the induced currents depends on the strength of the magnetic field, velocity of
the magnetic field, angle of the conductor and number of turns in the conductor
The resistance caused by alternating current and the alternating reversal of the magnetic field is
called Hysteresis
The transformer that has a single winding that acts as both the primary and secondary winding is
called an Autotransformer
Semiconductors sometimes behave as conductors and sometimes behave as insulators in their
ability to conduct electricity
Diode is a type of vacuum tube rectifier that has two (di) electrodes
Closed core transformer is a square doughnut of magnetic material
The external magnetic field is supplied by several fixed electromagnets called stators
Rotor is a cylinder with iron bars placed along its length
The commutator ring acts as a switch, changing the polarity of the contact on the brush wire at
precisely those point at which the electrical charge on one side changes
In magnetic fields around a solenoid, magnetic field lines is concentrated on the center
Electromagnet is a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core
Magnetic field are represented by imaginary lines that form the concentric circle centered on the
wire
Voltage is also known as Electromotive force
Alternating current is an electric current produce from generator; it is also seen to change
direction
In transformer, change is directly proportional to the ratio of turns (Ns/Np)
In transformer voltage law, number of turns (Ns/Np) is directly proportional to voltage
In transformer current law, number of turns (Ns/Np) is inversely proportional to current
Two types of transformer are step-down and step-up
Step-down transformer reduce voltage in the secondary. Turns ratio is less than one (1)
Step-up transformer increase voltage in the secondary. Turns ratio is greater than one (1)
In an x-ray tube the flow of electrons is from cathode (negative) to anode (positive)

Electricity and Magnetism

The primary function of x-ray tube is to convert electric energy into electromagnetic energy
Electrostatic is the study of electric charge at stationary form
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Electrostatic charge of one electron is equal to 1.6x10 C
An object is said to be electrified if it has too many or too few electrons
Electric charge are concentrated along the sharpest curvature of the surface
3 ways of creating electrification are contact, friction, and induction
Contact is a connection that causes flow of electrons
Friction is a buildup of electrons cause by rubbing surfaces
Induction use the electrical field of a charge object to confer a charge on an uncharged object
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One (1) coulomb is equal to 6.3x10 electron
Electrostatic laws are unlike charges attract, like charges repel; coulomb’s law; electric
charge distribution; and electric charge concentration
Electric charge distribution law – when an object becomes electrified the charges are
distributed throughout the object
Electric charge concentration law – electric charge are concentrated along the sharpest
curvature of the surface of the object
In Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the
electrostatic charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
In inverse square law, the farther the distance, the lesser the charges
Electrodynamics is the study of charge in motion, otherwise known as electricity
Electric current is the motion of charges along a wire. Number of electrons flowing in a wire per
unit time
Ampere = c/s
Electric conductors are matter to which electron flow easily
Electric insulators are matter that inhibits flow of electrons
Resistor are those that resist flow of electrons
Superconductor are those that allow electrons to flow without any resistance
Electric circuit is a continuous flow of electrons in a closed path
Two types of electric circuit are parallel circuit and series circuit
Three essential elements in an electric circuit are voltage (V), current (I), resistance (Ω)
Voltage is responsible for the flow of electrons in the circuit
The unit of electric potential is Volt
One (1) Watt = one (1) ampere of current flowing through an electric potential of one (1) volt
Ohm’s law determine the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance
Resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the density, length, and temperature of the
wire and inversely proportional to the cross section of the wire
Ammeter is the device that use to measure electric current
Voltmeter is the device that use to measure electric potential
Two types of current are direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
Direct current are flow of electrons in one direction
Alternating current are flow of electrons in two direction
Power is the rate of doing work
Electric power is the time rate of doing work
The two separate units of Electric charge are positive (proton) and negative (electron)
Magnetic material attract pieces of iron
Magnetite is a magnetic oxide of iron, rod like iron, lode stone or leading stone
When a charge particle is move, magnetic field is created
If a material cannot attract pieces of iron magnetic dipole is arrange randomly
In magnetic material, magnetic dipole are aligned
A magnet has two pole – the north and south pole
Three classification of magnets are natural magnet, artificially induced permanent magnet,
electromagnet
Natural magnet are those that occur naturally
Artificially induced permanent magnet are those that by heating and hitting of hammer,
magnetic property is lost
Laws of magnetism are magnetic dipole, magnetic attraction and repulsion, magnetic
induction, magnetic force
In magnetic dipole every magnet no matter how small has two poles – the north and south pole
In attraction and repulsion like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract
In magnetic induction a ferromagnetic material can be made magnetic by being placed in the
magnetic field lines of a magnet
Magnetic force or Maxwell’s field of theory – magnetic force is proportional to the product of
the magnetic pole strengths divided by the square of the distance between them
The SI unit of magnetic field strength is Tesla (T)
One (1) Tesla = 10,000 Gauss (G)