368 J. ENERGY VOL. 2, NO.

Fluid Dynamics of Diffuser-Augmented Wind Turbines

Barry L. Gilbert,* Richard A. Oman,t and Kenneth M. Foreman J
Grumman Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage, N. Y.

The diffuser-augmented wind turbine (DAWT) is one of the advanced concepts being investigated to improve
the economics of wind energy conversion systems (WECS). Application of modern boundary-layer control
techniques has reduced the surface area requirements of an efficient diffuser by an order of magnitude. Many
parameters that affect the performance of the diffuser system have been examined in small-scale wind tunnel
tests with a family of compact diffusers, using screens and centerbodies to simulate the presence of a turbine.
Flowfield surveys, overall performance, the effect of ground proximity, and the prospects for further im-
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provement are described. The baseline configuration is a conical, 60 deg included angle diffuser with an area
ratio of 2.78 controlled by two tangential injection slots. This first-generation DAWT can provide about twice
the power of a conventional WECS with the same turbine diameter and wind. Economic estimates show that this
DAWT can be as much as 50% cheaper than conventional WECS for the same rated power.

Nomenclature that are reliably free of extensive flow separation, and

Cp — exit static-pressure coefficient = (P4 — P0) /q0 maintain effective performance characteristics, but possess
CT = screen factor (turbine disk-loading coefficient) = H/q2 divergence included angles much greater than the con-
H = total pressure drop across the turbine (screen) ventional 6 to 12 deg. The problem is to prevent boundary-
Pj = static pressure at / layer separation in very strong adverse pressure gradients.
q{ — dynamic pressure at / One way of accomplishing this is by the tangential injection
r = augmentation ratio of high-energy air available from the external wind (see Fig.
V- = mean velocity at / 2). The additional momentum supplied to the boundary-layer
fluid helps the main flow overcome the severe adverse
Subscripts
pressure gradient and frictional losses in the wall region. If
0 = quantities evaluated or normalized far upstream of
the turbine
2 = quantities at the entrance to the turbine
4 = quantities at the diffuser exit
Introduction

T HE major unresolved technical problem in the design of

conventional wind energy conversion system (WECS)
turbines for very large power ratings is in the blade dynamics
of large diameter rotors. ] Because of this fact, integration of
wind generators into a national or regional power grid is
inhibited by the unacceptable reliability of very large units or
the economic liability of many smaller units of comparable
total power output. Many of these capital and performance
Fig. 1 Conceptual field installations of a DAWT with 6-m-diameter
restrictions of WECS may be reduced or eliminated by en-
turbine.
closing the wind turbine rotor in a suitably shaped duct.
The energy available to a horizontal-axis turbine rotor of
fixed size is increased by installing it at the entrance to a STATION NUMBER
0 123 4
diffuser (see Fig. 1). By recovering exhaust kinetic energy, the I
diffuser produces a greatly reduced pressure behind the
turbine relative to that behind a free turbine. This causes more
mass to flow through the diffuser-augmented wind turbine INLET
(DAWT) with at least as much pressure change as across the SLOT
conventional turbine. Because the wind power available to the
turbine is the product of flow rate and pressure drop, much
greater power output is possible than for a conventional BOUNDARY L A Y E R
WECS at the same turbine size and free wind speed. LOSING MOMENTUM
The diffuser design must have the smallest possible RE-ENERGIZED
BOUNDARY
structural cost, while still maintaining an appreciable LAYER
subatmospheric pressure at the turbine exit plane and a large
pressure recovery within the diffuser. This requires diffusers
Received July 10, 1978. Copyright © American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1978. All rights reserved.
Index categories: Wind Power; Subsonic Flow; Aerospace
Technology Utilization.
*Research Scientist, Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Research ENLARGED VIEW
Department. UNDISTURBED OF B O U N D A R Y
fDirector, Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. AIRFLOW LAYER CONTROL FLOWS
JStaff Scientist, Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Research Depart- Fig. 2 Flow streamlines (upper half) and velocity profiles (lower
ment. half)inaBLC DAWT.
 NOV.-DEC. 1978 FLUID DYNAMICS OF DIFFUSER-AUGMENTED W I N D TURBINES 369

properly done, this technique has the effect of preventing flow FLOW R E T A R D A T I O N
UPSTREAM
separation from the wall (the primary cause of failure of large
angle diffusers). There are several aspects of modern TOTAL PRESSURE
12.5 'LOSS
technology that offer significantly greater advantages to these
shrouded systems than have been considered in the past. 2 The 10
INLET
most important of these are: 1) the promise of boundary-layer (ACCELERATION) i 7 5
-
control to reduce the surface area (i.e. length) requirements of
an efficient diffuser by an order of magnitude; and 2) the i 5
realization (first indicated by Igra 3 and since confirmed by ! 2.5
our experiments) that there is a beneficial augmentation of a
shrouded wind turbine that results from the turbulent -2-1 2 3 4 5 1 3
momentum interaction between the turbine/diffuser wake A X I A L DISTANCE F R O M A X I A L DISTANCE FROM
and the accelerated peripheral flow. This momentum ex- SCREEN (DIFFUSER SCREEN (DIFFUSER
change results in a greatly reduced exit plane pressure that has LENGTHS) LENGTHS

been as beneficial as the effect of the diffuser itself. There is Fig. 3 Typical centerline axial static- and total-pressure surveys in
also the promise of synergistic advantages derived from the 60-deg included angle diffuser, CT = 0.47.
design features of a static diffuser structure which dampens
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gusts, reduces wind shear and directional problems, lowers

cut-in wind speed by increasing the axial velocity at the
turbine (thereby increasing the annual on-line factor), and
eliminates tower wakes. Finally, an increasing concern for the
cost and development risk associated with very large rotors
leads to significant advantages for a system that produces
larger rated power from a rotor that is limited in size by
aeroelastic design constraints.
The overriding criterion for evaluating diffuser con-
figurations is the cost of the energy they would produce in
production quantities. This is reflected primarily in the capital
cost comparison for competing concepts, with secondary a)
influences from other cost factors such as operating wind
range, annual effective power production, aesthetics, and
maintenance requirements.Cost estimates for components of
both the DAWT and conventional systems in production
quantities are, unfortunately, but necessarily, highly
speculative at this time. An attempt has been made to use the
best available data 4 ' 5 and to use estimating methods that are
easily adjusted for changes in cost data. Cost and practicality
projections are the major factors that determine the selection
and sequence of the DAWT configurations tested and
analyzed.
The complete program is given in Ref. 6. Although in-
dependently derived, many of the technical decisions con-
cerning the diffuser design closely parallel the work of Igra. 3
This paper is limited primarily to the experimental work
conducted on boundary-layer control (BLC) conical diffusers.
A complete economic analysis may be found in Ref. 6.

Experimental Method
Experiments have been conducted in a low-speed low-
turbulence-level free jet tunnel facility. The core region of a
29.2-cm-diameter free jet flow is used as the test section in
which uniform wind conditions are simulated. A velocity of
13.0 m/s (43fps) was used for the tests. Models were mounted
slightly downstream of the nozzle exit plane.
Since it is impractical to build a family of wind turbines for
an exploratory investigation of small-scale diffuser models,
turbine energy extraction was simulated by screens that
dissipate energy at the turbine station. The turbine per-
formance is simulated by the total pressure change across the
screen. The power extracted per unit area of screen is the
product of the change in total pressure and local velocity.
The instrumentation system employed a transconductance
differential pressure transducer. Measurements were derived
from the combined use of a single static-pressure probe and a
single total-pressure probe, each of which could pass through
the screens used. For the axial- and radial-pressure surveys,
the probes were mounted on a motor-driven traversing
mechanism. This device produced an electrical output
proportional to its position so that pressure vs spatial position
could be recorded.
The augmentation ratio is defined as the ideal power ex-
tracted by the turbine, normalized by the optimum power
Fig. 4 Boundary-layer controlled (BLC) diffuser models: a) (left to
right) 40-, 60-, and 80-deg included angle models each with an area
ratio of 2.78; b) baseline configuration, 60-deg diffuser with an area
ratio of 2.78 (screen installed CT = 0.37).
derived from an ideal turbine, 0.593 of the total available free
wind power in a streamtube with the same area as the turbine.
As given in Ref. 6,
r=HV2/q0V0 (0.593}
where His the total pressure drop across the turbine (screen).
The magnitude of H is a function of the particular screen
used and the local dynamic pressure and is measured directly
in the system. Figure 3 shows the standard technique used to
determine the system augmentation. The local dynamic
pressure q2 is <?inlet + q0. The screen factor, C r , is computed as
— H/q2. Measurements of static, dynamic, and total pressure
usually were made. Repeated axial surveys at different radial
positions indicate that r increases with radial distance from
the axis. The weighted average over the entire cross section of
the turbine simulator gives the total diffuser augmentation
ratio, f.
 370 GILBERT, OMAN, AND FOREMAN J. ENERGY

Table 1 Diffuser configuration parameters that have been tested

Diffuser Additional
Number of Area ratio (diffuser exit/ included Disk tests below
segments screen inlet) angles, deg loading, CT footnoted
1 4.94 40,90 0.47 c
2.55,1.93 40 0.47 c
2.78,2.05,1.93,1.85,1.63 60 0.47
1.69 80 0.47

2 4.94 90 0.47 c
3.92 40 0.47
2.78 40 0.47 c —e
2.78 60 0.37,0.47, b,f-j
0.55,0.64,
0.93
2.78 80 0.37,0.47, b,g,h,j
0.55,0.64,
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0.93
2.49 40,60,80 0.47 a,c
2.37 60 0.47 a
1.28 40 0.47

3 4.94 40 0.47,0.55, b,d

4.43 40 0.64 a
4.06 40,60 b

4 4.94 40 0.47,0.55, b
0.64
4.94 60 0.47 b
4.43 40 0.47 b
a
Inlet slot height/radius,%,0,1.25,2.5,5.
b
Auxiliary slot height/local radius,%,3.36,2.52,1.92,1.76,1.68,1.63,0.36.
c
Positioning screen at diffuser inlet with and without screen ring.
Internal turbulent tape trips.
e
Trailing-edge flaps.
f
Leading- and trailing-edge configurations.
g
Ground plane and/or shear flow study.
h
Position of auxiliary slots.
'Centerbody configurations.
J
Yaw sensitivity.

Figure 4 shows two BLC diffusers. The upper photo shows
three diffusers with included angles of 40, 60, and 80 deg and
the same exit-to-turbine disk ratio (2.78) and slot sizes. The
40-deg diffuser is of an earlier construction employing rolled
stainless steel sheet, and the other two are spun aluminum.
The decrease in material from 40 to 80 deg is evident. The
second photograph is a three-quarter view of the 60-deg
diffuser showing the mounting details of the screen ring, inlet,
and auxiliary slots.
Experimental Results
The system augmentation is primarily a result of the in-
creased mass flow rate through the turbine. This increase in
entrance velocity may be thought of as the combination of
two major pressure effects. The first of these is the static-
pressure rise in the diffuser. The efficiency of this element is
dependent upon such factors as the inlet configuration,
number, and location of boundary-layer energizing slots, size
of the slots, and turbine disk loading.
The second effect is due to the accelerated flow around the
diffuser structure producing an exit plane static-pressure
reduction. The importance of this effect may be emphasized
by realizing that a subatmospheric exit pressure requires that
the exiting fluid continues to expand to the far downstream
conditions. The corresponding further rise in static pressure is
accomplished without the need (and cost) of constructing
more diffuser structures. For 60 and 80 deg, typical values for
the exit pressure coefficient are -0.58 and -0.63, respec-
tively. However, a DAWT receives the net benefit from the
diffuser of only that pressure reduction below the equivalent
CP4 value for a conventional rotor of -1/3—that is,
something like -0.25 to -0.3.
Diffuser
Many parameters have been identified that influence the
diffuser system performance. Investigations were conducted
to determine the effect of several of these. Although it was
impossible to span the entire parameter space for each
configuration, data were compiled that give an indication of
the important trends.
Over 100 variations of wide-angle segmented diffusers that
employed the boundary-layer control mechanism were
constructed and tested. A partial summary of these is given in
Table 1. A 60-deg included angle diffuser with a screen factor
(disk loading) of 0.63 is the best configuration tested, giving a
mass-weighted average-augmentation ratio of 1.89. This
configuration has an area ratio of 2.78 and uses an inlet and
auxiliary slot for boundary-layer control. It is expected that
with further model refinements it will be possible to improve
upon this value.
The first important result was learning how to start the flow
along the diffuser wall against the large adverse pressure
gradient. If the flow in the diffuser was not properly started,
it behaved like a jet issuing from a plane wall; i.e. a vena
contracta flow. The solution was simply to move the screen up
into a constant area section upstream of the diverging section,
and to provide an initial inlet slot around the screen section
which added enough momentum to the boundary layer to
allow it to start turning the angle of the diffuser wall as if it
were a Coanda flow process. It appeared to be necessary to
provide a short attachment surface of little or no divergence
downstream of the screen prior to where the diffuser wall
began to rapidly diverge or else jet flow would form.
Figure 5 shows the augmentation obtained with various
angle diffuser configurations as a function of their area ratio.
 NOV.-DEC. 1978 FLUID DYNAMICS OF DIFFUSER-AUGMENTED WIND TURBINES
CT = 0.47
• 40° DIFFUSER
• 60° DIFFUSER
3 4
EXIT A R E A / T U R B I N E A R E A (A 4 /A 2 )
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Fig. 5 Trend of centerline augmentation with area ratio for diffusers
constructed of various numbers of segments.
These models were constructed from a different number of
sections, each with a slot between them. It is apparent that the
maximum augmentation seems to be at about an area ratio of
three. Curves are drawn through the experimental data to
indicate trends.
Increasing the area ratio beyond three always leads to a
degradation of performance because the flow separates from
the diffuser. In some cases, the separation point actually
moves upstream when sections with increased wall area are
added to the rear of the diffuser. Larger area ratios may be
attainable, but they would require better implementation of
the slot flow for boundary-layer control.
For an area ratio of 2.78, 60- and 80-deg included angle
diffusers were tested with various simulated turbine disk
loadings. This was accomplished by changing the screen
solidity in the same diffuser configuration. An increase in
turbine pressure drop usually causes the injection slots to
perform better because the increased pressure differential
drives more fluid through each slot. However, an increase in
screen blockage appears as a greater resistance to the in-
coming fluid, so there is a corresponding decrease in mass
flow through the screen.
Figure 6 shows the dynamic pressure ratio induced up-
stream of the screen simulators at various turbine loadings. In
this range of loadings, the functional relationship is nearly
linear. Figure 7 shows the augmentation ratio calculated from
the measured average velocities in 60- and 80-deg diffusers.
The empirical prediction for the optimal disk loading coef-
ficient is in very good agreement with the loading predicted by-
ideal one-dimensional momentum theory. 6 Slightly higher
values are obtained from the momentum theory because the
flow is not one dimensional and is frictional.
This departure is larger for the 80-deg than for the 60-deg
diffusers. Since this is primarily a Reynolds number effect, it
is expected that there would be closer agreement between
experiment and theory for larger scale models. After the
relatively flat range of maximum augmentation, there is a loss
of augmentation with an increase in freestream disk loading
because the induced velocity into the turbine decreases faster
than the increases in the energy extraction by the turbine.
There are several conclusions that may be made regarding
the number, size and arrangement of diffuser segments, and
the characteristics of inlet and auxiliary slots. Decreasing the
initial inlet slot by increasing the screen diameter in the same
diffuser configurations is equivalent to increasing the ap-
parent blockage which produces a slight decrease in the mass
flow. However, the induced velocity, and therefore available
local power density, increases towards the periphery. As a
result, the decrease in system augmentation due to the reduced
slot size was nearly compensated for by the increase in turbine
area, such that the total available energy to the turbine
remained nearly constant. It appears possible, therefore, to
371
40° - 2 SEGMENTED DIFFUSER
30° - 2 SEGMENTED D I F F U S E R
0.6 0.7 0.8
DISK LOADING, C T
Fig. 6 Average induced dynamic pressure ratio for 60- and 80-deg
BLC diffusers at various disk loadings.
+ 80° BLC DIFFUSER
• 60° BLC DIFFUSER
• EMPIRICAL OPTIMUM 60°
A EMPIRICAL OPTIMUM 80°
§1-8
£1.7
01
5
6 1.6
S1.5
CE
SSl-4
1.3
0 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
LOCAL DISK LOADING, Cj
Fig. 7 Dependence of augmentation on disk loading.
reduce the inlet slot substantially before the decrease in system
augmentation is no longer compensated for by the increase in
turbine size.
Decreasing the turbine size with respect to the diffuser
increases the system augmentation. The inlet slot fluid is not
only used to energize the boundary layer so that it may
negotiate the starting turn into the diffuser but the inlet then
also behaves like an ejector, with high energy fluid in the
peripheral slot drawing more fluid through the turbine. If
increasing the diffuser size is less expensive than increasing
the turbine diameter, promoting the ejector system may
become more economically credible.
A series of tests were conducted using 60-deg included angle
diffusers to determine the effectiveness of the slots. When a
no-slot configuration was compared to the same diffuser with
an inlet slot area that was 19% of the total diffuser inlet area,
an increase of 24% in augmentation was found (note that the
increase in inlet slot was at the expense of turbine area).
Figure 8 shows the augmentation possible from single-
segment diffusers as a function of area ratio. The trend seems
to indicate the best performance near an area ratio of three.
This is partially a result of the base-pressure effect, still to be
discussed, and also the failure of the fluid to remain attached
to the diffuser walls for longer distances without aid.
For an area ratio of 2.78, the addition of a single auxiliary
slot seems to have a minor influence as shown in Fig. 9.
Moving the slot forward (from 52% of diffuser axial length to
39%) increases the augmentation 15%. Further forward
movement (to 30% length) again decreases the augmentation
because the second section becomes too long for the re-
energized fluid to remain attached. In this case, to maintain
the same length, a second auxiliary slot is indicated. Alter-
 372 GILBERT, OMAN, AND FOREMAN J. ENERGY

2.0 0.64r 80° BLC DIFFUSER

60° BLC DIFFUSER
INLET AND 40° BLC DIFFUSER
ONE A U X I L I A R Y CT = 0.47
SLOT
D CT = 0.55
O C = 0.47
1.6-

INLET SLOT ONLY

1.2

1.0

1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9

3 4 5
EXIT A R E A / T U R B I N E A R E A (A 4 /A 2 )
EXIT A R E A / T U R B I N E A R E A (A 4 /A 2 )
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Fig. 8 Effect of slot configuration on average augmentation in 60- Fig. 10 Exit plane pressure reduction for various BLC diffuser
deg BLC diffusers. angles as a function of area ratio.

q_

_: 0.641- • 80° BLC DIFFUSER

2 SEGMENTED A 60° BLC DIFFUSER
60° D I F F U S E R S • 40° BLC DIFFUSER
CT-0.47 60° & 8 0 ° - 2 SEGMENTED

o = 2.78
o
§1.61-
0.56-

o 0.52-

INLET SLOT
ONLY
0.48-

1.2

NO SLOTS X 0.44-

DC 0.40-

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
SLOT STATION
D I V E R G I N G SECTION LENGTH
Fig. 9 Effect of the auxiliary slot position and length on augmen-
tation (length of vector symbol, from inlet to exit, is proportional to
slot lengt^).
natively, the diffuser could be made shorter. Also shown are
two cases designed to test the effect of the slot length, that is,
the loss of energy in the slot. For virtually no length of slot,
there was an 8% increase in augmentation compared to a 5%
loss in the exceptionally long slot. In a few cases tested, there
did not seem to be too much effect resulting from the change
in slot height.
No general statement may be made regarding the "correct"
number of segments. Diffusers with the same angle and area
ratio but constructed from a different number of segments
were compared. For some area ratios, the best performance
was obtained with two segments, whereas an increase to three
resulted in degraded augmentation. At larger area ratios,
three sections seemed best with poorer performance at both
two and four sections. The optimum configuration for given
angle and area ratio will probably be determined as a tradeoff
between the number of sections and the exact positioning of
auxiliary slots.
Exit Plane Pressure Reduction
The exit plane static-pressure coefficient, CP4, is a very
important parameter in the system optimization. The exit
plane subatmospheric pressure provides additional system
augmentation by translating the entire diffuser pressure
0.80 1.00
" DISK LOADING COEFFICIENT, CT
Fig. 11 Exit plane pressure reduction for various BLC diffuser
angles as a function of disk loadings.
profile independent of the specific diffuser performance
details. The total system augmentation is due to the diffuser
characteristics and also (and in some cases, more so) to the
base pressure reduction.
Initially, it was expected that CP4 would be a function of
the diffuser area ratio. For very small area ratios, as seen in
Fig. 10, this seems to be the case. However, for a particular
diffuser angle and disk loading, an area ratio is reached where
Cp remains essentially constant until at very large area
ratios, the Cp effect actually decreases due to a substantial
separated region. The area ratio and value where Cp becomes
asymptotic is dependent on diffuser angle. Smaller angle
diffusers have asymptotic lower subatmospheric pressures at
larger area ratios than larger angle diffusers.
When the value of Cp is compared to the turbine (screen)
disk loading coefficient for a particular area ratio (Fig. 11) a
strong dependence is found. The disk loading which gives the
lowest base pressure seems to be a function of the con-
figuration employed. The value of loading that gives the best
base pressure for a given diffuser does not seem to be too
different from that found to give the best system per-
formance, thereby further emphasizing the benefits of CP4 .
Ground Plane Study
A proposed design concept calls for a three-point
suspension where the diffuser exit lower lip is supported from
 NOV.-DEC. 1978 FLUID DYNAMICS OF DIFFUSER-AUGMENTED WIND TURBINES
5 1.6 USING KAMAN TURBINE
1 4 -DAWT MORE
COST TRENDS
I -
Q COSTLY
r 1.2 USING GE T U R B I N E
COST T R E N D S
A ratio of about 12%) with short afterbodies, the flow reverted
0.8
DAWT LESS
.COSTLY
WECS T U R B I N E DIAMETER, M
i 0.4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
.0'——
0 10 20 -30 40 50
a: DAWTTURBINE DIAMETER, M
Fig. 12 Cost comparison of DAWT (turbine and diffuser) and
conventional WECS for equal rated power.
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the ground to reduce tower and structural cost. It is very
important that the proximity to the ground does not degrade
the system performance. With the trailing edge of the diffuser
on the ground, the upper portion of the diffuser showed a
very slight increase in mass flow when compared to the same
diffuser configuration with no ground plane. However, the
lower section, nearer to the ground, exhibited substantial
improvement, with augmentation increased by 10 to 14%.
Even when the exit was half a turbine diameter above the
ground, the lower section still showed a 6% better
augmentation than for the no-ground plane case.
This increase may be due to the distortion of the exit plane
static-pressure profile. However, no evidence was apparent
from exit plane static-pressure surveys. The important point,
which should be emphasized, is that there is a slight increase
in DAWT system performance in the presence of a ground
plane.
The other important consequence of the ground is that the
wind velocity profile far upstream of the system is not
uniform. An atmospheric boundary layer was simulated in the
jet facility by a honeycomb mesh cut with a linear profile to
produce a nearly linear variation in dynamic pressure. The
turbine disk intercepted a velocity profile which far upstream
varied by 14%. The augmentation calculations were based
upon the integrated available power in this intercepted disk.
In the presence of the shear flow, there was a very slight
decrease of augmentation. At all measured local positions,
there was a loss of about 1% of the augmentation compared
to the same configuration mounted in a free jet flow.
A test of the combination profile of the ground plane and
shear flow results in a flowfield that is a simple superposition
of the individual profiles. Again, the upper part of the dif-
fuser showed little effect, while the lower section indicated
about a 7.5% increase in augmentation when based upon an
integrated value of q0. The local augmentation was about
11% greater than the free jet diffuser augmentation. The
important result, however, is that there appears to be no
decrease in the augmentation effect of the DAWT in the
proximity to the ground.
Centerbody
Another important aspect of a real turbine geometry is the
presence of a centerbody. A performance comparison was
made with and without centerbodies at a single representative
point (at 60% of the radius). Seven different centerbodies
were tested ranging from an area of centerbody to area of
turbine of 1.9 to 30.9%. Two forebody designs were used, a
conical and a rounded shape, each 1.25 cm long and of the
same diameter as the afterbody. The afterbodies were circular
cylinders of various lengths from 1.25 to 10 cm and all tests
were conducted in a 60-deg two-segment diffuser with a 6.3-
mesh/cm screen.
When the area of the centerbody was less than about 8% of
the total disk area, a very slight degradation of performance
was apparent (less for longer centerbodies and more for
373
conical forebodies). Flow visualization techniques indicate
that the fluid remained firmly attached to the centerbody and
quickly flowed in behind it. This produced only a very small
wake region which was undetectable by exit plane pressure
surveys. However, at the next tested centerbody size (area
to a highly transitory flow. By increasing the afterbody
length, or using a conical forebody, the severely oscillating
flow becomes a stable annular jet moving along the diffuser
wall producing a large diverging conical wake.
80 90
Two other separated flow configurations were achieved for
the 8% centerbody. When a rounded forebody was combined
60 70 with a conical afterbody, the flow separated from the af-
terbody and produced a 7% decrease in augmentation. When
a conical forebody was combined with a rounded afterbody,
the flow separated from the forebody and did not reattach
itself, but continued to diverge for a 65% decrease in local
augmentation.
The presence of a centerbody requires that the centerline
mass flow be diverted into a larger annular ring. For the
smaller bodies, the mass flow at the test location remains
essentially unchanged, implying no loss of augmentation.
However, there will be a larger mass flow at the radius of the
centerbody than without a body. For larger diameter bodies,
there is a loss of diffuser performance manifested as a
decrease in flow rate. This interpretation must be examined
more fully by complete radial surveys.
Two final points are important. In the system con-
figurations that have been found to give the best per-
formance, flow visualization techniques indicate three distinct
conical regions of low-velocity fluid. These may be traced
directly to the pins that support the center screen ring. It is
unclear, however, whether the losses are inherent in the
system and simply manifest themselves at the weakest point or
whether they are purely a cylindrical wake effect. If the latter,
streamlining the support rods in larger scale models should
improve the situation.
The other point is that in all cases tested there did not seem
to be any indication of severe diffuser flow variations with
small changes in either pitch or yaw. It is expected that as the
inlet to the turbine as well as the diffuser are improved, there
should be even less tendency for yaw-induced distortion.
Closure
The work reported here with small-scale DAWT con-
figurations has been extended to larger scale. This tested
scaling laws by increasing the Reynolds number by a factor of
35, but still used the screen concept to simulate the turbine.
Several slot-scaling philosophies were evaluated to gain a
better understanding of slot flow as it enters a large adverse
pressure gradient. Preliminary examination of these data
indicates that the results and conclusions from the small-scale
tests are reproducible; however, the finished data are not
ready at this time.
Future work includes replacing the screen simulator with a
real turbine. We have decided to use a fixed-pitch three-
bladed turbine with relatively smooth stall characteristics.
Additional computer analysis by the method of singularities
of the base pressure effect is planned. A theoretical model for
the boundary-layer control mechanism for wide-angle dif-
fusers is also being developed.
Economics
The dominant factor in the evaluation of DAWT con-
figurations is the cost of the energy produced. The DAWT can
be considered economically viable only when the diffuser
component costs, in production quantities (~100/year), are
offset by improved productivity, such that the overall elec-
trical generation system cost is reduced. While the compact
baseline diffuser design produced only a fraction of the
augmentation believed possible with a much larger diffuser, it
 374 GILBERT, OMAN, AND FOREMAN J. ENERGY

presents a more cost effective solution for wind energy
conversion. The diffuser cost estimates were made by
Grumman on the basis of a finite-element structural analysis
for a full-scale baseline diffuser design (2.78 area ratio, 6 = 60
cleg, r— 1.89). The total cost of the diffuser and of the rotor
elements has been normalized by the turbine diameter squared
to facilitate comparison of the two systems.
At this time, operationally reliable rotor diameters greater
than 65 m are highly speculative. The most straightforward
advantage of the DAWT is that it offers an alternative to
replication of conventional WECS when the desired unit
output would require these large turbine rotors. The cost
comparison is shown in Fig. 12 for equal rated power output
on the basis of the turbine and diffuser elements of the system
only. That is, differences in the costs of the electrical
generator, tower, foundation, control system, and
mechanical shaft linkage or transmission system components
Downloaded by Universitats- und Landesbibliothek Dusseldorf on September 14, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/3.47988
benefits of DAWT in the intermediate size range are
somewhat obscured by the significant uncertainties of current
turbine cost estimates. The indirect benefits of DAWT's,
including a potentially greater factor for usable annual wind
energy patterns, tower cost reduction, elimination of tower
wake, and reduction of wind shear and direction problems,
probably mean that DAWT's have the possibility of becoming
more economical than conventional WECS, regardless of size
or turbine costing trends.
Acknowledgments
This work was performed under U.S. Energy Research and
Development Administration (ERDA) Contract E(l 1-1) 2616.
References
1
Savino, J.M. (ed.), Proceedings, NSF-NASA Workshop on Wind

have not been considered in these cost comparisons, nor have
any other system economics of scale.
The DAWT can be as much 50% cheaper than a WECS for
turbine diameters greater than about 35 m. For smaller
turbine sizes, the DAWT can be anywhere from marginally
cheaper to significantly more expensive depending on which
cost trend one actually experiences.
A usable annual wind pattern factor has not been included
in the graphic results. But, because of the inherent wind
speedup features of the diffuser section, there can result a 5-
50% greater annual power conversion for the DAWT com-
pared to the WECS. Therefore, there is a probable real
economic advantage for the DAWT, regardless of which
turbine cost estimate is appropriate.
Driven Generator Systems, Rept. NSF/RA/W-73-006, Dec. 1973.
2
Betz, A., "Energiemsetzungen in Venturidusen," Natur-
wissenshaften, Vol. 10, S. 3, 1939, pp. 160-164.
3
Igra, O., "Shrouds for Aerogenerators," Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, Ben Gurion University of Negev, Israel, Rept. 2, March
1975.
4
Thomas, R.L., "Large Experimental Wind Turbines - Where We
Are Now," NASA TMX-71890, March 1976.
5
"Wind Generator System, Final Design Review, NASA-LeRC
Contract NAS 3-19404," Kaman Aerospace Corporation, July 1975.
6
Oman, R.A., Foreman, K.M., and Gilbert, B.L., "Investigation
of Diffuser-Augmented Wind Turbines, Parts I & II," ERDA Tech.
Rept. COO-2616-2, Jan. 1977.

Summary
The experimental fluid mechanics of boundary-layer
controlled compact diffusers were investigated for power STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND CIRCULATION
(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685)

augmentation of wind turbines. By an innovative use of

external wind, the surface area of efficient diffusers has been
reduced by an order of magnitude, producing a cost-effective
WECS.
The major advantage of a DAWT advanced concept is in
very large power production units where conventional WECS
encounter severe blade dynamics problems. It is possible to
induce much larger amounts of air through a DAWT than
passes through a conventional WECS because of low exit
pressure and large diffuser pressure recovery. We have
already demonstrated that a DAWT can provide about twice
the power of a conventional WECS with the same turbine
diameter and wind speed.
Many parameters that affect the diffuser system per-
formance have been examined in small-scale wind tunnel tests
with a family of compact diffusers, using screens and cen-
terbodies to simulate the presence of a real turbine. The most
important results are the following.
1) A constant area section behind the turbine is necessary to
start the diffusion process.
2) Maximum augmentation occurs at a ratio of about 3.
3) The empirical maximum is in agreement with the one-
dimensional momentum theory prediction.
4) The optimum configuration will be a tradeoff between
cost and benefit of additional auxiliary slots for boundary-
layer control.
5) The DAWT system exhibits substantial improvement in
simulated ground effect.
6) There is a small degradation of performance with
realistic centerbodies.
Preliminary economic studies using and comparing the
most recent turbine component cost trends and Grumman-
generated diffuser cost estimates and performance
measurements indicate that DAWT should have lower specific
power costs than WECS for very large (MW ranges) and small
turbine diameter (<100 kW) sizes. The possible direct
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