Static PDF

Mechanics engineering : Statics
By Ilyani Akmar Abu Bakar

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, the students should be able to:
• Express vectors in terms of unit vectors and
perpendicular components and perform vector addition
and subtraction.
• State Newton’s Law of motion.
• Perform calculation using SI unit, using appropriate
accuracy.
• Express the law of gravitation and calculate the weight
of an object.
• Apply simplification based on differential and small-
angle approximations.
• Describe the methodology used to formulate and solve
statics problems.
OUTLINE
1. Engineering Mechanics
2. Fundamental Concepts
3. General/Fundamental
Principles
4. Summary Static Analysis
ECS 416 STATICS

Statics, Fourteenth Edition in SI Units
R.C. Hibbeler
Copyright ©2017 by Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
READING QUIZ
1. The subject of mechanics deals with what happens to a body

when ______ is/are applied to it.
A) a magnetic field B) heat C) forces
D) neutrons E) lasers
2. ________________ still remains the basis of most of today’s

engineering sciences.
A) Newtonian Mechanics B) Relativistic Mechanics
C) Greek Mechanics C) Euclidean Mechanics
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WHAT IS MECHANICS?
Study of what happens to a “thing” (the technical name is

“BODY”) when FORCES are applied to it.
Either the body or forces can be large or small.
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BRANCHES OF MECHANICS
Mechanics
Rigid Bodies Deformable Bodies Fluids

(Things that do not change shape) (Things that do change shape)
Statics Dynamics Incompressible Compressible
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1. Engineering Mechanics
•Statics – Equilibrium Analysis
of particles and bodies
•Dynamics – Accelerated motion of
particles and bodies
Kinematics and Kinetics
•Mechanics of Materials…
•Theory of Vibration…
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What is MECHANICS????
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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Four fundamental physical quantities (or dimensions).

• Length
• Mass
• Time
• Force
Newton’s 2nd Law relates them: F = m × a

We use this equation to develop systems of units.
Units are arbitrary names we give to the physical quantities.
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2. Fundamentals Concepts
MASS FORCE
Basic Quantities
/ fundamental
concepts
TIME SPACE /
LENGTH
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LENGTH
Size,
geometric
position properties
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TIME
Statics : time-independent
Dynamics : time-dependent
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MASS
Mm
F G 2
r
F
a
m
F = ma
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FORCE
Magnitude
Direction
Point of application
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3. Fundamental/General Principles
1. Parallelogram Law for Addition of Forces
2. Principle of Transmissibility
3. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
4. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
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Parallelogram Law for Addition of Forces
• For addition for forces

• Two forces acting on particle may be
replaced by a single force called resultant
• Obtained by drawing the diagonal of the
parallelogram which has side equal to the
given forces.
• Parallelogram Law
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Principle of Transmissibility
The principle of transmissibility of force applicable only to
rigid bodies states that any force acting at a point can be
replaced by the same magnitude of force at some other
point on the same line of action in the same direction.
This action of shifting the force from one point to the other
does not change the condition of motion of the body.
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Newton’s First Law
Newton’s first law of motion states that objects continue
to move in a state of constant velocity, which can be
zero, unless acted upon by an external force. The
tendency of an object to resist a change in motion is known
as inertia, and objects that are moving at a constant
velocity are said to be in an inertial reference frame.
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Newton’s Second Law
Newton’s second law shows how an object will be
affected if an external force does act upon it. This law
states that the rate of change of momentum of a body
is proportional to the resultant force acting on it, and
will be in the same direction. This means that F = ma
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Newton’s Third Law
Newton’s third law states that the force on an object is
always due to another object; all forces act in pairs
that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This is why you feel recoil when you strike an
object, and why you do not fall through the Earth due to
the pull of gravity.
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Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every mass attracts every
other mass in the universe, and the gravitational force between two
bodies is proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Spherical objects like planets and stars act as if all of their mass is
concentrated at their centre, and so the distance between objects should
include their radius.
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
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UNIT SYSTEMS
Force, mass, time and acceleration are related by Newton’s

2nd law. Three of these are assigned units (called base units)
and the fourth unit is derived. Which one is derived varies by
the system of units.
We will work with one unit system in statics:

• International System (SI)
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Table 1-1 in the textbook summarizes this unit system.
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THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
(Section 1.3)
• No plurals (e.g., m = 5 kg, not kgs )

• Separate units with a • (e.g., meter second = m • s )
• Most symbols are in lowercase.

• Key exceptions are N, Pa, M and G.
• Exponential powers apply to units, e.g., cm • cm = cm2
• Compound prefixes should not be used.
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Table 1–2 shows some of the prefixes used
in the SI system.
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NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
(Section 1.4)
Must have dimensional “homogeneity.” Dimensions have to

be the same on both sides of the equal sign, (e.g. distance =
speed  time.)
Use an appropriate number of significant figures (3 for

answer, at least 4 for intermediate calculations). Why?
Be consistent when rounding off.

- greater than 5, round up (3528  3530)
- smaller than 5, round down (0.03521  0.0352)
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CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Evaluate the situation in which mass (kg), force (N), and

length (m) are the base units and recommend one of the
following.
A) A new system of units will have to be formulated.
B) Only the unit of time have to be changed from second to
something else.
C) No changes are required.
D) The above situation is not feasible.
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CONCEPT QUIZ (continued)
2. Give the most appropriate reason for using three significant

figures in reporting results of typical engineering calculations.
A) Historically slide rules could not handle more than three
significant figures.
B) Three significant figures gives better than one-percent
accuracy.
C) Telephone systems designed by engineers have area codes
consisting of three figures.
D) Most of the original data used in engineering calculations do
not have accuracy better than one percent.
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PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY
IPE: A 3-Step Approach
1. Interpret: Read carefully and determine what is given and

what is to be found/ delivered. Ask, if not clear. If
necessary, make assumptions and indicate them.
2. Plan: Think about major steps (or a road map) that you will
take to solve a given problem. Think of
alternative/creative solutions and choose the best one.
3. Execute: Carry out your steps. Use appropriate diagrams and

equations. Estimate your answers. Avoid simple
calculation mistakes. Reflect on and then revise
your work, if necessary.
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ATTENTION QUIZ
1. For a static’s problem, your calculations show the final answer as

12345.6 N. What should you write as your final answer?
A) 12345.6 N B) 12.3456 kN C) 12 kN
D) 12.3 kN E) 123 kN
2. In the three-step approach to problem solving called IPE,

what does P stand for?
A) Position B) Plan C) Problem
D) Practical E) Possible
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Solid system Status
Rigid body Equilibrium

(Particle) 𝑭𝑅 = 𝟎
Accelerated
Deformable solid motion
𝑭𝑅 =ma
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Solid system Status

(Particle) STATICS
𝑭𝑅 = 𝟎
Accelerated
𝑭𝑅 =ma
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Solid system Status

Accelerated
𝑭𝑅 =ma
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Solid system Status

Accelerated
𝑭𝑅 =ma
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FORCE VECTORS, VECTOR OPERATIONS &
ADDITION COPLANAR FORCES
Today’s Learning Objective:
Students will be able to :
a) Resolve a 2-D vector into
components.
b) Add 2-D vectors using Cartesian
vector notations.
Statics, Fourteenth Edition in SI Units Copyright ©2017 by Pearson Education, Ltd.

ECS 416 STATICS R.C. Hibbeler All rights reserved.
READING QUIZ
1. Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?

A) Force B) Position
C) Mass D) Velocity
2. For vector addition, you have to use ______ law.

A) Newton’s Second
B) the arithmetic
C) Pascal’s
D) the parallelogram

APPLICATION OF VECTOR ADDITION
There are three concurrent

forces acting on the hook
FR
due to the chains.
We need to decide if the
hook will fail (bend or
break).
To do this, we need to know

the resultant or total force
acting on the hook as a
result of the three chains.

SCALARS AND VECTORS
Scalars Vectors
Examples: Mass, Volume Force, Velocity
Characteristics: It has a magnitude It has a magnitude
(positive or negative) and direction
Addition rule: Simple arithmetic Parallelogram law

Special Notation: None Bold font, a line, an
arrow or a “carrot”
In these PowerPoint presentations, a vector quantity is represented like this (in bold,
italics, and red).

VECTOR OPERATIONS (Section 2.2)
Scalar Multiplication
and Division

VECTOR ADDITION USING EITHER THE
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OR TRIANGLE
Parallelogram Law:
Triangle method
(always ‘tail to tip’):
How do you subtract a vector?

How can you add more than two concurrent vectors graphically?
RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR
“Resolution” of a vector is breaking up a vector into components.
It is kind of like using the parallelogram law in reverse.

ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES
(Section 2.4)
• We ‘resolve’ vectors into

components using the x and y-axis
coordinate system.
• Each component of the vector is

shown as a magnitude and a
direction.
• The directions are based on the x and y axes. We use the

“unit vectors” i and j to designate the x and y-axes.

For example,
F = Fx i + Fy j or F' = F'x i + ( F'y ) j
The x and y-axis are always perpendicular to each other.

Together, they can be “set” at any inclination.

ADDITION OF SEVERAL VECTORS
• Step 1 is to resolve each force

into its components.
• Step 2 is to add all the x-

components together, followed by
adding all the y-components
together. These two totals are the
x and y-components of the
resultant vector.
• Step 3 is to find the magnitude
and angle of the resultant
vector.

An example of the process:
Break the three vectors into components, then add them.

FR = F1 + F2 + F3
= F1x i + F1y j  F2x i + F2y j + F3x i  F3y j
= (F1x  F2x + F3x) i + (F1y + F2y  F3y) j
= (FRx) i + (FRy) j

You can also represent a 2-D vector with
a magnitude and angle.
FRy
  tan 1
FR  F  F 2
Rx
2
Ry
FRx

EXAMPLE I
Given: Three concurrent forces

acting on a tent post.
Find: The magnitude and
angle of the resultant
force.
Plan:
a) Resolve the forces into their x-y components.
b) Add the respective components to get the resultant vector.
c) Find magnitude and angle from the resultant components.

EXAMPLE I (continued)
F1 = {0 i + 300 j } N
F2 = {– 450 cos (45°) i + 450 sin (45°) j } N

= {– 318.2 i + 318.2 j } N
F3 = { (3/5) 600 i + (4/5) 600 j } N
= { 360 i + 480 j } N
Summing up all the i and j components respectively, we get,

FR = { (0 – 318.2 + 360) i + (300 + 318.2 + 480) j } N
= { 41.80 i + 1098 j } N
Using magnitude and direction: y

FR
FR = ((41.80)2 + (1098)2)1/2 = 1099 N
 = tan-1(1098/41.80) = 87.8° 
x

CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Can you resolve a 2-D vector along two directions, which

are not at 90° to each other?
A) Yes, but not uniquely.
B) No.
C) Yes, uniquely.
2. Can you resolve a 2-D vector along three directions (say at

0, 60, and 120°)?
A) Yes, but not uniquely.
B) No.
C) Yes, uniquely.
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING
Given: Three concurrent

forces acting on a
bracket.
Find: The magnitude and
angle of the resultant
force. Show the
resultant in a sketch.
Plan:
a) Resolve the forces into their x and y-components.
b) Add the respective components to get the resultant vector.
c) Find magnitude and angle from the resultant components.

GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING (continued)
F1 = {850 (4/5) i  850 (3/5) j } N

= { 680 i  510 j } N
F2 = {- 625 sin (30°) i  625 cos (30°) j } N
= {- 312.5 i  541.3 j } N
F3 = {-750 sin (45°) i + 750 cos (45°) j } N
{- 530.3 i + 530.3 j } N
Summing all the i and j components, respectively, we get,

FR = { (680  312.5  530.3) i + (510  541.3 + 530.3) j }N
= { 162.8 i  520.9 j } N
y
Now find the magnitude and angle, 
FR = (( 162.8)2 + ( 520.9)2) ½ = 546 N -162.8 x
 = tan–1( 520.9 / 162.8 ) = 72.6° 
From the positive x-axis,  = 253° FR

-520.9

R.C. Hibbeler All rights reserved.
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Resolve F along x and y axes and write it in

vector form. F = { ___________ } N y
A) 80 cos (30°) i – 80 sin (30°) j x
B) 80 sin (30°) i + 80 cos (30°) j

30°
C) 80 sin (30°) i – 80 cos (30°) j
F = 80 N
D) 80 cos (30°) i + 80 sin (30°) j
2. Determine the magnitude of the resultant (F1 + F2) force in N

when F1 = { 10 i + 20 j } N and F2 = { 20 i + 20 j } N .
A) 30 N B) 40 N C) 50 N
D) 60 N E) 70 N
CARTESIAN VECTORS AND
THEIR ADDITION & SUBTRACTION
Today’s Learning Objectives:

Students will be able to:
a) Represent a 3-D vector in a
Cartesian coordinate system.
b) Find the magnitude and
coordinate angles of a 3-D vector
c) Add vectors (forces) in 3-D
space
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READING QUIZ
1. Vector algebra, as we are going to use it, is based on a

___________ coordinate system.
A) Euclidean B) Left-handed
C) Greek D) Right-handed E) Egyptian
2. The symbols , , and  designate the __________ of a

3-D Cartesian vector.
A) Unit vectors B) Coordinate direction angles
C) Greek societies D) X, Y and Z components
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APPLICATIONS
Many structures and

machines involve 3-
dimensional space.
In this case, the power

pole has guy wires helping
to keep it upright in high
winds. How would you
represent the forces in the
cables using Cartesian
vector form?
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APPLICATIONS (continued)
In the case of this radio tower, if you know the forces in

the three cables, how would you determine the resultant
force acting at D, the top of the tower?
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CARTESIAN UNIT VECTORS
For a vector A, with a magnitude of

A, an unit vector is defined as
uA = A / A .
Characteristics of a unit vector :
a) Its magnitude is 1.
b) It is dimensionless (has no units).
c) It points in the same direction as the
original vector (A).
The unit vectors in the Cartesian axis
system are i, j, and k. They are unit
vectors along the positive x, y, and z
axes respectively.
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CARTESIAN VECTOR REPRESENTATION
Consider a box with sides AX, AY, and

AZ meters long.
The vector A can be defined as
A = (AX i + AY j + AZ k) m
The projection of vector A in the x-y plane is A´. The

magnitude of A´ is found by using the same approach as a
2-D vector: A´ = (AX2 + AY2)1/2 .
The magnitude of the position vector A can now be obtained as
A = ((A´)2 + AZ2) ½ = (AX2 + AY2 + AZ2) ½
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DIRECTION OF A CARTESIAN VECTOR
The direction or orientation of vector A is defined by

the angles , β, and γ.
These angles are measured between the vector and
the positive X, Y and Z axes, respectively. Their
range of values are from 0° to 180°
Using trigonometry, “direction cosines” are found using
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
cos𝛼 = cos𝛽 = cos𝛾 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
These angles are not independent. They must satisfy the following equation.
cos²  + cos²  + cos²  = 1
This result can be derived from the definition of a coordinate direction angles
and the unit vector. Recall, the formula for finding the unit vector of any
position vector:
or written another way, uA = cos  i + cos  j + cos  k .

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ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS
(Section 2.6)
Once individual vectors are written in Cartesian form, it is easy

to add or subtract them. The process is essentially the same as
when 2-D vectors are added.
For example, if
A = AX i + AY j + AZ k and
B = BX i + BY j + BZ k , then
A + B = (AX + BX) i + (AY + BY) j + (AZ + BZ) k
or
A – B = (AX - BX) i + (AY - BY) j + (AZ - BZ) k .
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IMPORTANT NOTES
Sometimes 3-D vector information is given as:

a) Magnitude and the coordinate direction angles, or,
b) Magnitude and projection angles.
You should be able to use both these sets of

information to change the representation of the vector
into the Cartesian form, i.e.,
F = {10 i – 20 j + 30 k} N .
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EXAMPLE
Given: Two forces F1 and F2 are

G applied to a hook.
Find: The resultant force in

Cartesian vector form.
Plan:
1) Using geometry and trigonometry, write F1 and F2 in
2) Then add the two forces (by adding x and y-components).
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EXAMPLE (continued)
Solution:
First, resolve force F1.
Fx = 0 = 0 N
Fy = 500 (4/5) = 400 N
Fz = 500 (3/5) = 300 N
Now, write F1 in Cartesian vector form

(don’t forget the units!).
F1 = {0 i + 400 j + 300 k} N
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EXAMPLE (continued)
Now, resolve force F2.

F2z = -800 sin 45° =  565.7 N
F2’ = 800 cos 45° = 565.7 N
F2’
F2’ can be further resolved as,
F2x = 565.7 cos 30° = 489.9 N
F2z
F2y = 565.7 sin 30° = 282.8 N
Thus, we can write:

F2 = {489.9 i + 282.8 j  565.7 k } N
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EXAMPLE (continued)
So FR = F1 + F2 and
F1 = {0 i + 400 j + 300 k} N
F2 = {489.9 i + 282.8 j  565.7 k } N
FR = { 490 i + 683 j  266 k } N
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CONCEPT QUIZ
1. If you know only uA, you can determine the ________ of A

uniquely.
A) magnitude B) angles (,  and )
C) components (AX, AY, & AZ) D) All of the above.
2. For a force vector, the following parameters are randomly
generated. The magnitude is 0.9 N,  = 30º , β= 70º , γ = 100º.
What is wrong with this 3-D vector ?
A) Magnitude is too small.
B) Angles are too large.
C) All three angles are arbitrarily picked.
D) All three angles are between 0º to 180º.
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Given: The screw eye is subjected

to two forces, F1 and F2.
Find: The magnitude and the

coordinate direction angles
of the resultant force.
Plan:
1) Using the geometry and trigonometry, resolve and write F1
and F2 in the Cartesian vector form.
2) Add F1 and F2 to get FR.
3) Determine the magnitude and angles , , .
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First resolve the force F1.

F1z = - 250 sin 35° = - 143.4 N
F´ = 250 cos 35° = 204.8 N
F´
F´ can be further resolved as,
F1z
F1x = 204.8 sin 25° = 86.6 N
F1y = 204.8 cos 25° = 185.6 N
Now we can write:

F1 = {86.6 i + 185.6 j  143.4 k } N
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Now, resolve force F2.
The force F2 can be represented in the Cartesian vector form as:

F2 = 400{ cos 120° i + cos 45° j + cos 60° k } N
= { -200 i + 282.8 j + 200 k } N
F2 = { -200 i + 282.8 j + 200 k } N
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So FR = F1 + F2 and
F1 = { 86.6 i + 185.6 j  143.4 k} N
F2 = { -200 i + 282.8 j + 200 k} N
FR = { -113.4 i + 468.4 j + 56.6 k} N
Now find the magnitude and direction angles for the vector.
FR = {(-113.4)2 + 468.42 + 56.62}1/2 = 485.2 = 485 N
 = cos-1 (FRx / FR) = cos-1 (-113.4 / 485.2) = 104°
 = cos-1 (FRy / FR) = cos-1 (468.4 / 485.2) = 15.1°
 = cos-1 (FRz / FR) = cos-1 (56.6 / 485.2) = 83.3°
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ATTENTION QUIZ
1. What is not true about an unit vector, e.g., uA?

A) It is dimensionless.
B) Its magnitude is one.
C) It always points in the direction of positive X- axis.
D) It always points in the direction of vector A.
2. If F = {10 i + 10 j + 10 k} N and
G = {20 i + 20 j + 20 k } N, then F + G = { ____ } N
A) 10 i + 10 j + 10 k
B) 30 i + 20 j + 30 k
C) – 10 i – 10 j – 10 k
D) 30 i + 30 j + 30 k
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POSITION VECTORS & FORCE VECTORS

a) Represent a position vector in Cartesian
coordinate form, from given geometry.
b) Represent a force vector directed along
a line.
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READING QUIZ
1. The position vector rPQ is obtained by

A) Coordinates of Q minus coordinates of the origin
B) Coordinates of P minus coordinates of Q
C) Coordinates of Q minus coordinates of P
D) Coordinates of the origin minus coordinates of P
2. A force of magnitude F, directed along a unit
vector U, is given by F = ______ .
A) F (U)
B) U / F
C) F / U
D) F + U
E) F – U
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APPLICATIONS
This ship’s mooring line,

connected to the bow, can
be represented as a
Cartesian vector.
What are the forces in the

mooring line and how do
we find their directions?
Why would we want to

know these things?
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This awning is held up by three chains. What are the forces in

the chains and how do we find their directions? Why would
we want to know these things?
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POSITION VECTOR
A position vector is
defined as a fixed vector
that locates a point in space
relative to another point.
Consider two points, A and B, in 3-D space.

Let their coordinates be (XA, YA, ZA) and (XB, YB, ZB),
respectively.
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POSITION VECTOR (continued)
The position vector directed from A to B, rAB , is defined as

rAB = {( XB – XA ) i + ( YB – YA ) j + ( ZB – ZA ) k }m
Please note that B is the ending point and A is the starting point.
ALWAYS subtract the “tail” coordinates from the “tip”
coordinates!
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
FORCE VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG A LINE
(Section 2.8)
If a force is directed along a

line, then we can represent the
force vector in Cartesian
coordinates by using a unit
vector and the force’s
magnitude. So we need to:
a) Find the position vector, rAB , along two points
on that line.
b) Find the unit vector describing the line’s
direction, uAB = (rAB/rAB).
c) Multiply the unit vector by the magnitude of
the force, F = F uAB .
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE
Given: The 420 N force

along the cable AC.
Find: The force FAC in the
Plan:
1. Find the position vector rAC and its unit vector uAC.
2. Obtain the force vector as FAC = 420 N uAC .
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE (continued)
As per the figure, when relating A to

C, we will have to go 2 m in the x-
direction, 3 m in the y-direction, and
-6 m in the z-direction. Hence,
rAC = {2 i + 3 j  6 k} m.
(We can also find rAC by subtracting
the coordinates of A from the
coordinates of C.)
rAC = {22 + 32 + (-6)2}1/2 = 7 m
Now uAC = rAC/rAC and FAC = 420 uAC = 420 (rAC/rAC )
So FAC = 420{ (2 i + 3 j  6 k) / 7 } N
= {120 i + 180 j  360 k } N
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. P and Q are two points in a 3-D space. How are the position
vectors rPQ and rQP related?
A) rPQ = rQP B) rPQ = - rQP
C) rPQ = 1/rQP D) rPQ = 2 rQP
2. If F and r are force and position vectors, respectively, in SI

units, what are the units of the expression (r * (F / F)) ?
A) Newton B) Dimensionless
C) Meter D) Newton - Meter
E) The expression is algebraically illegal.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
Given: Two forces are acting on

a flag pole as shown in
the figure. FB = 560 N
and FC = 700 N
Find: The magnitude and the
coordinate direction
angles of the resultant
force.
Plan:
1) Find the forces along AB and AC in the Cartesian vector form.
2) Add the two forces to get the resultant force, FR.
3) Determine the magnitude and the coordinate angles of FR.
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
rAB = {2 i  3 j  6 k} m
rAC = {3 i + 2 j  6 k} m
rAB = {22 + (-3)2 + (-6)2}1/2 = 7 m
rAC = {32 + 22 + (-6)2}1/2 = 7 m
FAB = 560 (rAB / rAB) N

FAB = 560 ( 2 i – 3 j – 6 k) / 7 N
FAB = (160 i – 240 j – 480 k) N
FAC = 700 (rAC / rAC) N

FAC = 700 (3 i + 2 j – 6 k) / 7 N
FAC = {300 i + 200 j – 600 k} N
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
FR = FAB + FAC
= {460 i – 40 j – 1080 k} N
FR = {4602 + (-40)2 + (-1080)2}1/2

= 1174.6 N
FR = 1175 N
 = cos-1(460/1175) = 66.9°
 = cos-1(–40/1175) = 92.0°
 = cos-1(–1080/1175) = 157°
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Two points in 3–D space have coordinates of P (1, 2, 3) and Q

(4, 5, 6) meters. The position vector rQP is given by
A) {3 i + 3 j + 3 k} m
B) {– 3 i – 3 j – 3 k} m
C) {5 i + 7 j + 9 k} m
D) {– 3 i + 3 j + 3 k} m
E) {4 i + 5 j + 6 k} m
2. A force vector, F, directed along a line defined by PQ is given by

A) (F/ F) rPQ B) rPQ/rPQ
C) F(rPQ/rPQ) D) F(rPQ/rPQ)
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
DOT PRODUCT

Students will be able to use the vector dot
product to:
a) determine an angle between
two vectors and,
b) determine the projection of a vector
along a specified line.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
READING QUIZ
1. The dot product of two vectors P and Q is P

defined as

A) P Q sin  B) P Q cos 
Q
C) P Q tan  D) P Q sec 
2. The dot product of two vectors results in a _________

quantity.
A) Scalar B) Vector
C) Complex D) Zero
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
APPLICATIONS
If you know the physical

locations of the four
cable ends, how could
you calculate the angle
between the cables at the
common anchor?
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
For the force F applied to the wrench at Point A,

what component of it actually helps turn the bolt
(i.e., the force component acting perpendicular to
arm AB of the pipe)?
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
DEFINITION
The dot product of vectors A and B is defined as A•B = A B cos .

The angle  is the smallest angle between the two vectors and is
always in a range of 0º to 180º.
Dot Product Characteristics:
1. The result of the dot product is a scalar (a positive or
negative number).
2. The units of the dot product will be the product of the units
of the A and B vectors.
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
DOT PRODUCT DEFINITON (continued)
Examples: By definition, i • j = 0
i•i = 1
A•B = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) • (Bx i + By j + Bz k)

= Ax Bx + AyBy + AzBz
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
USING THE DOT PRODUCT TO DETERMINE
THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
For these two vectors in Cartesian form, one can find the angle by
a) Find the dot product, A • B = (AxBx + AyBy + AzBz ),
b) Find the magnitudes (A & B) of the vectors A & B, and
c) Use the definition of dot product and solve for , i.e.,
 = cos-1 [(A • B)/(A B)], where 0º    180º .
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
DETERMINING THE PROJECTION OF A VECTOR
You can determine the components of a vector parallel and

perpendicular to a line using the dot product.
Steps:
1. Find the unit vector, ua along line aa
2. Find the scalar projection of A along line aa by
A|| = A • ua = Ax ux + Ay uy + Az uz
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
DETERMINING THE PROJECTION OF A VECTOR
(continued)
3. If needed, the projection can be written as a vector, A|| , by

using the unit vector ua and the magnitude found in step 2.
A|| = A|| ua
4. The scalar and vector forms of the perpendicular component

can easily be obtained by
A  = (A 2 - A|| 2) ½ and
A  = A – A||
(rearranging the vector sum of A = A + A|| )
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE I
Given: The force acting on the hook

at point A.
Find: The angle between the force
vector and the line AO, and
the magnitude of the
projection of the force along
the line AO.
Plan:
1. Find rAO
2. Find the angle  = cos-1{(F • rAO)/(F rAO)}
3. Find the projection via FAO = F • uAO (or F cos  )
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
rAO = {1 i + 2 j  2 k} m
rAO = {(-1)2 + 22 + (-2)2}1/2 = 3 m
F = { 6 i + 9 j + 3 k} kN
F = {(-6)2 + 92 + 32}1/2 = 11.22 kN
F • rAO = ( 6)(1) + (9)(2) + (3)(2) = 18 kNm
 = cos-1{(F • rAO)/(F rAO)}

 = cos-1 {18 / (11.22  3)} = 57.67°
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
uAO = rAO / rAO = (1/3) i + (2/3) j + (2/3) k
FAO = F • uAO = ( 6)(1/3) + (9)(2/3) + (3)(2/3) = 6.00 kN
Or: FAO = F cos  = 11.22 cos (57.67°) = 6.00 kN
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. If a dot product of two non-zero vectors is 0, then the

two vectors must be _____________ to each other.
A) Parallel (pointing in the same direction)
B) Parallel (pointing in the opposite direction)
C) Perpendicular
D) Cannot be determined.
2. If a dot product of two non-zero vectors equals -1, then the
vectors must be ________ to each other.
A) Collinear but pointing in the opposite direction
B) Parallel (pointing in the opposite direction)
C) Perpendicular
D) Cannot be determined.
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
Given: The 300 N force

acting on the bracket.
Find: The magnitude of the
projected component of
this force acting along
line OA
Plan:
1. Find rOA and uOA
2. Find the angle  = cos-1{(F • rOA)/(F × rOA)}
3. Then find the projection via FOA = F • uOA or F (1) cos 
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
F´
rOA = {0.450 i + 0.300 j + 0.260 k} m

rOA = {(0.450)2 + 0.3002 + 0.2602 }1/2 = 0.60 m
uOA = rOA / rOA = {-0.75 i + 0.50 j + 0.433 k }
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
F´
F´ = 300 sin 30° = 150 N
F = {150 sin 30°i + 300 cos 30°j + 150 cos 30°k} N

F = {75 i + 259.8 j + 129.9 k} N
F = {(-75)2 + 259.82 + 129.92}1/2 = 300 N
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
F • rOA = (-75) (-0.45) + (259.8) (0.30) + (129.9) (0.26)

= 145.5 N·m
 = cos-1{(F • rOA)/(F × rOA)}
 = cos-1{145.5 /(300 × 0.60)} = 36.1°
The magnitude of the projected component of F along line
OA will be
FOA = F • uOA
= (-75)(-0.75) + (259.8) (0.50) + (129.9) (0.433)
= 242 N
Or
FOA = F cos  = 300 cos 36.1° = 242 N
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. The dot product can be used to find all of the following except
____ .
A) sum of two vectors
B) angle between two vectors
C) component of a vector parallel to another line
D) component of a vector perpendicular to another line
2. Find the dot product of the two vectors P and Q.

P = {5 i + 2 j + 3 k} m
Q = {-2 i + 5 j + 4 k} m
A) -12 m B) 12 m C) 12 m 2
D) -12 m 2 E) 10 m 2
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE, THE FREE-BODY
DIAGRAM & COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS
a) Draw a free body diagram (FBD), and,
b) Apply equations of equilibrium to solve
a 2-D problem.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
READING QUIZ
1) When a particle is in equilibrium, the sum of forces acting

on it equals ___ . (Choose the most appropriate answer)
A) A constant B) A positive number C) Zero
D) A negative number E) An integer
2) For a frictionless pulley and cable, tensions in the cable

(T1 and T2) are related as _____ .
A) T1 > T2
B) T1 = T2
C) T1 < T2
D) T1 = T2 sin 
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
APPLICATIONS
The crane is lifting a load. To

decide if the straps holding the
load to the crane hook will fail,
you need to know forces in the
straps. How could you find those
forces?
Straps
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
For a spool of given

weight, how would you
find the forces in cables
AB and AC? If designing
a spreader bar like the one
being used here, you need
to know the forces to make
sure the rigging doesn’t
fail.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
For a given force exerted on the boat’s towing pendant, what are
the forces in the bridle cables? What size of cable must you use?
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS (Section 3.3)
This is an example of a 2-D or

coplanar force system.
If the whole assembly is in
equilibrium, then particle A is
also in equilibrium.
To determine the tensions in

the cables for a given weight
of cylinder, you need to learn
how to draw a free-body
diagram and apply the
equations of equilibrium.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW
OF A FREE BODY DIAGRAM (FBD)
Free-body diagrams are one of the most important things for

you to know how to draw and use for statics and other subjects!
What? - It is a drawing that shows all external forces acting

on the particle.
Why? - It is key to being able to write the equations of

equilibrium—which are used to solve for the unknowns
(usually forces or angles).
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
How?
1. Imagine the particle to be isolated or cut free from its
surroundings.
2. Show all the forces that act on the particle.
Active forces: They want to move the particle.
Reactive forces: They tend to resist the motion.
3. Identify each force and show all known magnitudes and
directions. Show all unknown magnitudes and / or directions
as variables. y
FBD at A FB
30˚
FD A A x
FC = 392.4 N (What is this?)

Note : Cylinder mass = 40 Kg
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EQUATIONS OF 2-D EQUILIBRIUM
y
FBD at A Since particle A is in equilibrium, the
FB net force at A is zero.
30˚
FD A A x So FB + FC + FD = 0
A
FC = 392.4 N or F = 0
FBD at A
In general, for a particle in equilibrium,
 F = 0 or
 Fx i +  Fy j = 0 = 0 i + 0 j (a vector equation)
Or, written in a scalar form,
Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0
These are two scalar equations of equilibrium (E-of-E).
They can be used to solve for up to two unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
EQUATIONS OF 2-D EQUILIBRIUM (continued)
y
FBD at A
FB
30˚
A x
FD A
FC = 392.4 N
Note : Cylinder mass = 40 Kg
Write the scalar E-of-E:

+   Fx = FB cos 30º – FD = 0
+   Fy = FB sin 30º – 392.4 N = 0
Solving the second equation gives: FB = 785 N →
From the first equation, we get: FD = 680 N ←
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
SIMPLE SPRINGS
Spring Force = spring constant * deformation of spring

or F=k*s
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
CABLES AND PULLEYS
With a frictionless pulley and cable
T1 = T2.
T1 Cable can support only a tension or

T2 “pulling” force, and this force always
acts in the direction of the cable.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
SMOOTH CONTACT
If an object rests on a smooth surface, then

the surface will exert a force on the object
that is normal to the surface at the point of
contact.
In addition to this normal force N, the

cylinder is also subjected to its weight W
and the force T of the cord.
Since these three forces are concurrent at the

center of the cylinder, we can apply the
equation of equilibrium to this “particle,” which
is the same as applying it to the cylinder.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE I
Given: The box weighs 550 N and

geometry is as shown.
Find: The forces in the ropes AB
and AC.
Plan:
1. Draw a FBD for point A.
2. Apply the E-of-E to solve for the forces in ropes AB
and AC.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
FBD at point A
y FC
FB
5 3
30˚ 4
A x
FD = 550 N
Applying the scalar E-of-E at A, we get;

+   F x = – FB cos 30° + FC (4/5) = 0
+   F y = FB sin 30° + FC (3/5) - 550 N = 0
Solving the above equations, we get;
FB = 478 N and FC = 518 N
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE II
Given: The mass of cylinder C is

40 kg and geometry is as
shown.
Find: The tensions in cables DE,
EA, and EB.
Plan:
1. Draw a FBD for point E.
2. Apply the E-of-E to solve for the forces in cables
DE, EA, and EB.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
EXAMPLE II (continued)
FBD at point E
y
TEB = 40*9.81 N
TED 30˚
E x
TEA
Applying the scalar E-of-E at E, we get;

+   F x =  TED + (40*9.81) cos 30° = 0
+   F y = (40*9.81) sin 30°  TEA = 0
TED = 340 N  and TEA = 196 N 
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
CONCEPT QUIZ
1000 N
1000 N 1000 N
(A) (B) (C)
1) Assuming you know the geometry of the ropes, in which

system above can you NOT determine forces in the cables?
2) Why?
A) The weight is too heavy.
B) The cables are too thin.
C) There are more unknowns than equations.
D) There are too few cables for a 1000 N
weight.
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
Given: The mass of lamp is 20 kg

and geometry is as shown.
Find: The force in each cable.
Plan:
1. Draw a FBD for Point D.

2. Apply E-of-E at Point D to solve for the unknowns (FCD &
FDE).
3. Knowing FCD, repeat this process at point C.
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
FBD at point D
y FDE
FCD 30˚
D x
W = 20 (9.81) N
Applying the scalar E-of-E at D, we get;

+  Fy = FDE sin 30° – 20 (9.81) = 0
+  Fx = FDE cos 30° – FCD = 0
Solving the above equations, we get:
FDE = 392 N and FCD = 340 N
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
FBD at point C
FAC y
5
4
3 FCD =340 N
C x
FBC
45˚
Applying the scalar E-of-E at C, we get;

+  Fx = 340 – FBC sin 45° – FAC (3/5) = 0
+   Fy = FAC (4/5) – FBC cos 45° = 0
FBC = 275 N and FAC = 243 N
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Select the correct FBD of particle A.
30 A 40
100 N
F1 F2
A
A) B)
30 40°
100 N
A
F F1 F2
C) 30° D) 30° 40°
A
A
100 N 100 N
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ATTENTION QUIZ
2. Using this FBD of Point C, the sum of F2

forces in the x-direction ( FX) is ___ .
20 N 50°
Use a sign convention of +  . C
A) F2 sin 50° – 20 = 0 F1
B) F2 cos 50° – 20 = 0
C) F2 sin 50° – F1 = 0
D) F2 cos 50° + 20 = 0
ECS 416 STATICS

R.C. Hibbeler
ECS 416 STATICS
R.C. Hibbeler
THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to solve 3-D particle equilibrium problems by
a) Drawing a 3-D free body diagram, and,
b) Applying the three scalar equations (based on one vector
equation) of equilibrium.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. Particle P is in equilibrium with five (5) forces acting on it in

3-D space. How many scalar equations of equilibrium can be
written for point P?
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4
D) 5 E) 6
2. In 3-D, when a particle is in equilibrium, which of the
following equations apply?
A) ( Fx) i + ( Fy) j + ( Fz) k = 0
B)  F = 0
C)  Fx =  Fy =  Fz = 0
D) All of the above.
E) None of the above.
ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
You know the weight of the

electromagnet and its load.
But, you need to know the
forces in the chains to see if
it is a safe assembly. How
would you do this?

ECS 416 STATICS
This shear-leg derrick

Offset distance is to be designed to lift
a maximum of 200 kg
of fish.
How would you find
the effect of different
offset distances on the
forces in the cable and
derrick legs?

ECS 416 STATICS
THE EQUATIONS OF 3-D EQUILIBRIUM
When a particle is in equilibrium, the vector

sum of all the forces acting on it must be
zero ( F = 0 ) .
This equation can be written in terms of its x,
y and z components. This form is written as
follows.
( Fx) i + ( Fy) j + ( Fz) k = 0
This vector equation will be satisfied only when
Fx = 0
Fy = 0
Fz = 0
These equations are the three scalar equations of equilibrium.
They are valid for any point in equilibrium and allow you to
solve for up to three unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: The four forces and

geometry shown.
Find: The force F5 required to
keep particle O in
equilibrium.
Plan:
1) Draw a FBD of particle O.
2) Write the unknown force as
F5 = {Fx i + Fy j + Fz k} N
3) Write F1, F2 , F3 , F4 , and F5 in Cartesian vector form.
4) Apply the three equilibrium equations to solve for the three
unknowns Fx, Fy, and Fz.
ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
F1 = {300(4/5) j + 300 (3/5) k} N
F1 = {240 j + 180 k} N
F2 = {– 600 i} N
F3 = {– 900 k} N
F4 = F4 (rB/ rB)
= 200 N [(3i – 4 j + 6 k)/(32 + 42 + 62)½]
= {76.8 i – 102.4 j + 153.6 k} N
F5 = { Fx i – Fy j + Fz k} N
ECS 416 STATICS
Equating the respective i, j, k components to zero, we have

 Fx = 76.8 – 600 + Fx = 0 ; solving gives Fx = 523.2 N
 Fy = 240 – 102.4 + Fy = 0 ; solving gives Fy = – 137.6 N
 Fz = 180 – 900 + 153.6 + Fz = 0 ; solving gives Fz = 566.4 N
Thus, F5 = {523 i – 138 j + 566 k} N

Using this force vector, you can determine the force’s magnitude
and coordinate direction angles as needed.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given: A 600 N load is supported

by three cords with the
geometry as shown.
Find: The tension in cords AB,
AC and AD.
Plan:
1) Draw a free body diagram of Point A. Let the unknown force

magnitudes be FB, FC, FD .
2) Represent each force in its Cartesian vector form.
3) Apply equilibrium equations to solve for the three unknowns.

ECS 416 STATICS
FBD at A z
FD FC
2m
1m 30˚ y
2m A
FB
x
600 N
FB = FB (sin 30 i + cos 30 j) N
= {0.5 FB i + 0.866 FB j} N
FC = – FC i N
FD = FD (rAD /rAD)
= FD { (1 i – 2 j + 2 k) / (12 + 22 + 22)½ } N
= { 0.333 FD i – 0.667 FD j + 0.667 FD k } N
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD at A
Now equate the respective i, j, and k
z
components to zero. FD FC
 Fx = 0.5 FB – FC + 0.333 FD = 0 2m
y
 Fy = 0.866 FB – 0.667 FD = 0 1m
2m A 30˚
FB
 Fz = 0.667 FD – 600 = 0 x
600 N
Solving the three simultaneous equations yields

FC = 646 N (since it is positive, it is as assumed, e.g., in tension)
FD = 900 N
FB = 693 N

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. In 3-D, when you know the direction of a force but not its
magnitude, how many unknowns corresponding to that force
remain?
A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four
2. If a particle has 3-D forces acting on it and is in static

equilibrium, the components of the resultant force ( Fx,  Fy,
and  Fz ) ___ .
A) have to sum to zero, e.g., -5 i + 3 j + 2 k
B) have to equal zero, e.g., 0 i + 0 j + 0 k
C) have to be positive, e.g., 5 i + 5 j + 5 k
D) have to be negative, e.g., -5 i - 5 j - 5 k

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: A 17500-N (≈ 1750-kg)

motor and plate, as shown,
are in equilibrium and
supported by three cables and
d = 1.2 m
Find: Magnitude of the tension in
each of the cables.
Plan:
1) Draw a free-body diagram of Point A. Let the unknown force
magnitudes be FB, FC, F D .
2) Represent each force in the Cartesian vector form.
3) Apply equilibrium equations to solve for the three unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of Point A
z
W
y
x
FD
FB FC
W = load or weight of unit = 17500 k N
FB = FB(rAB/rAB) = FB {(1.2 i – 0.9 j – 3 k) / (3.354)} N
FC = FC (rAC/rAC) = FC { (0.9 j – 3 k) / (3.132) } N
FD = FD( rAD/rAD) = FD { (– 1.2 i + 0.3 j – 3 k) / (3.245) } N

ECS 416 STATICS
The particle A is in equilibrium, hence

FB + FC + FD + W = 0
Now equate the respective i, j, k components to zero
(i.e., apply the three scalar equations of equilibrium).
 Fx = (1.2/ 3.354)FB – (1.2/ 3.245)FD = 0 (1)
 Fy = (– 0.9/ 3.354)FB + (0.9/ 3.132)FC + (0.3/ 3.245)FD = 0 (2)
 Fz = (– 3/ 3.354)FB – (3/ 3.132)FC – (3/ 3.245)FD + 17500 = 0 (3)
Solving the three simultaneous equations gives the forces
FB = 7337 N
FC = 4568 N
FD = 7098 N
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
z
1. Four forces act at point A and point
A is in equilibrium. Select the correct F3 = 10 N
P
force vector P. F2 = 10 N
A) {-20 i + 10 j – 10 k}N F1 = 20 N A y
B) {-10 i – 20 j – 10 k} N
x
C) {+ 20 i – 10 j – 10 k}N
D) None of the above.
2. In 3-D, when you don’t know the direction or the magnitude
of a force, how many unknowns do you have corresponding
to that force?
A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A FORCE (SCALAR FORMULATION),
CROSS PRODUCT, MOMENT OF A FORCE (VECTOR
FORMULATION), & PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
Today’s Learning Objectives :

a) understand and define moment, and,
b) determine moments of a force in 2-D and
3-D cases.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
F = 12 N
1. What is the moment of the 12 N force
about point A (MA)?
A) 3 N·m B) 36 N·m C) 12 N·m
d=3m
D) (12/3) N·m E) 7 N·m • A
2. The moment of force F about point O

is defined as MO = ___________ .
A) r × F B) F × r
C) r • F D) r * F

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Beams are often used to bridge gaps in walls.

We have to know what the effect of the force on
the beam will have on the supports of the beam.
What do you think is happening at points A and B?
ECS 416 STATICS
Carpenters often use a hammer in this way to pull a stubborn

nail. Through what sort of action does the force FH at the
handle pull the nail? How can you mathematically model
the effect of force FH at point O?
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A FORCE - SCALAR FORMULATION
(Section 4.1)
The moment of a force about a point provides a measure of the

tendency for rotation (sometimes called a torque).

ECS 416 STATICS
(continued)
In a 2-D case, the magnitude of the moment is Mo = F d
As shown, d is the perpendicular distance from point O to the

line of action of the force.
In 2-D, the direction of MO is either clockwise (CW) or

counter-clockwise (CCW), depending on the tendency for
rotation.
ECS 416 STATICS
(continued)
a F For example, MO = F d and the

b direction is counter-clockwise.
O
d
Fy F
Often it is easier to determine Fx
MO by using the components of b a
F as shown. O
Then MO = (Fy a) – (Fx b). Note the different signs on the terms!
The typical sign convention for a moment in 2-D is that counter-
clockwise is considered positive. We can determine the direction
of rotation by imagining the body pinned at O and deciding which
way the body would rotate because of the force.
ECS 416 STATICS
VECTOR CROSS PRODUCT (Section 4.2)
While finding the moment of a force in 2-D is straightforward

when you know the perpendicular distance d, finding the
perpendicular distances can be hard—especially when you are
working with forces in three dimensions.
So a more general approach to finding the moment of a force
exists. This more general approach is usually used when
dealing with three dimensional forces but can be used in the
two dimensional case as well.
This more general method of finding the moment of a force
uses a vector operation called the cross product of two vectors.

ECS 416 STATICS
CROSS PRODUCT (Section 4.2)
In general, the cross product of two vectors A and B results in

another vector, C , i.e., C = A  B. The magnitude and
direction of the resulting vector can be written as
C = A  B = A B sin  uC
As shown, uC is the unit vector perpendicular to both A and B
vectors (or to the plane containing the A and B vectors).
ECS 416 STATICS
CROSS PRODUCT (continued)
The right-hand rule is a useful tool for determining the

direction of the vector resulting from a cross product.
For example: i  j = k
Note that a vector crossed into itself is zero, e.g., i  i = 0

ECS 416 STATICS
CROSS PRODUCT (continued)
Also, the cross product can be written as a determinant.
Each component can be determined using 2  2 determinants.

ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A FORCE – VECTOR FORMULATION
(Section 4.3)
Moments in 3-D can be calculated using scalar (2-D) approach, but

it can be difficult and time consuming. Thus, it is often easier to
use a mathematical approach called the vector cross product.
Using the vector cross product, MO = r  F.
Here r is the position vector from point O to any point on the line
of action of F.
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A FORCE – VECTOR FORMULATION
(continued)
So, using the cross product, a

moment can be expressed as
By expanding the above equation using 2  2 determinants (see

Section 4.2), we get (sample units are N - m)
MO = (ry Fz - rz Fy) i  (rx Fz - rz Fx ) j + (rx Fy - ry Fx ) k
The physical meaning of the above equation becomes evident by

considering the force components separately and using a 2-D
formulation.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: A 100 N force is

applied to the frame.
Find: The moment of the
force at point O.
Plan:
1) Resolve the 100 N force along x and y-axes.

2) Determine MO using a scalar analysis for the two
force components and then add those two moments
together.

ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
+  Fy = – 100 (3/5) N
+  Fx = 100 (4/5) N
+ MO = {– 100 (3/5)N (5 m) – (100)(4/5)N (2 m)} N·m
= – 460 N·m or 460 N·m CW
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given: F1={100 i - 120 j + 75 k}kN

F2={-200 i +250 j + 100 k}kN
o Find: Resultant moment by the

forces about point O.
Plan:
1) Find F = F1 + F2 and rOA.

2) Determine MO = rOA  F .

ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
First, find the resultant force vector F
F = F1 + F2
= { (100 - 200) i + (-120 + 250) j + (75 + 100) k} kN
= {-100 i +130 j + 175 k} kN
Find the position vector rOA
rOA = {4 i + 5 j + 3 k} m
Then find the moment by using the vector cross product.
j ki
MO = 5 3 = [{5(175) – 3(130)} i – {4(175) –
4
-100 130 175 3(-100)} j + {4(130) – 5(-100)} k] kN·m
= {485 i – 1000 j + 1020 k} kN·m
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. If a force of magnitude F can be applied in four different 2-D

configurations (P,Q,R, & S), select the cases resulting in the
maximum and minimum torque values on the nut. (Max, Min).
A) (Q, P) B) (R, S)
C) (P, R) D) (Q, S)
S
P
Q R
2. If M = r  F, then what will be the value of M • r?

A) 0 B) 1
C) r 2 F D) None of the above.

ECS 416 STATICS
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING I
y
Given: A 100 N force is applied
x
to the hammer.
Find: The moment of the force
at A.
Plan:
Since this is a 2-D problem:

1) Resolve the 100 N force
along the handle’s x and y
axes.
2) Determine MA using a
scalar analysis.
ECS 416 STATICS
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING I (continued)
y Solution:
x
+  Fy = 100 sin 30° N
+  Fx = 100 cos 30° N
+ MA = {–(100 cos 30°)N (450 mm) – (100 sin 20°)N (125 mm)}
= – 43.2464 N·mm = 43.2 N·mm (clockwise or CW)

ECS 416 STATICS
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING II
Given: The force and geometry

shown.
Find: Moment of F about
point A
Plan:
1) Find F and rAC.
2) Determine MA = rAC  F

ECS 416 STATICS
GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING II (continued)
Solution:
F ={ (80 cos30) sin 40 i
+ (80 cos30) cos 40 j  80 sin30 k} N
={44.53 i + 53.07 j  40 k } N
rAC ={0.55 i + 0.4 j  0.2 k } m
Find the moment by using the cross product.

i j k
MA = 0.55 0.4  0.2
44.53 53.07  40
= { -5.39 i + 13.1 j +11.4 k } N·m
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
10 N 5N
3m P 2m
1. Using the CCW direction as positive, the net moment of the

two forces about point P is
A) 10 N  m B) 20 N  m C) - 20 N  m
D) 40 N  m E) - 40 N  m
2. If r = { 5 j } m and F = { 10 k } N, the moment

r × F equals { _______ } N·m.
A) 50 i B) 50 j C) –50 i
D) – 50 j E) 0

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT ABOUT AN AXIS
Students will be able to determine the moment of a force about
an axis using
a) scalar analysis, and,
b) vector analysis.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. When determining the moment of a force about a specified

axis, the axis must be along _____________.
A) the x axis B) the y axis C) the z axis
D) any line in 3-D space E) any line in the x-y plane
2. The triple scalar product u • ( r  F ) results in

A) a scalar quantity ( + or - ). B) a vector quantity.
C) zero. D) a unit vector.
E) an imaginary number.

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
With the force P, a person is creating a moment MA using this

flex-handle socket wrench. Does all of MA act to turn the
socket? How would you calculate an answer to this question?

ECS 416 STATICS
Sleeve A of this bracket can provide a maximum resisting

moment of 125 N·m about the x-axis. How would you
determine the maximum magnitude of F before turning
about the x-axis occurs?

ECS 416 STATICS
SCALAR ANALYSIS
Recall that the moment of a scalar force about

any point O is MO= F dO where dO is the
perpendicular (or shortest) distance from the
point to the force’s line of action. This concept
can be extended to find the moment of a force
about an axis.
Finding the moment of a force about an axis can

help answer the types of questions we just
considered.

ECS 416 STATICS
SCALAR ANALYSIS (continued)
In the figure above, the moment about the y-axis would be

My= Fz (dx) = F (r cos θ). However, unless the force can
easily be broken into components and the “dx” found quickly,
such calculations are not always trivial and vector analysis
may be much easier (and less likely to produce errors).
ECS 416 STATICS
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Our goal is to find the moment of F

(the tendency to rotate the body)
about the a-axis.
First compute the moment of F

about any arbitrary point O that
lies on the a-axis using the cross
product.
MO = r  F
Now, find the component of MO along the a-axis using the dot
product.
M a = u a • MO
ECS 416 STATICS
VECTOR ANALYSIS (continued)
Ma can also be obtained as
The above equation is also called the

triple scalar product.
In the this equation,

ua represents the unit vector along the a-axis,
r is the position vector from any point on the a-axis to any
point A on the line of action of the force, and
F is the force vector.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE
Given: A force is applied to

A
the tool as shown.
Find: The magnitude of the
B
moment of this force about
the x axis of the value.
Plan:
1) Use Mz = u • (r  F ).
2) First, find F in Cartesian vector form.
3) Note that u = 1 i in this case.
4) The vector r is the position vector from O to A.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
Solution:
u=1i
rOA = {0 i + 0.3 j + 0.25 k} m
F = 200 (cos 120 i + cos 60 j
+ cos 45 k) N
= {-100 i + 100 j + 141.4 k} N
Now find Mz = u • (rOA  F )

1 0 0
Mz = 0 0.3 0.25 = 1{0.3 (141.4) – 0.25 (100) } N·m
-100 100 141.4
Mz = 17.4 N·m CCW

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. The vector operation (P  Q) • R equals

A) P  (Q • R).
B) R • (P  Q).
C) (P • R)  (Q • R).
D) (P  R) • (Q  R ).

ECS 416 STATICS
2. The force F is acting

along DC. Using the
triple scalar product to
determine the moment
of F about the bar BA,
you could use any of the
following position
vectors except ______.
A) rBC B) rAD
C) rAC D) rDB
E) rBD

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The force of F = 30 N

acts on the bracket.
A 
 = 60,  = 60,  = 45.
Find: The moment of F about
rOA
the a-a axis.
Plan: ua 
O
1) Find ua and rOA
2) Find F in Cartesian vector form.
3) Use Ma = ua • (rOA  F)

ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
ua = j
A 
rOA = {– 0.1 i + 0.15 k} m
rOA
F = 30 {cos 60 i + cos 60 j ua 

+ cos 45 k} N O
F = { 15 i + 15 j + 21.21 k} N

ECS 416 STATICS
Now find the triple product, Ma = ua • (rOA  F)

0 1 0
Ma = - 0.1 0 0.15 N·m
15 15 21.21
Ma = -1 {-0.1 (21.21) – 0.15 (15)} A 

= 4.37 N·m
rOA
ua 
Ma O

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. For finding the moment of the

force F about the x-axis, the
position vector in the triple
scalar product should be ___ .
A) rAC B) rBA
C) rAB D) rBC
2. If r = {1 i + 2 j} m and F = {10 i + 20 j + 30 k} N, then

the moment of F about the y-axis is ____ N·m.
A) 10 B) -30
C) -40 D) None of the above.
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A COUPLE

Students will be able to
a) define a couple, and,
b) determine the moment of a couple.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. In statics, a couple is defined as __________ separated by a

perpendicular distance.
A) two forces in the same direction
B) two forces of equal magnitude
C) two forces of equal magnitude acting in the same direction
D) two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions
2. The moment of a couple is called a _________ vector.

A) Free B) Spinning
C) Fixed D) Sliding

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
A torque or moment of 12 N·m is required to rotate the wheel.

Why does one of the two grips of the wheel above require less
force to rotate the wheel?

ECS 416 STATICS
When you grip a vehicle’s steering wheel with both

hands and turn, a couple moment is applied to the wheel.
Would older vehicles without power steering have
needed larger or smaller steering wheels?
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A COUPLE
A couple is defined as two

parallel forces with the same
magnitude but opposite in
direction separated by a
perpendicular distance “d.”
The moment of a couple is defined as

MO = F d (using a scalar analysis) or as
MO = r  F (using a vector analysis).
Here r is any position vector from the line of action of F to
the line of action of F.

ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF A COUPLE (continued)
The net external effect of a couple is that

the net force equals zero and the
magnitude of the net moment equals F *d.
Since the moment of a couple depends

only on the distance between the
forces, the moment of a couple is a
free vector. It can be moved anywhere
on the body and have the same
external effect on the body.
Moments due to couples can be added
together using the same rules as adding
any vectors.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I : SCALAR APPROACH
Given: Two couples act on the

beam with the geometry
shown.
Find: The magnitude of F so
that the resultant couple
moment is 1.5 kNm
clockwise.
Plan:
1) Add the two couples to find the resultant couple.

2) Equate the net moment to 1.5 kNm clockwise to find F.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I : SCALAR APPROACH (continued)
Solution:
The net moment is equal to:

+  M = – F (0.9) + (2) (0.3)
= – 0.9 F + 0.6
– 1.5 kNm = – 0.9 F + 0.6
Solving for the unknown force F, we get

F = 2.33 kN

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II : VECTOR APPROACH
Given: A 450 N force couple acting

on the pipe assembly.
rAB Find: The couple moment in
Cartesian vector notation.
FB Plan:
1) Use M = r  F to find the couple moment.

2) Set r = rAB and F = FB.
3) Calculate the cross product to find M.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II: VECTOR APPROACH (continued)
Solution:
rAB = { 0.4 i } m
FB = {0 i + 450(4/5) j  450(3/5) k} N
rAB
= {0 i + 360 j  270 k} N
M = rAB  FB FB
i j k
= 0.4 0 0 N·m
0 360 270
= [{0(-270) – 0(360)} i – {4(-270) – 0(0)} j
+ {0.4(360) – 0(0)} k] N·m
= {0 i + 108 j + 144 k} N·m
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. F1 and F2 form a couple. The moment F1

of the couple is given by ____ .
r1 r2
A) r1  F1 B) r2  F1
C) F2  r1 D) r2  F2 F2
2. If three couples act on a body, the overall result is that
A) The net force is not equal to 0.
B) The net force and net moment are equal to 0.
C) The net moment equals 0 but the net force is not
necessarily equal to 0.
D) The net force equals 0 but the net moment is not
necessarily equal to 0 .
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: Two couples act on the

beam with the geometry
shown.
Find: The resultant couple
Plan:
1) Resolve the forces in x and y-directions so they can

be treated as couples.
2) Add these two couples to find the resultant couple.
ECS 416 STATICS
The x and y components of the upper-

left 30 kN force are:
(4/5)(30 kN) = 24 kN vertically up
(3/5)(30 kN) = 18 kN to the left
Do both of these components form
couples with their matching components
of the other 30-kN force?
No! Only the 24 kN components create a couple. Why?

ECS 416 STATICS
Now resolve the lower 15 kN force:

(15 kN) (sin 30°), acting up
(15 kN) (cos 30°), acting to the left
Do both of these components create
a couple with components of the
other 15-kN force?
The net moment is equal to:

+ M = – (24 kN)(2 m) – (15 kN)(cos 30º)(2 m)
= – 48 – 25.98 = – 73.98 kN·m CCW or 73.98 kN·m CW

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: F = {80 k} N and

– F = {– 80 k} N
Find: The couple moment
acting on the pipe
assembly using
rAB Cartesian vector
notation.
Plan:
1) Use M = r  F to find the couple moment.
2) Set r = rAB and F = {80 k} N.
3) Calculate the cross product to find M.
ECS 416 STATICS
rAB = { (0.3 – 0.2 ) i + (0.8 – 0.3) j + (0 – 0) k } m

= { 0.1 i + 0.5 j } m
F = {80 k} N
i j k
M = rAB  F = 0.1 0.5 0 N·m
0 0 80
= {(40 – 0) i – (8 – 0) j + (0) k} N · m
= { 40 i – 8 j } N · m
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A couple is applied to the beam as shown. Its moment equals

_____ N·m.
50 N
A) 50 B) 60
1m 2m 5
3
C) 80 D) 100
4
2. You can determine the couple

moment as M = r  F
If F = { -20 k} N, then r is
A) rBC B) rAB
C) rCB D) rBA

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLIFICATION OF FORCE AND COUPLE SYSTEMS
& THEIR FURTHER SIMPLIFICATION

a) Determine the effect of moving a
force.
b) Find an equivalent force-couple
system for a system of forces and
couples.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. A general system of forces and couple moments acting on a

rigid body can be reduced to a ___ .
A) single force
B) single moment
C) single force and two moments
D) single force and a single moment
2. The original force and couple system and an equivalent

force-couple system have the same _____ effect on a body.
A) internal B) external
C) internal and external D) microscopic

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
What are the resultant effects on the person’s hand

when the force is applied in these four different ways?
Why is understanding these differences important when
designing various load-bearing structures?
ECS 416 STATICS
Several forces and a couple moment

are acting on this vertical section of
an I-beam.
| | ??
For the process of designing the I-
beam, it would be very helpful if
you could replace the various forces
and moment just one force and one
couple moment at point O with the
same external effect? How will
you do that?
ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLIFICATION OF FORCE AND COUPLE
SYSTEM (Section 4.7)
When a number of forces and couple

moments are acting on a body, it is
easier to understand their overall effect
on the body if they are combined into a
single force and couple moment having
the same external effect.
The two force and couple systems are
called equivalent systems since they
have the same external effect on the
body.

ECS 416 STATICS
MOVING A FORCE ON ITS LINE OF ACTION
Moving a force from A to B, when both points are on the

vector’s line of action, does not change the external effect.
Hence, a force vector is called a sliding vector. (But the
internal effect of the force on the body does depend on where
the force is applied).

ECS 416 STATICS
MOVING A FORCE OFF OF ITS LINE OF ACTION
When a force is moved, but not along its line of action, there is
a change in its external effect!
Essentially, moving a force from point A to B (as shown above)
requires creating an additional couple moment. So moving a
force means you have to “add” a new couple.
Since this new couple moment is a “free” vector, it can be
applied at any point on the body.

ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLIFICATION OF A FORCE AND COUPLE
SYSTEM
When several forces and couple moments
act on a body, you can move each force
and its associated couple moment to a
common point O.
Now you can add all the forces and
couple moments together and find one
resultant force-couple moment pair.

ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLIFICATION OF A FORCE AND COUPLE
SYSTEM (continued)
WR = W1 + W2
(MR)o = W1 d1 + W2 d2
If the force system lies in the x-y plane (a 2-D case), then the
reduced equivalent system can be obtained using the following
three scalar equations.

ECS 416 STATICS
FURTHER SIMPLIFICATION OF A FORCE AND
COUPLE SYSTEM (Section 4.8)
= =
If FR and MRO are perpendicular to each other, then the system

can be further reduced to a single force, FR , by simply moving
FR from O to P.
In three special cases, concurrent, coplanar, and parallel systems

of forces, the system can always be reduced to a single force.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: A 2-D force system
with geometry as shown.
Find: The equivalent resultant
force and couple
moment acting at A and
then the equivalent
single force location
measured from A.
Plan:
1) Sum all the x and y components of the forces to find FRA.
2) Find and sum all the moments resulting from moving each
force component to A.
3) Shift FRA to a distance d such that d = MRA/FRy
ECS 416 STATICS
+ FRx= 50(sin 30) + 100(3/5) FR

= 85 kN
+  FRy= 200 + 50(cos 30) – 100(4/5)
= 163.3 kN
+ MRA = 200 (3) + 50 (cos 30) (9)
– 100 (4/5) 6 = 509.7 kN·m
FR = ( 852 + 163.32 )1/2 = 184 kN
 = tan-1 ( 163.3/85) = 62.5°
The equivalent single force FR can be located at a distance d

measured from A.
d = MRA/FRy = 509.7 / 163.3 = 3.12 m
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given: The slab is subjected to

three parallel forces.
force and couple
moment at the origin O.
Also find the location
(x, y) of the single
equivalent resultant
Plan: force.
1) Find FRO = Fi = FRzo k
2) Find MRO =  (ri  Fi) = MRxO i + MRyO j
3) The location of the single equivalent resultant force is given
as x = – MRyO / FRzO and y = MRxO / FRzO
ECS 416 STATICS
FRO = {100 k – 500 k – 400 k} = – 800 k N

MRO = (3 i)  (100 k) + (4 i + 4 j)  (-500 k)
+ (4 j)  (-400 k)
= {–300 j + 2000 j – 2000 i – 1600 i}
= { – 3600 i + 1700 j }N·m
The location of the single equivalent resultant force is given as,

x = – MRyo / FRzo = (–1700) / (–800) = 2.13 m
y = MRxo / FRzo = (–3600) / (–800) = 4.5 m

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
z
1. The forces on the pole can be reduced to
S
a single force and a single moment at
point ____ . R
A) P B) Q C) R Q

D) S E) Any of these points. P y

x
2. Consider two couples acting on a body. The simplest possible
equivalent system at any arbitrary point on the body will have
A) One force and one couple moment.
B) One force.
C) One couple moment.
D) Two couple moments.
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: A 2-D force and couple

system as shown.
force and couple
moment acting at A.
Plan:
1) Sum all the x and y components of the two forces to find FRA.
2) Find and sum all the moments resulting from moving each
force to A and add them to the 1500 Nm free moment to find
the resultant MRA .

ECS 416 STATICS
Summing the force components:

+ Fx = 450 (cos 60) – 700 (sin 30)
= – 125 N
+  Fy = – 450 (sin 60) – 300 – 700 (cos 30)
= – 1296 N
Now find the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
FRA = (1252 + 12962)1/2 = 1302 N and  = tan-1 (1296 /125)
= 84.5°
+ MRA = 450 (sin 60) (2) + 300 (6) + 700 (cos 30) (9) + 1500
= 9535 Nm
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: Forces and couple moments

are applied to the pipe.
Find: An equivalent resultant
force and couple moment at
point O.
Plan:
a) Find FRO =  Fi = F1 + F2+ F3
b) Find MRO =  MC +  ( ri  Fi )
where,
MC are any free couple moments.
ri are the position vectors from the point O to any point on the line
of action of Fi .
ECS 416 STATICS
MC1
F1 = {300 k} N
F1
F2 = 200{cos45 i – sin 45 k} N
F3 = {141.4 i – 141.4 k} N
F3 = {100 j} N
F2
r1 = {0.5 i } m, r2 = {1.1 i } m,
MC2 r3 = {1.9 i } m
Free couple moments are:

MC1 = {100 k} Nm
MC2 = 180{cos45 i – sin 45k}Nm
= {127.3 i – 127.3k}Nm
ECS 416 STATICS
Resultant force and couple moment at point O:

FRO =  Fi = F1 + F2+ F3 MC1
F1
= {300 k}+{141.4 i – 141.4 k}
+ {100 j} F3
FRO = {141 i + 100 j + 159 k} N
F2
MRO =  MC +  ( ri  Fi ) MC2
MRO = {100 k} + {127.3 i – 127.3k}

i j k i j k i j k
+ 0 0.5 0 + 0 1.1 0 + 0 1.9 0
0 0 300 141.4 0 -141.4 0 100 0
MRO = {122 i – 183 k} Nm
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. For this force system, the equivalent system at P is

___________ .
A) FRP = 40 kN (along +x-dir.) and MRP = +60 kN · m
B) FRP = 0 kN and MRP = +30 kN · m
C) FRP = 30 kN (along +y-dir.) and MRP = -30 kN · m
D) FRP = 40 kN (along +x-dir.) and MRP = +30 kN · m
y 30 kN
1m 1m
• x
40 kN
P 30 kN

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
2. Consider three couples acting on a body. Equivalent

systems will be _______ at different points on the body.
A) Different when located
B) The same even when located
C) Zero when located

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY &
FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS

a) Identify support reactions, and,
b) Draw a free-body diagram.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. If a support prevents translation of a body, then the support exerts a

___________ on the body.
A) Couple moment
B) Force
C) Both A and B.
D) None of the above
2. Internal forces are _________ shown on the free body diagram of a
whole body.
A) Always
B) Often
C) Rarely
D) Never
ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
The truck ramps have a weight of 2000 N each.

Each ramp is pinned to the body of the truck and held in the
position by a cable. How can we determine the cable tension
and support reactions?
How are the idealized model and the free body diagram used to
do this?
Which diagram above is the idealized model?
ECS 416 STATICS
Two smooth pipes, each having a mass of 300 kg, are

supported by the tines of the loader’s fork attachment.
How can we determine all the reactive forces?
Again, how can we make use of an idealized model and a

free body diagram to answer this question?

ECS 416 STATICS
CONDITIONS FOR RIGID-BODY EQUILIBRIUM
(Section 5.1)
In contrast to the forces on a particle, the

forces on a rigid-body are not usually
concurrent and may cause rotation of the
body (due to moments created by the
forces).
Forces on a particle
For a rigid body to be in equilibrium, the
net force as well as the net moment
about any arbitrary point O must be
equal to zero.
 F = 0 (no translation)
Forces on a rigid body and  MO = 0 (no rotation)

ECS 416 STATICS
THE PROCESS OF SOLVING RIGID BODY
EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEMS
For analyzing an actual physical system, first we need to

create an idealized model (above right).
Then we need to draw a free-body diagram

(FBD) showing all the external (active and
reactive) forces.
Finally, we need to apply the equations of
equilibrium to solve for any unknowns.

ECS 416 STATICS
FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS (Section 5.2)
Idealized model Free-body diagram (FBD)

1. Draw an outlined shape. Imagine the body to be isolated
or cut “free” from its constraints and draw its outlined
shape.
2. Show all the external forces and couple moments. These
typically include: a) applied loads, b) support reactions,
and, c) the weight of the body.
ECS 416 STATICS
FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS (continued)
Idealized model Free-body diagram
3. Label loads and dimensions on the FBD: All known

forces and couple moments should be labeled with
their magnitudes and directions. For the unknown
forces and couple moments, use letters like Ax, Ay,
MA. Indicate any necessary dimensions.

ECS 416 STATICS
SUPPORT REACTIONS IN 2-D
A few example sets of diagrams s are shown above. Other

support reactions are given in your textbook (Table 5-1).
As a general rule, if a support prevents translation of a body in a

given direction, then a force is developed on the body in the
opposite direction.
Similarly, if rotation is prevented, a couple moment is exerted on
the body in the opposite direction.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: The operator applies a vertical

force to the pedal so that the
spring is stretched 37.5 mm and
the force in the short link at B is
100 N.
Draw: An idealized model and free-
body diagram of the foot pedal.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given: The unloaded platform is

suspended off the edge of the oil
rig. The platform has a mass of
200 kg.
Draw: An idealized model and

free-body diagram of the platform.
The idealized model of the platform is considered in two

dimensions because the loading and the dimensions are all
symmetrical about a vertical plane passing through its center.
ECS 416 STATICS
The connection at A is treated as a pin, and the cable supports

the platform at B. Note the assumed directions of the forces!
The point G is the center of gravity of the platform.
The idealized model The free-body diagram

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. The beam and the cable (with a frictionless

pulley at D) support an 80 kg load at C. In a
FBD of only the beam, there are how many
unknowns?
A) Two forces and one couple moment
B) Three forces and one couple moment
C) Three forces
D) Four forces

ECS 416 STATICS
2. If the directions of the force and the couple moments are

both reversed, what will happen to the beam?
A) The beam will lift from A.
B) The beam will lift at B.
C) The beam will be restrained.
D) The beam will break.

ECS 416 STATICS
Given:
Draw:
A FBD of the smooth pipe which rests against the opening
at the points of contact A, B, and C.

ECS 416 STATICS
NA
The idealized model 30
NB 0.26m
300 N
30 0.5m 0.5m 0.15m
NC
The free-body diagram

ECS 416 STATICS
Given:
Draw: Draw a FBD of member ABC, which is supported by

a smooth collar at A, roller at B, and link CD.

ECS 416 STATICS
The idealized model
The free-body diagram

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Internal forces are not shown on a free-body diagram because the

internal forces are _____. (Choose the most appropriate answer.)
A) Equal to zero B) Equal and opposite and they do not
affect the calculations
C) Negligibly small D) Not important
2. How many unknown support reactions are

there in this problem?
A) Two forces and two couple moments
B) One force and two couple moments
C) Three forces
D) Three forces and one couple moment
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM &
TWO- AND THREE-FORCE MEMEBERS
Today’s Learning
Objectives:
a) Apply equations of
equilibrium to
solve for unknowns,
and,
b) Recognize two-force
members.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. The three scalar equations,  FX =  FY =  MO = 0, are ____

equations of equilibrium in two dimensions.
A) Incorrect B) The only correct
C) The most commonly used D) Not sufficient
2. A rigid body is subjected to forces as

shown. This body can be considered
as a ______ member.
A) Single-force B) Two-force
C) Three-force D) Six-force

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
The uniform truck ramp has a weight of 2000 N.

The ramp is pinned at A and held in the position by the cables.
How can we determine the forces acting at the pin A and the
force in the cables?
ECS 416 STATICS
An 4250-N (≈ 425-kg) engine is supported by three chains,

which are attached to the spreader bar of a hoist.
You need to check to see if the breaking strength of any of the
chains is going to be exceeded. How can you determine the
force acting in each of the chains?
ECS 416 STATICS
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM (Section 5.3)
A body is subjected to a system of forces

that lie in the x-y plane. When in
equilibrium, the net force and net moment
acting on the body are zero (as discussed
earlier in Section 5.1). This 2-D condition
can be represented by the three scalar
equations:
 Fx = 0  Fy = 0  MO = 0
where point O is any arbitrary point.
Please note that these equations are the ones most commonly
used for solving 2-D equilibrium problems. There are two
other sets of equilibrium equations that are rarely used. For
your reference, they are described in the textbook.
ECS 416 STATICS
TWO-FORCE MEMBERS & THREE FORCE-
MEMBERS (Section 5.4)
The solution to some equilibrium problems can be simplified

if we recognize members that are subjected to forces at only
two points (e.g., at points A and B in the figure below).
If we apply the equations of equilibrium to such a member, we

can quickly determine that the resultant forces at A and B must
be equal in magnitude and act in the opposite directions along
the line joining points A and B.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLES OF TWO-FORCE MEMBERS
In the cases above, members AB can be considered as two-force

members, provided that their weight is neglected.
This fact simplifies the equilibrium
analysis of some rigid bodies since the
directions of the resultant forces at A and B
are thus known (along the line joining
points A and B).
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR SOLVING 2-D EQUILIBRIUM
PROBLEMS
1. If not given, establish a suitable x - y coordinate system.
2. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the object under

analysis.
3. Apply the three equations of equilibrium (E-of-E) to

solve for the unknowns.

ECS 416 STATICS
IMPORTANT NOTES
1. If there are more unknowns than the number of independent

equations, then we have a statically indeterminate situation.
We cannot solve these problems using just statics.
2. The order in which we apply equations may affect the

simplicity of the solution. For example, if we have two
unknown vertical forces and one unknown horizontal force,
then solving  FX = 0 first allows us to find the horizontal
unknown quickly.
3. If the answer for an unknown comes out as negative number,

then the sense (direction) of the unknown force is opposite to
that assumed when starting the problem.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE
Given: The 4kN load at B of

the beam is supported
by pins at A and C.
Find: The support reactions
at A and C.
Plan:
1. Put the x and y-axes in the horizontal and vertical directions,
respectively.
2. Determine if there are any two-force members.
3. Draw a complete FBD of the boom.
4. Apply the E-of-E to solve for the unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
FBD of the beam:

AY 4 kN
1.5 m 1.5 m
AX
A 45° C B
FCD
Note: Upon recognizing CD as a two-force member, the number of
unknowns at C is reduced from two to one. Now, using E-o-f E, we get,
+ MA = FCD sin 45  1.5 – 4  3 = 0
FCD = 11.31 kN or 11.3 kN
 + FX = AX + 11.31 cos 45 = 0; AX = – 8.00 kN
 + FY = AY + 11.31 sin 45 – 4 = 0; AY = – 4.00 kN
Note that the negative signs means that the reactions have the opposite
directions to that assumed (as originally shown on FBD).
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. For this beam, how many support

reactions are there and is the F F F F
problem statically determinate?
A) (2, Yes) B) (2, No)
C) (3, Yes) D) (3, No)
2. The beam AB is loaded and supported as

shown: a) how many support reactions Fixed F
support
are there on the beam, b) is this problem
statically determinate, and c) is the A  B
structure stable?

A) (4, Yes, No) B) (4, No, Yes)
C) (5, Yes, No) D) (5, No, Yes)
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The beam is supported

3 kN/m by the roller at A and a
pin at B.
Find: The reactions at points
A and B on the beam.
Plan:
a) Establish the x–y axis system.

b) Draw a complete FBD of the beam.
c) Apply the E-of-E to solve for the unknowns.

FBD of the beam

3 kN/m 30 12 kN
NA 2m
30 Bx
3m
4m
By
Note that the distributed load has
been reduced to a single force.
First, write a moment equation about point B. Why point B?
+  MB = – (NA cos 30)  (4 + 3 cos 30) – (NA sin 30)  (3 sin 30)
+ 12  2 = 0
NA = 3.713 = 3.71 kN

ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of the beam

3 kN/m 30 12 kN
NA 2m
30 Bx
3m
4m
By
Recall NA = 3.713 =3.71 kN
Now write the  FX =  FY = 0 equations.

 +  FX = 3.713 sin 30 – Bx = 0
 +  FY = 3.713 cos 30– 12 + By = 0
Solving these two equations, we get

Bx = 1.86 kN 
By = 8.78 kN 
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Which equation of equilibrium allows

100 N
you to determine FB right away?
AX A B
A)  FX = 0 B)  FY = 0
C)  MA = 0 D) Any one of the above. AY FB
2. A beam is supported by a pin joint

and a roller. How many support
reactions are there and is the
structure stable for all types of
loadings?
A) (3, Yes) B) (3, No)
C) (4, Yes) D) (4, No)

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
3-D FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS, EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS,
CONSTRAINTS AND STATICAL DETERMINACY

a) Identify support reactions in 3-D
and draw a free-body diagram, and,
b) Apply the equations of equilibrium.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. If a support prevents rotation of a body about an axis, then

the support exerts a ________ on the body about that axis.
A) Couple moment B) Force
C) Both A and B. D) None of the above.
2. When doing a 3-D problem analysis, you have ________

scalar equations of equilibrium.
A) 3 B) 4
C) 5 D) 6

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Ball-and-socket joints and journal bearings are often used in

mechanical systems. To design the joints or bearings, the
support reactions at these joints and the loads must be
determined.
ECS 416 STATICS
The tie rod from point A is used to

support the overhang at the entrance of
a building. It is pin connected to the
wall at A and to the center of the
overhang B.
If A is moved to a lower position D,

will the force in the rod change or
remain the same? By making such a
change without understanding if there is
a change in forces, failure might occur.

ECS 416 STATICS
The floor crane, which weighs 1750 N,

is supporting a oil drum.
How do you determine the largest oil

drum weight that the crane can support
without overturning?

ECS 416 STATICS
SUPPORT REACTIONS IN 3-D (Table 5-2)
A few examples of supports are shown above. Other

support reactions are given in your textbook (Table 5-2).
As a general rule, if a support prevents translation of a body in a
given direction, then a reaction force acting in the opposite
direction is developed on the body. Similarly, if rotation is
prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body by the support.
ECS 416 STATICS
IMPORTANT NOTE
A single bearing or hinge can prevent rotation by providing a

resistive couple moment. However, it is usually preferred to use
two or more properly aligned bearings or hinges. In these cases,
only force reactions are generated and no moment reactions are
created.
ECS 416 STATICS
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM (Section 5.6)
As stated earlier, when a body is in equilibrium, the net force and

the net moment equal zero, i.e.,  F = 0 and  MO = 0 .
These two vector equations can be written as six scalar

equations of equilibrium (E-of-E). These are
 FX =  FY =  FZ = 0
MX =  MY =  MZ = 0
The moment equations can be determined about any point.
Usually, choosing the point where the maximum number of
unknown forces are present simplifies the solution. Any forces
passing through the point where moments are taken do not
appear in the moment equation.
ECS 416 STATICS
CONSTRAINTS AND STATICAL DETERMINACY
(Section 5.7)
Redundant Constraints: When a body has more supports than

necessary to hold it in equilibrium, it becomes statically
indeterminate.
A problem that is statically indeterminate has more unknowns
than equations of equilibrium.
Are statically indeterminate structures used in practice? Why
or why not?
ECS 416 STATICS
IMPROPER CONSTRAINTS
Here, while we have 6 unknowns, there is nothing restricting

rotation about the AB axis!
In some cases, there may be as many

unknown reactions as there are
equations of equilibrium.
M A 0
However, if the supports are not
properly constrained, the body may
become unstable for some loading cases.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: The rod, supported by

thrust bearing at A and
cable BC, is subjected to
an 80 kN force.
Find: Reactions at the thrust
bearing A and cable BC.
Plan:
a) Use the established x, y and z-axes.
b) Draw a FBD of the rod.
c) Write the forces using scalar equations.
d) Apply scalar equations of equilibrium to solve for the
unknown forces.
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of the rod:
Applying scalar equations of equilibrium in appropriate order, we get

 F X = AX = 0; AX = 0
 F Z = AZ + FBC – 80 = 0;
 M Y = – 80 ( 1.5 ) + FBC ( 3.0 ) = 0;
Solving the last two equations: FBC = 40 kN, AZ = 40 kN
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of the rod
= 40 kN
Now write scalar moment equations about what point? Point A!
M X = ( MA) X + 40 (6) – 80 (6) = 0 ; (MA ) X= 240 kN . m CCW

 M Z = ( MA) Z = 0 ; (MA ) Z = 0

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given:The uniform plate has a

weight of 500 kN,
supported by three
cables.
Find: The tension in each of
the supporting cables.
Plan:
a) Use established x, y and z-axes.
b) Draw a FBD of the plate.
c) Write the forces using scalar equations.
d) Apply scalar equations of equilibrium to solve for the
unknown forces.
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of the plate:
TA
500 kN
TB TC
200 kN
1.5 m
Applying scalar equations of equilibrium:

 Fz = TA + TB + TC – 200 – 500 = 0 (1)
 Mx = TA (3) + TC (3) – 500 (1.5) – 200 (3) = 0 (2)
 My = – TB (4) – TC (4) + 500 (2) + 200 (2) = 0 (3)

ECS 416 STATICS
 Fz = TA + TB + TC – 200 – 500 = 0 (1)

 Mx = TA (3) + TC (3) – 500 (1.5) – 200 (3) = 0 (2)
 My = – TB (4) – TC (4) + 500 (2) + 200 (2) = 0 (3)
Using Eqs. (2) and (3), express TA and TB in terms of TC:

Eq. (2)  TA = 450 – TC
Eq. (3)  TB = 350 – TC
Substituting the results into Eq. (1) & solving for TC

Eq. (1)  (450 – TC ) + (350 – TC) + TC – 200 – 500 = 0
TC = 100 kN 
TA = 350 kN  and TA = 250 kN 

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. The rod AB is supported using two

cables at B and a ball-and-socket joint
at A. How many unknown support
reactions exist in this problem?
A) Five force and one moment reaction
B) Five force reactions
C) Three force and three moment
reactions
D) Four force and two moment
reactions

ECS 416 STATICS
2. If an additional couple moment in the

vertical direction is applied to rod AB at
point C, then what will happen to the rod?
A) The rod remains in equilibrium as the
cables provide the necessary support
reactions.
B) The rod remains in equilibrium as the
ball-and-socket joint will provide the
necessary resistive reactions.
C) The rod becomes unstable as the cables
cannot support compressive forces.
D) The rod becomes unstable since a moment
about AB cannot be restricted.

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: A bent rod is supported

by smooth journal
bearings at A, B,
and C. F = 800 N.
Assume the rod is
properly aligned.
Find: The reactions at all the
supports.
Plan:
a) Draw a FBD of the rod.
b) Apply scalar equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknowns.

ECS 416 STATICS
z A FBD of the rod

Cy C
x
Ax 2m
x
Az By
2m
Bz 0.75 m
1m
F y
The x, y and z components of force F are F = 346.4 i + 200 j + 692.8 k

Fx = (800 cos 60°) cos 30° = 346.4 N
Fy = (800 cos 60°) sin 30° = 200 N
Fz = 800 sin 60° = 692.8 N

ECS 416 STATICS
Applying scalar equations of z A FBD of the rod

Cy C
equilibrium, we get x
 Fx = Ax + Cx + 346.4 = 0 (1) Ax 2m
x
 Fy = 200 + By + Cy = 0 (2) Az By
 Fz = Az + Bz – 692.8 = 0 (3)
2m
Bz 0.75 m
1m
 Mx = – Cy (2) + Bz (2) – 692.8(2) = 0 (4) F y
 My = Bz (1) + Cx (2) = 0 (5) Recall
F = 346.4 i + 200 j + 692.8 k
 Mz = – Cy (1.75) – Cx (2) – By (1)
– 346.4(2) = 0 (6)
Solving Eqs. (1) to (6),

Ax = 400 N, By = 600 N, Cx = 53.6 N
Az = 800 N, Bz = -107 N, Cy = 800 N
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A plate is supported by a ball-and-

socket joint at A, a roller joint at B,
and a cable at C. How many
unknown support reactions are there
in this problem?
A) Four forces and two moments
B) Six forces
C) Five forces
D) Four forces and one moment

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
2. What will be the easiest way to determine the force

reaction BZ ?
A) Scalar equation  FZ = 0
B) Vector equation  MA = 0
C) Scalar equation  MZ = 0
D) Scalar equation  MY = 0

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLE TRUSSES, THE METHOD OF JOINTS,
& ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS
a) Define a simple truss.
b) Determine forces in members of a
simple truss.
c) Identify zero-force members.
Statics, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. One of the assumptions used when analyzing a simple truss is that

the members are joined together by __________.
A) Welding B) Bolting C) Riveting
D) Smooth pins E) Super glue
2. When using the method of joints, typically _________ equations of

equilibrium are applied at every joint.
A) Two B) Three
C) Four D) Six

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Trusses are commonly used to support

roofs.
For a given truss geometry and load, how

can you determine the forces in the truss
members to be able to select their sizes?
A more challenging question is, that for

a given load, how can we design the
trusses’ geometry to minimize cost?

ECS 416 STATICS
Trusses are also used in a variety of

structures like cranes, the frames of
aircraft or the space station.
How can you design a light weight

structure satisfying load, safety, cost
specifications, that is simple to
manufacture and allows easy
inspection over its lifetime?

ECS 416 STATICS
SIMPLE TRUSSES (Section 6.1)
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at

their end points.
If a truss, along with the imposed load, lies in a single plane
(as shown at the top right), then it is called a planar truss.
A simple truss is a planar truss which begins
with a triangular element and can be expanded
by adding two members and a joint. For these
trusses, the number of members (M) and the
number of joints (J) are related by the equation
M = 2 J – 3.
ECS 416 STATICS
ANALYSIS & DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
When designing the members and joints of a truss, first it is necessary
to determine the forces in each truss member. This is called the force
analysis of a truss. When doing this, two assumptions are made:
1. All loads are applied at the joints. The weight of the truss
members is often neglected as the weight is usually small as
compared to the forces supported by the members.
2. The members are joined together by smooth pins. This
assumption is satisfied in most practical cases where the joints
are formed by bolting the ends together.
With these two assumptions, the members act as

two-force members. They are loaded in either
tension or compression. Often compressive
members are made thicker to prevent buckling.

ECS 416 STATICS
THE METHOD OF JOINTS (Section 6.2)
A free-body diagram of Joint B
When using the method of joints to solve for the forces in truss
members, the equilibrium of a joint (pin) is considered. All
forces acting at the joint are shown in a FBD. This includes all
external forces (including support reactions) as well as the forces
acting in the members. Equations of equilibrium ( FX= 0 and
 FY = 0) are used to solve for the unknown forces acting at the
joints.
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS
1. If the truss’s support reactions are not given, draw a FBD of

the entire truss and determine the support reactions (typically
using scalar equations of equilibrium).
2. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint with one or two
unknowns. Assume that all unknown member forces act in
tension (pulling on the pin) unless you can determine by
inspection that the forces are compression loads.
3. Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium,  FX = 0 and
 FY = 0, to determine the unknown(s). If the answer is
positive, then the assumed direction (tension) is correct,
otherwise it is in the opposite direction (compression).
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 at each joint in succession until all the
required forces are determined.
ECS 416 STATICS
ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS (Section 6.3)
If a joint has only two non-collinear

members and there is no external
load or support reaction at that joint,
then those two members are zero-
force members. In this example
members DE, DC, AF, and AB are
zero force members.
You can easily prove these results by
applying the equations of
equilibrium to joints D and A.
Zero-force members can be
removed (as shown in the
figure) when analyzing the
truss.
ECS 416 STATICS
ZERO – FORCE MEMBERS (continued)
If three members form a truss joint for

which two of the members are collinear
and there is no external load or reaction at
that joint, then the third non-collinear
member is a zero force member, e.g., DA.
Again, this can easily be proven. One can
also remove the zero-force member, as
shown, on the left, for analyzing the truss
further.
Please note that zero-force members
are used to increase stability and
rigidity of the truss, and to provide
support for various different loading
conditions.
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Truss ABC is changed by decreasing its P

height from H to 0.9 H. Width W and load A
P are kept the same. Which one of the
following statements is true for the revised H
B
truss as compared to the original truss? C
A) Force in all its members have decreased. W
B) Force in all its members have increased.

C) Force in all its members have remained
the same.

ECS 416 STATICS
F F
F
2. For this truss, determine the number of zero-force

members.
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2
D) 3 E) 4

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: Loads as shown on the

truss
Find: Determine the force in
all the truss members
(do not forget to
mention whether they
are in T or C).
Plan:
a) Check if there are any zero-force members.
Is Member CE zero-force member?
b) Draw FBDs of pins D, C, and E, and then apply E-of-E at
those pins to solve for the unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of pin D
Y
D 600N
X
5
4
3
FDE FCD
Analyzing pin D:
 +  FX = FDE (3/5) – 600 = 0
FCD = 1000 N = 1.00 kN (C)
+  FY = 1000 (4/5) – FCD = 0

FDE = 800 N = 0.8 kN (T)
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of pin C
Y
FCD = 800 N
FCE C 900 N
X
FBC
Analyzing pin C:
→ +  FX = FCE – 900 = 0
FCE = 900 N = 0.90 kN (C)
+  FY = 800 – FBC = 0
FBC = 800 N = 0.80 kN (T)
ECS 416 STATICS
FBD of pin E
Y
3
FDE = 1000 N
4 5
E FCE = 900 N
3
X
4 5 4 5
FAE 3 FBE
Analyzing pin E:
→ +  FX = FAE (3/5) + FBE (3/5) – 1000 (3/5) – 900 = 0
 +  FY = FAE (4/5) – FBE (4/5) – 1000 (4/5) = 0
Solving these two equations, we get
FAE = 1750 N = 1.75 kN (C)
FBE = 750 N = 0.75 kN (T)
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Using this FBD, you find that FBC = – 500 N. FBC

Member BC must be in __________.
A) Tension
B FBD
B) Compression
C) Cannot be determined BY
2. When supporting the same magnitude of force, truss
members in compression are generally made _______ as
compared to members in tension.
A) Thicker
B) Thinner
C) The same size
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
THE METHOD OF SECTIONS
Students will be able to determine:
1. Forces in truss members using the
method of sections.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. In the method of sections, generally a “cut” passes through no

more than _____ members in which the forces are unknown.
A) 1 B) 2
C) 3 D) 4
2. If a simple truss member carries a tensile force of T along its

length, then the internal force in the member is ______ .
A) Tensile with magnitude of T/2
B) Compressive with magnitude of T/2
C) Compressive with magnitude of T
D) Tensile with magnitude of T

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Long trusses are often used to construct large cranes and

large electrical transmission towers.
The method of joints requires that many joints be analyzed before
we can determine the forces in the middle of a large truss.
So another method to determine those forces is helpful.
ECS 416 STATICS
THE METHOD OF SECTIONS
In the method of sections, a truss is divided into two parts by

taking an imaginary “cut” (shown here as a-a) through the truss.
Since truss members are subjected to only tensile or compressive
forces along their length, the internal forces at the cut members
also will be either tensile or compressive, with the same magnitude
as the forces at the joint. This result is based on the equilibrium
principle and Newton’s third law.
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS
1. Decide how you need to “cut” the truss. This is based on:
a) where you need to determine forces, and, b) where the total
number of unknowns does not exceed three (in general).
2. Decide which side of the cut truss will be easier to work
with (goal is to minimize the number of external reactions).
3. If required, determine any necessary support reactions by

drawing the FBD of the entire truss and applying the E-of-E.
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS (continued)
4. Draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. You need to
indicate the unknown forces at the cut members. Initially, you
may assume all the members are in tension, as done when using
the method of joints. Upon solving, if the answer is positive, the
member is in tension, as per the assumption. If the answer is
negative, the member is in compression. (Please note that you
can assume forces to be either tension or compression by
inspection as was done in the figures above.)
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS (continued)
5. Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium (E-of-E) to the

selected cut section of the truss to solve for the unknown
member forces. Please note, in most cases it is possible to write
one equation to solve for one unknown directly. So look for it
and take advantage of such a shortcut!

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE

truss.
Find: The force in members
KJ, KD, and CD.
Plan:
a) Take a cut through members KJ, KD and CD.

b) Work with the left piece of the cut sections. Why?
c) Determine the support reactions at A. What are they?
d) Apply the E-of-E to find the forces in KJ, KD and CD.

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
AX
AY GY
Analyzing the entire truss for the reactions at A, we get

 FX = AX = 0.
A moment equation about G to find AY results in:

 MG = AY (12) – 20 (10) – 30 (8) – 40 (6) = 0; AY = 56.7 kN

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
2 FKJ
3
FKD
FCD
56.7 kN
Now take moments about point D. Why do this?

+ MD = – 56.7 (6) + 20 (4) + 30 (2) – FKJ (3) = 0
FKJ = − 66.7 kN or 66.7 kN ( C )

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
2 FKJ
3
FKD
FCD
56.7 kN
Now use the x and y-directions equations of equilibrium.

↑ +  FY = 56.7 – 20 – 30 – (3/13) FKD = 0;
FKD = 8.05 kN (T)
→ +  FX = (– 66.7) + (2/13) ( 8.05 ) + FCD = 0;

FCD = 62.2 kN (T)
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Can you determine the force in

member ED by making the cut at
section a-a? Explain your answer.
A) No, there are four unknowns.
B) Yes, using  MD = 0 .
C) Yes, using  ME = 0 .
D) Yes, using  MB = 0 .

ECS 416 STATICS
2. If you know FED, how will you determine FEB?

A) By taking section b-b and using  ME = 0
B) By taking section b-b, and using  FX = 0 and  FY = 0
C) By taking section a-a and using  MB = 0
D) By taking section a-a and using  MD = 0
ECS 416 STATICS

truss.
Find: The forces in members
ED, EH, and GH.
Plan:
a) Take the cut through members ED, EH, and GH.

b) Analyze the left section. Determine the support reactions at F.
Why?
c) Draw the FBD of the left section.
d) Apply the equations of equilibrium (if possible, try to do it so
that every equation yields an answer to one unknown.
ECS 416 STATICS
1) Determine the support reactions

at F by drawing the FBD of the
entire truss.
Fy
Ax
Ay
+  MA = – Fy (4) + 40 (2) + 30 (3) + 40 (1.5) = 0;

Fy = 57.5 kN

ECS 416 STATICS
2) Analyze the left section.

FED
+  ME = – 57.5 (2) + FGH (1.5) = 0;
1.5 m 4
FGH = 76.7 kN (T) 3
FEH
↑ +  Fy = 57.5 – 40 – FEH (3/5)= 0;
FGH
FEH = 29.2 kN (T) Fy= 57.5 kN
+  MH = – 57.5 (4) + 40 (2) – FED (1.5) = 0;

FED = -100 kN = 100 kN (C)

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. As shown, a cut is made

through members GH, BG
and BC to determine the
forces in them. Which section
will you choose for analysis
and why?
A) Right, fewer calculations.
B) Left, fewer calculations.
C) Either right or left, same
amount of work.
D) None of the above, too
many unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
2. When determining the force in

member HG in the previous
question, which one equation of
equilibrium is the best one to use?
A)  MH = 0
B)  MG = 0
C)  MB = 0
D)  MC = 0

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
CENTER OF GRAVITY, CENTER OF MASS AND
CENTROID OF A BODY
Today’s Learning Objective :
Students will:
a) Understand the concepts of center of
gravity, center of mass, and centroid.
b) Be able to determine the location of
these points for a body.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. The _________ is the point defining the geometric center

of an object.
A) Center of gravity B) Center of mass
C) Centroid D) None of the above
2. To study problems concerned with the motion of matter

under the influence of forces, i.e., dynamics, it is necessary
to locate a point called ________.
A) Center of gravity B) Center of mass
C) Centroid D) None of the above

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
To design the structure for

supporting a water tank, we will
need to know the weight of the
tank and water as well as the
locations where the resultant
forces representing these
distributed loads act.
How can we determine these
resultant weights and their
lines of action?

ECS 416 STATICS
One concern about a sport utility vehicle (SUV) is that it might tip
over when taking a sharp turn.
One of the important factors in determining its stability is the
SUV’s center of mass.
Should it be higher or lower to make a SUV more stable?
How do you determine the location of the SUV’s center of mass?

ECS 416 STATICS
To design the ground support

structure for a goal post, it is critical
to find total weight of the structure
and the center of gravity’s location.
Integration must be used to

determine total weight of the goal
post due to the curvature of the
supporting member.
How do you determine the

location of overall center of
gravity?
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT OF CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)
A body is composed of an infinite number of

particles, and so if the body is located within a
gravitational field, then each of these particles
will have a weight dW.
The center of gravity (CG) is a point, often
shown as G, which locates the resultant weight
of a system of particles or a solid body.
From the definition of a resultant force, the sum
of moments due to individual particle weight
about any point is the same as the moment due
to the resultant weight located at G.
Also, note that the sum of moments due to the individual particle’s
weights about point G is equal to zero.

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT OF CG (continued)
The location of the center of gravity, measured

from the y axis, is determined by equating the
moment of W about the y-axis to the sum of the
moments of the weights of the particles about this
same axis.
~ ~y, ~z), then
If dW is located at point (x,
_
x W =  ~x dW
_ _
Similarly, y W =  ~y dW zW = ~
z dW
Therefore, the location of the center of gravity G with respect to the x,

y, z-axes becomes

ECS 416 STATICS
CM & CENTROID OF A BODY
By replacing the W with a m in these equations, the coordinates

of the center of mass can be found.
Similarly, the coordinates of the centroid of volume, area, or

length can be obtained by replacing W by V, A, or L,
respectively.

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT OF CENTROID
The centroid, C, is a point defining the

geometric center of an object.
The centroid coincides with the center of

mass or the center of gravity only if the
material of the body is homogenous (density
or specific weight is constant throughout the
body).
If an object has an axis of symmetry, then
the centroid of object lies on that axis.
In some cases, the centroid may not be
located on the object.

ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS TO DETERME THE CENTROID OF AN AREA
1. Choose an appropriate differential element dA at a general point (x,y).

Hint: Generally, if y is easily expressed in terms of x
(e.g., y = x2 + 1), use a vertical rectangular element. If the converse
is true, then use a horizontal rectangular element.
2. Express dA in terms of the differentiating element dx (or dy).

~ ~
3. Determine coordinates (x, y) of the centroid of the rectangular
element in terms of the general point (x, y).
4. Express all the variables and integral limits in the formula using
either x or y depending on whether the differential element is in
terms of dx or dy, respectively, and integrate.
Note: Similar steps are used for determining the CG or CM. These
steps will become clearer by doing a few examples.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE I
Given: The area as shown.

Find: The centroid location (x , y)
Plan: Follow the steps.
Solution:
1. Since y is given in terms of x, choose
dA as a vertical rectangular strip.
2. dA = y dx = x3 dx
~ ~
3. x = x and y = y / 2 = x3 / 2

ECS 416 STATICS
4. x = ( A x~ dA ) / ( A dA )
1
0  x (x 3)dx 1/5 [ x5 ]1
0
= =
01
(x 3)dx 1/4 [ x4 ]1
0
= ( 1/5) / ( 1/4) = 0.8 m
~ 1
A y dA 0  (x 3 / 2) ( x3 ) dx 1/14[x7]1
y = = = 0
1 3
A dA 0 x dx 1/4
= (1/14) / (1/4) = 0.2857 m
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE II
Given: The shape and associated

horizontal rectangular
strip shown.
Find: dA and (x~ , y)
~
Plan: Follow the steps.

Solution:
1. dA = x dy = y2 dy
~x
~
~ 2. x = x + (1x) / 2 = (1 + x) /2 = (1 + y2)/2
y
~
3. y = y

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. The steel plate, with known weight and non-
uniform thickness and density, is supported as
shown. Of the three parameters CG, CM, and
centroid, which one is needed for determining
the support reactions? Are all three parameters
located at the same point?
A) (center of gravity, yes)
B) (center of gravity, no)
C) (centroid, yes)
D) (centroid, no)
2. When determining the centroid of the area above, which type of
differential area element requires the least computational work?
A) Vertical B) Horizontal
C) Polar D) Any one of the above.
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The steel plate is 0.3 m thick and

has a density of 7850 kg/m3.
Find: The location of its center of mass.
Also compute the reactions at A
and B.
Plan: Follow the solution steps to
find the CM by integration.
Then use 2-dimensional
equations of equilibrium to
solve for the external reactions.

ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
1. Choose dA as a vertical
rectangular strip.
2. dA = (y2 – y1) dx
= ( 2x + x) dx
3. 𝑥 = x
𝑦 = ( y1 + y2) / 2
= ( 2x – x) /2

ECS 416 STATICS
5 2
4. 2 2 1 3
x2 + x
2 5 3
A
xdA 0
x 2x+x dx 0
x= = 2 = 3 2
dA 0
2x+x dx 2 2 1 2
A x2 +2x
3
0
5.867
= = 1.257 m
4.667
2
x2 1 3
2 − 6x
0 {(
A
ydA 2x−x)/2} 2x+x dx 2 0
y= = 2 = 3 2
dA 0
2x+x dx 2 2 1 2
A x2 +2x
3
0
0.6667
= = 0.143 m
4.667
x = 1.26 m and y = 0.143 m

ECS 416 STATICS
Place the weight of the plate at the centroid G.

Area, A = 4.667 m2
Weight, W = (7850) (9.81) (4.667) 0.3 = 107.8 kN
Here is FBD to find the reactions at A and B.
Applying Equations of Equilibrium:
+  MA = NB (2 2) – 107.8 (1.26) = 0
NB = 47.92 = 47.9 kN
+   FX = – Ax + 47.92 sin 45 = 0
AX = 33.9 kN
+   FY = Ay + 47.92 cos 45 – 107.8 = 0

AY = 73.9 kN
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. If a vertical rectangular strip is chosen as

the differential element, then all the
variables, including the integral limit,
should be in terms of _____ .
A) x B) y
C) z D) Any of the above.
2. If a vertical rectangular strip is chosen, then what are the values of

~ ~
x and y?
A) (x , y) B) (x / 2 , y / 2)
C) (x , 0) D) (x , y / 2)

ECS 416 STATICS
COMPOSITE BODIES

Students will be able to determine:
a) The location of the center of
gravity (CG),
b) The location of the center of mass,
c) And, the location of the centroid
using the method of composite
bodies.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. A composite body in this section refers to a body made of ____.

A) Carbon fibers and an epoxy matrix in a car fender
B) Steel and concrete forming a structure
C) A collection of “simple” shaped parts or holes
D) A collection of “complex” shaped parts or holes
2. The composite method for determining the location of the

center of gravity of a composite body requires _______.
A) Simple arithmetic B) Integration
C) Differentiation D) All of the above.

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
The I-beam (top) or T-beam

(bottom) shown are commonly
used in building various types
of structures.
When doing a stress or

deflection analysis for a beam,
the location of its centroid is
very important.
How can we easily determine

the location of the centroid for
different beam shapes?

ECS 416 STATICS
The compressor is assembled with

many individual components.
In order to design the ground

support structures, the reactions
at blocks A and B have to be
found. To do this easily, it is
important to determine the
location of the compressor’s
center of gravity (CG).
If we know the weight and CG of individual components, we

need a simple way to determine the location of the CG of the
assembled unit.
ECS 416 STATICS
CG/CM OF A COMPOSITE BODY
Consider a composite body which consists of a
series of particles (or bodies) as shown in the
figure. The net or resultant weight is given as
WR = W.
Summing the moments about the y-axis, we get
~ ~
xW = ~ R x W + x W + ……….. + x W
1 1 2 2 n n
~
where x1 represents x coordinate of W1, etc..
Similarly, we can sum moments about the x- and z-axes to find the
coordinates of the CG.
By replacing the W with a M in these equations, the coordinates of

the center of mass can be found.
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT OF A COMPOSITE BODY
Many industrial objects can be considered as composite bodies

made up of a series of connected “simple-shaped” parts, like a
rectangle, triangle, and semicircle, or holes.
Knowing the location of the centroid, C, or center of gravity,
CG, of the simple-shaped parts, we can easily determine the
location of the C or CG for the more complex composite body.
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT OF A COMPOSITE BODY (continued)
This can be done by considering each part as a “particle” and

following the procedure as described in Section 9.1.
This is a simple, effective, and practical method of determining
the location of the centroid or center of gravity of a complex
part, structure or machine.
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS
1. Divide the body into pieces that are known shapes.

Holes are considered as pieces with negative weight or size.
2. Make a table with the first column for segment number, the second
column for weight, mass, or size (depending on the problem), the
next set of columns for the moment arms, and, finally, several
columns for recording results of simple intermediate calculations.
3. Fix the coordinate axes, determine the coordinates of the center of

gravity of centroid of each piece, and then fill in the table.
4. Sum the columns to get x, y, and z. Use formulas like

x = (  xi Ai ) / (  Ai ) or x = (  xi W )/(W )
i i
This approach will become straightforward after doing examples!

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE
Given: Three blocks are assembled

as shown.
Find: The center of volume of
this assembly. B
A C
Plan: Follow the steps for
analysis.
Solution:
1. In this problem, the blocks A, B and C can be considered as
three pieces (or segments).

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
Volumes of each shape:

VA = (0.5) (1.5) (1.8) (0.5) = 0.675 m3
B
A C VB = (2.5) (1.8) (0.5) = 2.25 m3
VC = (0.5) (1.5) (1.8) (0.5) = 0.675 m3
Segment V (m3) x (m) y (m) 

z (m) 
xV 
yV 
zV
(m4) (m4) (m4)
A 0.675 1.0 0.25 0.6 0.675 0.1688 0.405
B 2.25 0.25 1.25 0.9 0.5625 2.813 2.025
C 0.675 0.25 3.0 0.6 0.1688 2.025 0.405
 3.6 1.406 5.007 2.835

ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
Table Summary
V (m3) x V y V 
zV
A B C (m4) (m4) (m4)
3.6 1.406 5.007 2.835
Substituting into the Center of Volume equations:
x = ( x~ V) / ( V ) = 1.406 / 3.6 = 0.391 m

y = ( y~ V) / ( V ) = 5.007 / 3.6 = 1.39 m
z = ( z~ V) / ( V ) = 2.835 / 3.6 = 0.788 m

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Based on typical available centroid 3cm 1 cm

information, what are the minimum
number of pieces to consider for 1 cm
determining the centroid of the area
shown at the right? 3cm
A) 4 B) 3 C) 2 D) 1
2. A storage box is tilted up to clean the rug C

underneath the box. It is tilted up by pulling
the handle C, with edge A remaining on the
ground. What is the maximum angle of tilt
possible (measured between bottom AB and G
the ground) before the box tips over?
30º
B A
A) 30° B) 45 ° C) 60 ° D) 90 °
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
y
1. A rectangular area has semicircular and
2cm
triangular cuts as shown. For determining the
centroid, what is the minimum number of
4cm
pieces that you can use?
A) Two B) Three x
2cm 2cm
C) Four D) Five
2. For determining the centroid of the area, two y 1m 1m

square segments are considered; square ABCD
and square DEFG. What are the coordinates A E
D
1m
~~
(x, y ) of the centroid of square DEFG? G
F 1m
A) (1, 1) m B) (1.25, 1.25) m
B x
C) (0.5, 0.5 ) m D) (1.5, 1.5) m C

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
DEFINITION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR
AREAS, RADIUS OF GYRATION OF AN AREA
a) Define the moments of inertia (MoI)
for an area.
b) Determine the MoI for an area by
integration.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. The definition of the Moment of Inertia for an area involves an

integral of the form
A)  x dA. B)  x2 dA.
C)  x2 dm. D)  m dA.
2. Select the correct SI units for the Moment of Inertia for an

area.
A) m3
B) m4
C) kg·m2
D) kg·m3
ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Many structural members like beams and columns have cross

sectional shapes like an I, H, C, etc..
Why do they usually not have solid rectangular, square, or
circular cross sectional areas?
What primary property of these members influences design
decisions?
ECS 416 STATICS
Many structural members are made

of tubes rather than solid squares or
rounds.
Why?
This section of the book covers some

parameters of the cross sectional area
that influence the designer’s selection.
Do you know how to determine the
value of these parameters for a given
cross-sectional area?

ECS 416 STATICS
DEFINITION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA FOR AREAS
(Section 10.1)
Consider a plate submerged in a liquid.

The pressure of a liquid at a distance y
below the surface is given by p =  y,
where  is the specific weight of the
liquid.
The force on the area dA at that point is dF = p dA.

The moment about the x-axis due to this force is y (dF).
The total moment is A y dF = A  y2 dA =  A( y2 dA).
This sort of integral term also appears in solid mechanics when
determining stresses and deflection.
This integral term is referred to as the moment of inertia of the
area of the plate about an axis.
ECS 416 STATICS
10cm 3cm
10cm 3cm P
10cm
1cm x
(A) (B) (C) R S
1cm
Consider three different possible cross-sectional shapes and areas for the
beam RS. All have the same total area and, assuming they are made of
same material, they will have the same mass per unit length.
For the given vertical loading P on the beam shown on the right,
which shape will develop less internal stress and deflection? Why?
The answer depends on the MoI of the beam about the x-axis. It turns
out that Section A has the highest MoI because most of the area is
farthest from the x axis. Hence, it has the least stress and deflection.
ECS 416 STATICS
For the differential area dA, shown in the

figure:
d Ix = y2 dA ,
d Iy = x2 dA , and,
d JO = r2 dA , where JO is the polar
moment of inertia about the pole O or z axis.
The moments of inertia for the entire area are obtained by
integration.
Ix = A y2 dA ; Iy = A x2 dA
JO = A r2 dA = A ( x2 + y2 ) dA = Ix + Iy
The MoI is also referred to as the second moment of an area and
has units of length to the fourth power (m4 or in4).
ECS 416 STATICS
MoI FOR AN AREA BY INTEGRATION
For simplicity, the area element used has a

differential size in only one direction
(dx or dy). This results in a single integration
and is usually simpler than doing a double
integration with two differentials, i.e., dx·dy.
The step-by-step procedure is:

1. Choose the element dA: There are two choices: a vertical strip or a
horizontal strip. Some considerations about this choice are:
a) The element parallel to the axis about which the MoI is to be
determined usually results in an easier solution. For example,
we typically choose a horizontal strip for determining Ix and a
vertical strip for determining Iy.
ECS 416 STATICS
MoI FOR AN AREA BY INTEGRATION (continued)
b) If y is easily expressed in terms of x (e.g.,

y = x2 + 1), then choosing a vertical strip
with a differential element dx wide may
be advantageous.
2. Integrate to find the MoI. For example, given the element shown in
the figure above:
Iy =  x2 dA =  x2 y dx and
Ix =  d Ix =  (1 / 3) y3 dx (using the parallel axis theorem as
per Example 10.2 of the textbook).
Since the differential element is dx, y needs to be expressed in terms
of x and the integral limit must also be in terms of x. As you can see,
choosing the element and integrating can be challenging. It may
require a trial and error approach, plus experience.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE
Given: The shaded area shown in the

figure.

Find: The MoI of the area about the
(x,y) x- and y-axes.
Plan: Follow the steps given earlier.
Solution:
Ix =  y2 dA
dA = (1 – x) dy = (1 – y3/2) dy
1
Ix = 0 y2 (1 – y3/2) dy
1
= [ (1/3) y3 – (2/9) y9/2 ] 0 = 0.111 m4
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
Iy =  x2 dA =  x2 y dx
=  x2 (x2/3) dx
 (x,y) 1
= 0 x8/3 dx
1
= [ (3/11) 11/3
x ]0
= 0.273 m 4
In the above example, Ix can be also determined using a

vertical strip.
1
Then Ix =  (1/3) y3 dx = 0  (1/3) x 2 dx = 1/9 = 0.111 m 4

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. A pipe is subjected to a bending

moment as shown. Which property M M
y
of the pipe will result in lower stress
(assuming a constant cross-sectional x
area)? Pipe section
A) Smaller Ix B) Smaller Iy
C) Larger Ix D) Larger Iy
y
2. In the figure to the right, what is the y=x3
differential moment of inertia of the
element with respect to the y-axis (dIy)? x,y
A) x2 y dx B) (1/12) x3 dy
C) y2 x dy D) (1/3) y dy x
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The shaded area shown.

Find: Ix and Iy of the area.
(x,y)
Plan: Follow the procedure
described earlier. 
y
dx

ECS 416 STATICS
Solution:
The moment of inertia of the rectangular differential element about the
x-axis is dIx = (1/3) y3 dx (see Case 2 in Example 10.2 in the textbook).
3
1 3
1 ℎ 3
dIx = 𝑦 dx = 𝑥 dx
3 3 𝑏3
(x,y)
Ix = dIx 
y
b
0
ℎ3 9 ℎ3 x10 dx
= 9
𝑥 dx = 9
−2 3𝑏 3𝑏 10
0
1
Ix = 𝑏ℎ3
30
ECS 416 STATICS
The moment of inertia about the y-axis
Iy = x 2 dA
(x,y)
where
h 3 
dA = y dx = 3 𝑥 dx y
𝑏
𝒃 𝒃 dx
h 3 h 5
Iy = x2 3
𝑥 dx = 3
𝑥 dx
𝟎 𝑏 𝟎 𝑏
𝑏
h 𝑥6
= 3
𝑏 6 0
1 3
Iy = 𝑏 ℎ
6
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. When determining the MoI of the

element in the figure, dIy equals
(x,y)
A) x 2 dy B) x 2 dx y2 = x
C) (1/3) y3 dx D) x 2.5 dx
2. Similarly, dIx equals

A) (1/3) x 1.5 dx B) y 2 dA
C) (1 /12) x 3 dy D) (1/3) x 3 dx

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM, RADIUS OF GYRATION &
MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR COMPOSITE AREAS
Today’s Objectives:
1. Apply the parallel-axis theorem.
2. Determine the moment of inertia
(MoI) for a composite area.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. The parallel-axis theorem for an area is applied between

A) An axis passing through its centroid and any corresponding
parallel axis.
B) Any two parallel axis.
C) Two horizontal axes only.
D) Two vertical axes only.
2. The moment of inertia of a composite area equals the ____ of
the MoI of all of its parts.
A) vector sum
B) algebraic sum (addition or subtraction)
C) addition
D) product
ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
Cross-sectional areas of structural

members are usually made of
simple shapes or combination of
simple shapes. To design these
types of members, we need to
find the moment of inertia (MoI).
It is helpful and efficient if you can do a simpler method

for determining the MoI of such cross-sectional areas as
compared to the integration method.
Do you have any ideas about how this problem might be
approached?

ECS 416 STATICS
This is another example of a structural

member with a composite cross-area.
Such assemblies are often referred to as
a “built-up” beam or member.
Design calculations typically require use

of the MoI for these cross-sectional
areas.

ECS 416 STATICS
PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM FOR AN AREA
(Section 10.2)
This theorem relates the moment of

inertia (MoI) of an area about an axis
passing through the area’s centroid to
the MoI of the area about a
corresponding parallel axis. This
theorem has many practical
applications, especially when working
with composite areas.
Consider an area with centroid C. The x' and y' axes pass through
C. The MoI about the x-axis, which is parallel to, and distance dy
from the x ' axis, is found by using the parallel-axis theorem.

ECS 416 STATICS
PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM (continued)
IX = A y2 dA = A (y' + dy)2 dA
= A y' 2 dA + 2 dy A y' dA + dy2 A dA
Using the definition of the centroid:
y' = (A y' dA) / (A dA) . Now
since C is at the origin of the x' – y' axes,
y' = 0 , and hence A y' dA = 0 .
Thus IX = IX' + A dy2
Similarly, IY = IY' + A dX2 and

JO = JC + A d2
ECS 416 STATICS
RADIUS OF GYRATION OF AN AREA (Section 10.3)
y A For a given area A and its MoI, Ix , imagine

that the entire area is located at distance kx
kx from the x axis.
Then, Ix = k2xA or kx =  ( Ix / A). This
x kx is called the radius of gyration of the
y area about the x axis.
A
Similarly;
ky
ky =  ( Iy / A ) and kO =  ( JO / A )
x
The radius of gyration has units of length and gives an indication
of the spread of the area from the axes. This characteristic is
important when designing columns.
ECS 416 STATICS
MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR A COMPOSITE AREA
(Section 10.4)
A composite area is made by adding or

subtracting a series of “simple” shaped
areas like rectangles, triangles, and
circles.
For example, the area on the left can be
made from a rectangle plus a triangle,
minus the interior rectangle.
The MoI about their centroidal axes of these “simpler” shaped

areas are found in most engineering handbooks, with a sampling
inside the back cover of the textbook.
Using these data and the parallel-axis theorem, the MoI for a
composite area can easily be calculated.
ECS 416 STATICS
STEPS FOR ANALYSIS
1. Divide the given area into its

simpler shaped parts.
=
2. Locate the centroid of each part
and indicate the perpendicular
distance from each centroid to
the desired reference axis.
3. Determine the MoI of each “simpler” shaped part about the
desired reference axis using the parallel-axis theorem
( IX = IX’ + A ( dy )2 ) .
4. The MoI of the entire area about the reference axis is

determined by performing an algebraic summation of the
individual MoIs obtained in Step 3. (Please note that the
MoI of the hole is subtracted).
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE
Given: The beam’s cross-sectional area.

Find: The moment of inertia of the area
about the x-axis and the radius of
gyration, kx.
Plan: Follow the steps for analysis.
Solution: [3] [2] [1]
1. The cross-sectional area can be divided into three rectangles

( [1], [2], [3] ) as shown.
2. The centroids of these three rectangles are in their center. The
distances from these centers to the x-axis are 175 mm, 0 mm,
and -175 mm, respectively.
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
3. From the inside back cover of the

book, the MoI of a rectangle about
its centroidal axis is (1/12) b h3.
Ix[2] = (1/12) (50 mm) (300 mm)3
[1] = 1.125×108 mm4
[2]
[3]
Using the parallel-axis theorem,

Ix[1] = Ix[3] = Ix’ + A (dy)2
= (1/12) (200) (50)3 + (200) (50) (175)2
= 3.083×108 mm4
ECS 416 STATICS
EXAMPLE (continued)
Summing these three MoIs:
4. Ix = Ix1 + Ix2 + Ix3
Ix = 7.291×108 mm4
Now, finding the radius of gyration:

kx =  ( Ix / A)
A = 50 (300) + 200 (50) + 200 (50) = 3.5×104 mm2
kx =  (7.291×108) / (3.5×104) = 144 mm

ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. For the area A, we know the Axis

A
centroid’s (C) location, area, distances 4
between the four parallel axes, and the d3 C 3
MoI about axis 1. We can determine •
d2
2
the MoI about axis 2 by applying the d1
parallel axis theorem ___ . 1
A) Directly between the axes 1 and 2.

B) Between axes 1 and 3 and then
between the axes 3 and 2.
C) Between axes 1 and 4 and then
axes 4 and 2.
ECS 416 STATICS
Axis
A
4
d3 C 3
d2 •
2
d1
1
2. For the same case, consider the MoI about each of the four
axes. About which axis will the MoI be the smallest number?
A) Axis 1
B) Axis 2
C) Axis 3
D) Axis 4
E) Can not tell.
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The shaded area as shown in

the figure.
Find: The moment of inertia for
(c) the area about the x-axis and
(b) the radius of gyration, kX.
(a) Plan: Follow the steps for analysis.
Solution:
1. The given area can be obtained by subtracting the circle (b) and the
triangle (c) from the rectangle (a).
2. Information about the centroids of the simple shapes can be
obtained from the inside back cover of the textbook.
The perpendicular distances of the centroids from the x-axis are
da = 150 mm, db = 150 mm, and dc = 200 mm.
ECS 416 STATICS
3. IXa = (1/12) (350) (300)3 + (350)(300)(150)2
= 3.15×109 mm4
IXb = (1/4)  (75)4 + (75)2 (150)2
(c)
(b) = 4.224×108 mm4
IXc = (1/36) (150) (300)3
(a) + (1/2)(150) (300) (200)2
= 1.013×109 mm4
Summing: IX = IXa – IXb – IXc
The radius of gyration: = 1.715×109 mm4
k X =  ( IX / A )
A = 350 (300) –  (75)2 – (1/2) 150 (300) = 8.071×104 mm2
kX =  1.715×109 / 8.071×104 = 146 mm
ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
A=10 cm2
1. For the given area, the moment of inertia
about axis 1 is 200 cm4 . What is the MoI
about axis 3 (the centroidal axis)? C
•
C 3
d2 •
A) 90 cm4 B) 110 cm4 2
d1
C) 60 cm4 D) 40 cm4 1
d1 = d2 = 2 cm
2. The moment of inertia of the rectangle about 3cm

the x-axis equals
2cm
A) 8 cm4. B) 56 cm4.
C) 24 cm4. D) 26 cm4. 2cm
x
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA

a) Explain the concept of the Mass
Moment of Inertia (MMI).
b) Determine the MMI of a composite
body.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. The formula definition of the mass moment of inertia about

an axis is ___________ .
A)  r dm B)  r2 dm
C)  m dr D)  m2 dr
2. The parallel-axis theorem can be applied to ________ .

A) Only the MoI B) Only the MMI
C) Both the MoI and MMI D) None of the above.
Note: MoI is the moment of inertia of an area and MMI is the
mass moment inertia of a body

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
The large flywheel in the picture is connected to a large metal

cutter. The flywheel is used to provide a uniform motion to the
cutting blade while it is cutting materials.
What property of the flywheel is most important for this use?
How can we determine a value for this property?
Why is most of the mass of the flywheel located near the
flywheel’s circumference?
ECS 416 STATICS
If a torque M is applied to a fan

blade initially at rest, its angular
speed (rotation) begins to
increase.
Which property (which we will
call P) of the fan blade do you
think effects the angular
acceleration () the most?
How can we determine a value

for this property? What is the
relationship between M, P, and
?
ECS 416 STATICS
MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA
Consider a rigid body with a center of

mass at G. It is free to rotate about the z
axis, which passes through G. Now, if we
apply a torque T about the z axis to the
body, the body begins to rotate with an
angular acceleration .
T and  are related by the equation T = I  . In this equation,

I is the mass moment of inertia (MMI) about the z axis.
The MMI of a body is a property that measures the resistance

of the body to angular acceleration. This is similar to the role
of mass in the equation F = m a. The MMI is often used
when analyzing rotational motion (done in dynamics).
ECS 416 STATICS
DEFINITION OF THE MMI
Consider a rigid body and the arbitrary axis

p shown in the figure. The MMI about the
p axis is defined as I = m r2 dm, where r,
the “moment arm,” is the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the arbitrary
element dm.
The MMI is always a positive quantity

and has a unit of kg·m2.

ECS 416 STATICS
RELATED CONCEPTS
Parallel-Axis Theorem
Just as with the MoI for an area, the
parallel-axis theorem can be used to
find the MMI about a parallel axis z
that is a distance d from the z’ axis
through the body’s center of mass G. m
The formula is Iz = IG + (m) (d)2
(where m is the mass of the body).
The radius of gyration is similarly defined as

k = (I / m)
Finally, the MMI can be obtained by integration or by the
method for composite bodies. The latter method is easier
for many practical shapes.
ECS 416 STATICS
Parallel Axis Theorem
• For the rectangular axes with origin at O and parallel
centroidal axes,
  
I x   y 2  z 2 dm    y  y 2  z  z 2 dm 
 
  y2  z2 dm  2 y  ydm 2 z  zdm  y 2  z 2  dm  

I x  I x  m y 2  z 2 
I y  I y  mz 2
x 2
I z  I z  mx 2
y 2
• Generalizing for any axis AA’ and a parallel centroidal

axis,
I  I  md 2
9- 8Statics, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

ECS 416 STATICS
Moments of Inertia of Thin Plates
• For a thin plate of uniform thickness t and homogeneous
material of density r, the mass moment of inertia with
respect to axis AA’ contained in the plate is
I AA    r 2 dm  rt  r 2 dA
 r t I AA ,area
• Similarly, for perpendicular axis BB’ which is also

 contained in the plate,
I BB   r t I BB ,area
• For the axis CC’ which is perpendicular to the plate,


ICC   r t JC,area  r t I AA ,area  I BB ,area
 I AA   I BB 
9- 9Statics, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

ECS 416 STATICS
Moments of Inertia of Thin Plates
• For the principal centroidal axes on a rectangular plate,
 
I AA  r t I AA,area  r t 121 a 3b  121 ma 2
I BB   r t I BB ,area  r t1
12
ab 
3 1
12
mb 2

ICC   I AA,mass  I BB ,mass  121 m a 2  b2 
• For centroidal axes on a circular plate,

 
I AA  I BB   r t I AA,area  r t 14  r 4  14 mr 2
ICC   I AA  I BB   12 mr 2
9 - 10
ECS 416 STATICS
Moments of Inertia of Common Geometric Shapes
9 - 11
ECS 416 STATICS
Moment of inertia of Composite bodies - procedures
1.1. Divide
Dividethe
thecomposite
compositearea
areainto
intosimple
simplebody.
body.
2.2. Compute
Computethe themoment
momentofofinertia
inertiaofofeach
eachsimple
simplebody
bodyabout
aboutits
centroidal axis axis
fromfrom
table.table.
its centroidal
3. Transfer each centroidal moment of inertia to a parallel
3. Transfer each centroidal moment of inertia to a parallel
reference axis
reference axis
4.4. The
Thesum
sumofofthe
themoments
momentsofofinertia
inertiafor
foreach
eachsimple
simplebody
bodyabout
the parallel
about reference
the parallel axis is the
reference axismoment of inertia
is the moment of of the of
inertia
composite body.body.
the composite
5.5. Any
Anycutout
cutoutarea
areahas
hasmust
mustbebeassigned
assigneda anegative
negativemoment;
moment;all
others are considered
all others positive.
are considered positive.
2 - 12
ECS 416 STATICS
Moment of inertia of of a hollow cylinder
• Moment of Inertia of a
I = 1/2 mR2
solid cylinder
• A hollow cylinder
M
= m1
R1 - m2
R2
I = 1/2 m1R12 - 1/2 m2R22 = 1/2 M (R12 - R22 )

ECS 416 STATICS
Sample Problem 9.12
SOLUTION:
• With the forging divided into a prism and
two cylinders, compute the mass and
moments of inertia of each component
with respect to the xyz axes using the
parallel axis theorem.
• Add the moments of inertia from the
components to determine the total moments
of inertia for the forging.
Determine the moments of inertia of
the steel forging with respect to the
xyz coordinate axes, knowing that
the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3.
9 - 14
ECS 416 STATICS
Sample Problem 9.12
SOLUTION: cylinders a  25mm , L  75mm, x  62.5mm, y  50 mm  :
• Compute the moments of inertia
of each component with respect I x  12 ma 2  my 2
 12 1.16 1000 m   1.16 1000 
to the xyz axes. 2 2
25 50
 3.236 10 3 kg  m 2
 
I y  121 m 3a 2  L2  mx 2

 121 1.16  3  1000
25
  1000
2 75 2

  1.16 1000
62.5
 2
 5.256 10 3 kg  m 2
each cylinder :   
I z  121 m 3a 2  L2  m x 2  y 2 
V   (0.025 m) 2 (0.075 m)
 1.473 10 m-4 3

 121 1.16  31000
25
  1000
2 75 2

  1.16  1000
62.5

  1000
50

2 2

 8.156 10 3 kg.m 2
m  (1.4730 10 m )(7850 kg/m )
-4 3 3
 1.16 kg
9 - 15
ECS 416 STATICS
Sample Problem 9.12
prism (a = 50 mm., b = 150 mm, c = 50 mm):
 
I x  I z  121 m b 2  c 2  121 2.94 kg  1000
150

  1000
50
 2 2

 6.125 10 3 kg  m 2
 
I y  121 m c 2  a 2  121 2.94 kg  1000
50

  1000
50
2 2

 1.225 10 3 kg  m 2
• Add the moments of inertia from the

components to determine the total moments of

 6.125 10 3  2 3.263 10 3
I xinertia. 
I x  12.65 10 3 kg  m2

I y  1.225 10 3  2 5.256 10 3 
I y  11.74 10 3 kg  m 2

I z  6.125 103  2 8.156 103 
I z  22.44 103 kg  m2
9 - 16
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. Consider a particle of mass 1 kg z

located at point P, whose coordinates
are given in meters. Determine the MMI P (3,4,6)
of that particle about the z axis.
A) 9 kg·m2 B) 16 kg·m2 y
C) 25 kg·m2 D) 36 kg·m2 x
2. Consider a rectangular frame made of four
slender bars with four axes (zP, zQ, zR and zS) P Q
perpendicular to the screen and passing • •
through the points P, Q, R, and S respectively.
S• •R
About which of the four axes will the MMI
of the frame be the largest?
A) zP B) zQ C) zR
D) zS E) Not possible to determine.
ECS 416 STATICS
Given: The pendulum consists of a 5 kg

plate and a 3 kg slender rod.
R
Find: The radius of gyration of
the pendulum about an axis
P perpendicular to the screen and
passing through point G.
Plan: Determine the MMI of the pendulum using the method

for composite bodies. Then determine the radius of
gyration using the MMI and mass values.
Solution:
1. Separate the pendulum into a square plate (P) and a slender
rod (R).
ECS 416 STATICS
2. The center of mass of the plate and rod are

2.25 m and 1 m from point O, respectively.
y = ( y m) / ( m )
R
= {(1) 3 + (2.25) 5} / (3+5) = 1.781 m
P
3. The MMI data on plates and slender rods are
given on the inside cover of the textbook.
Using those data and the parallel-axis theorem,
IP = (1/12) 5 (0.52 + 12) + 5 (2.25  1.781)2 = 1.621 kg·m2

IR = (1/12) 3 (2)2 + 3 (1.781  1)2 = 2.830 kg·m2

ECS 416 STATICS
4. IO = IP + IR = 1.621 + 2.830 = 4.45 kg·m2
R
5. Total mass (m) equals 8 kg
P Radius of gyration
k = IO / m = 4.45 / 8 = 0.746 m

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A particle of mass 2 kg is located 1 m down z
the y-axis. What are the MMI of the particle
about the x, y, and z axes, respectively?
1m
A) (2, 0, 2) B) (0, 2, 2)
 y
C) (0, 2, 2) D) (2, 2, 0) x
2. Consider a rectangular frame made of four

slender bars and four axes (zP, zQ, zR and zS)
P Q
perpendicular to the screen and passing
• •
through points P, Q, R, and S, respectively.
About which of the four axes will the S• •R
MMI of the frame be the lowest?
A) zP B) zQ C) zR
D) zS E) Not possible to determine.
ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FRICTION &
PROBLEMS INVOLVING DRY FRICTION
a) Understand the characteristics of dry
friction
b) Draw a FBD including friction.
c) Solve problems involving friction.

ECS 416 STATICS
READING QUIZ
1. A friction force always acts _____ to the contact surface.

A) Normal B) At 45°
C) Parallel D) At the angle of static friction
2. If a block is stationary, then the friction force acting on it is

________ .
A)  s N B) = s N
C)  s N D) = k N

ECS 416 STATICS
APPLICATIONS
In designing a brake system for a

bicycle, car, or any other vehicle, it is
important to understand the frictional
forces involved.
For an applied force on the bike tire

brake pads, how can we determine
the magnitude and direction of the
resulting friction force?

ECS 416 STATICS
The rope is used to tow the

refrigerator.
In order to move the refrigerator, is

it best to pull up as shown, pull
horizontally, or pull downwards on
the rope?
What physical factors affect the

answer to this question?

ECS 416 STATICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FRICTION (Section 8.1)
Friction is defined as a force of resistance

acting on a body which prevents or resists the
slipping of a body relative to a second body.
Experiments show that frictional forces act

tangent (parallel) to the contacting surface in
a direction opposing the relative motion or
tendency for motion.
For the body shown in the figure to be in
equilibrium, the following must be true:
F = P, N = W, and W*x = P*h.

ECS 416 STATICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FRICTION (continued)
To study the characteristics of the friction force F, let us assume

that tipping does not occur (i.e., “h” is small or “a” is large).
Then we gradually increase the magnitude of the force P.
Typically, experiments show that the friction force F varies with
P, as shown in the right figure above.
ECS 416 STATICS
The maximum friction force is attained

just before the block begins to move (a
situation that is called “impending
motion”). The value of the force is
found using Fs = s N, where s is
called the coefficient of static friction.
The value of s depends on the two
materials in contact.
Once the block begins to move, the

frictional force typically drops and is
given by Fk = k N. The value of k
(coefficient of kinetic friction) is less
than s .
ECS 416 STATICS
It is also very important to note that the friction force may be

less than the maximum friction force. So, just because the object
is not moving, don’t assume the friction force is at its maximum
of Fs = s N unless you are told or know motion is impending!

ECS 416 STATICS
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of Friction
• Maximum static-friction force:

Fm   s N
• Kinetic-friction force:
Fk   k N
 k  0.75 s
• Maximum static-friction force and kinetic-

friction force are:
- proportional to normal force
- dependent on type and condition of
contact surfaces
- independent of contact area
8-9Statics, Fourteenth Edition Copyright ©2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

ECS 416 STATICS
The Laws of Dry Friction. Coefficients of Friction
• Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with
a horizontal surface:
• No friction, • No motion, • Motion impending, • Motion,

(Px = 0) (Px < F) (Px = Fm) (Px > Fm)
8 - 10
ECS 416 STATICS
Angles of Friction
• It is sometimes convenient to replace normal force
N and friction force F by their resultant R:
• No friction • No motion • Motion impending • Motion

F  N Fk  k N
tan  s  m  s tan k  
N N N N
tan  s   s tan k   k
8 - 11
ECS 416 STATICS
Angles of Friction
• Consider block of weight W resting on board with
variable inclination angle q.
• No friction • No motion • Motion • Motion

impending
8 - 12
ECS 416 STATICS
Problems Involving Dry Friction
• All applied forces known • All applied forces known • Coefficient of static
friction is known
• Coefficient of static friction • Motion is impending
is known • Motion is impending
• Determine value of coefficient
• Determine whether body of static friction. • Determine magnitude or
will remain at rest or slide direction of one of the
applied forces
8 - 13
ECS 416 STATICS
DETERMING s EXPERIMENTALLY
If the block just begins to slip, the

maximum friction force is Fs = s N,
where s is the coefficient of static
friction.
Thus, when the block is on the verge of

sliding, the normal force N and
frictional force Fs combine to create a
resultant Rs.
From the figure,
tan s = ( Fs / N ) = (s N / N ) = s

ECS 416 STATICS
DETERMING s EXPERIMENTALLY (continued)
A block with weight w is placed on an

inclined plane. The plane is slowly
tilted until the block just begins to slip.
The inclination, qs, is noted. Analysis of

the block just before it begins to move
gives (using Fs = s N):
+  Fy = N – W cos qs = 0
+  FX = S N – W sin qs = 0
Using these two equations, we get

s = (W sin qs ) / (W cos qs ) = tan qs
This simple experiment allows us to find
the S between two materials in contact.
ECS 416 STATICS
PROBLEMS INVOLVING DRY FRICTION
(Section 8.2)
Steps for solving equilibrium problems involving dry friction:
1. Draw necessary free body diagrams. Make sure that you

show the friction force in the correct direction (it always
opposes the motion or impending motion).
2. Determine the number of unknowns. Do not assume that

F = S N unless the impending motion condition is given.
3. Apply the equations of equilibrium and appropriate

frictional equations to solve for the unknowns.

ECS 416 STATICS
IMPENDING TIPPING versus SLIPPING
For a given W and h of the box,

how can we determine if the block
will slide or tip first? In this case,
we have four unknowns (F, N, x,
and P) and only the three E-of-E.
Hence, we have to make an

assumption to give us another
equation (the friction equation!).
Then we can solve for the
unknowns using the three E-of-E.
Finally, we need to check if our
assumption was correct.

ECS 416 STATICS
IMPENDING TIPPING versus SLIPPING (continued)
Assume: Slipping occurs

Known: F = s N
Solve: x, P, and N
Check: 0  x  b/2
Or
Assume: Tipping occurs
Known: x = b/2
Solve: P, N, and F
Check: F  s N
ECS 416 STATICS
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. A 500-N (≈ 50-kg) box with a wide base is pulled by a

force P and s = 0.4. Which force orientation requires
P(A)
the least force to begin sliding?
500 N P(B)
A) P(A) B) P(B) P(C)
C) P(C) D) Can not be determined
2. A ladder is positioned as shown. Please indicate

the direction of the friction force on the ladder at B
B.
A)  B)  A
C) D)

ECS 416 STATICS
Given: Automobile has a mass

of 2000 kg and s = 0.3.
Find: The smallest magnitude
of F required to move
the car if the back brakes
are locked and the front
wheels are free to roll.
Plan: a) Draw FBDs of the car.

b) Determine the unknowns.
d) Apply the E-of-E and friction equations to solve
for the unknowns.
ECS 416 STATICS
Here is the correct FBD: FBD of the car

2000 × 9.81 N
Note that there are four
unknowns: F, NA, NB, and FB.
FB
Equations of Equilibrium: NA NB
+   FX = FB – F (cos 30) = 0 (1)

+   FY = NA + NB + F (sin 30) – 19620 = 0 (2)
+  MA = F cos30(0.3) – F sin30(0.75) + NB (2.5)
– 19620(1) = 0 (3)
Assume that the rear wheels are on the verge of slip. Thus
FB = µs NB = 0.3 NB (4)
ECS 416 STATICS
Solving Equations (1) to (4),

F = 2762 N
and NA =10263 N, NB = 7975 N, FB = 2393 N.

ECS 416 STATICS
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A 10-N block is in equilibrium. What is

the magnitude of the friction force  S = 0.3
between this block and the surface?
2N
A) 0 N B) 1 N
C) 2 N D) 3 N
2. The ladder AB is positioned as shown. What is the

B
direction of the friction force on the ladder at B.
A) B) A
C)  D) 

ECS 416 STATICS
ECS 416 STATICS
Eleventh Edition
VECTOR MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS:
7
CHAPTER
STATICS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
David F. Mazurek Internal Forces and
Moments
Copyright © 2013 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Edition
Eleventh
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
INTERNAL FORCES
Today’s Objective:
1. Use the method of sections for
determining internal forces in 2-D
load cases.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Edition
Eleventh
READING QUIZ
1. In a multiforce member, the member is generally subjected
to an internal _________.
A) Normal force B) Shear force
C) Bending moment D) All of the above.
2. In mechanics, the force component V acting

tangent to, or along the face of, the section is
called the _________ .
A) Axial force B) Shear force
C) Normal force D) Bending moment

Edition
Eleventh
Contents
Application Sample Problem 7.4

Introduction Sample Problem 7.6
Internal Forces in Members Cables With Concentrated
Sample Problem 7.1 Loads
Various Types of Loading and Cables With Distributed Loads
Support Parabolic Cable
Shear and Bending Moment in a Sample Problem 7.8
Beam Catenary Cables
Sample Problem 7.2
Sample Problem 7.3
Relations Among Load, Shear,
and Bending Moment
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 7- 4

Edition
Eleventh
Application
Forces that are internal to the structural members – beams and
cables – are the subject of this chapter

Edition
Eleventh
APPLICATIONS
Beams are structural members

designed to support loads applied
perpendicularly to their axes.
Beams can be used to support the

span of bridges. They are often
thicker at the supports than at the
center of the span.
Why are the beams tapered? Internal forces are important in

making such a design decision. In this lesson, you will learn
about these forces and how to determine them.

Edition
Eleventh
A fixed column supports

these rectangular billboards.
Usually such columns are

wider/thicker at the bottom
than at the top. Why?

Edition
Eleventh
The shop crane is used to move

heavy machine tools around the
shop.
The picture shows that an
additional frame around the joint
is added.
Why might have this been done?

Edition
Eleventh
Introduction
• Preceding chapters dealt with:
a) determining external forces acting on a structure and
b) determining forces which hold together the various members
of a structure.
• The current chapter is concerned with determining the internal

forces (i.e., tension/compression, shear, and bending) which hold
together the various parts of a given member.
• Focus is on two important types of engineering structures:

a) Beams - usually long, straight, prismatic members designed
to support loads applied at various points along the member.
b) Cables - flexible members capable of withstanding only
tension, designed to support concentrated or distributed loads.

Edition
Eleventh
Internal Forces in Members
• Straight two-force member AB is in
equilibrium under application of F and
-F.
• Internal forces equivalent to F and -F are

required for equilibrium of free-bodies
AC and CB.
• Multiforce member ABCD is in equil-

ibrium under application of cable and
member contact forces.
• Internal forces equivalent to a force-

couple system are necessary for equil-
ibrium of free-bodies JD and ABCJ.
• An internal force-couple system is

required for equilibrium of two-force
members which are not straight.
Edition
Eleventh
STEPS FOR DETERMINING INTERNAL FORCES
1. Take an imaginary cut at the place where you need to

determine the internal forces. Then, decide which
resulting section or piece will be easier to analyze.
2. If necessary, determine any support reactions or joint
forces you need by drawing a FBD of the entire structure
and solving for the unknown reactions.
3. Draw a FBD of the piece of the structure you’ve decided to
analyze. Remember to show the N, V, and M loads at the
“cut” surface.
4. Apply the E-of-E to the FBD (drawn in step 3) and solve
for the unknown internal loads.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
STRATEGY:
• Compute reactions and forces at
connections for each member.
• Cut member ACF at J. The internal

forces at J are represented by equivalent
force-couple system which is determined
by considering equilibrium of either part.
• Cut member BCD at K. Determine

force-couple system equivalent to
Determine the internal forces (a) in
internal forces at K by applying
member ACF at point J and (b) in
equilibrium conditions to either part.
member BCD at K.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
MODELING:
Compute reactions and connection forces.
ANALYSIS:
Consider entire frame as a free-body, and
apply equilibrium conditions:
ME  0:
 2400 N 3.6 m   F 4.8 m   0 F  1800 N
 Fy  0 :
 2400 N  1800 N  E y  0 E y  600 N
 Fx  0 : Ex  0

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
Drawing the FBD for member BCD:
- Why are forces at B and C drawn in these
directions? Is there a choice on the directions?
- Why are there two force components at each
point instead of just a single force?
Think about these and discuss with a neighbor.
Drawing the FBD for member ABE:
- Why are forces at B in these directions? Is
there a choice on the directions?
- Why are there two force components at A
instead of just a single force?
Think about these and discuss with a neighbor.
Finally, the FBD for member ACF.
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
Consider member BCD as free-body:
MB  0:
 2400 N 3.6 m   C y 2.4 m   0 C y  3600 N
 MC  0 :
 2400 N 1.2 m   B y 2.4 m   0 B y  1200 N
 Fx  0 :  Bx  C x  0
Consider member ABE as free-body:

MA  0: Bx 2.4 m  0 Bx  0
 Fx  0 : Bx  Ax  0 Ax  0
 Fy  0 :  Ay  B y  600 N  0 Ay  1800 N
From member BCD,

 Fx  0 :  Bx  C x  0 Cx  0
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
• Cut member ACF at J. The internal forces at J are
represented by equivalent force-couple system.
Consider free-body AJ:
MJ  0:
 1800 N 1.2 m   M  0 M  2160 N  m
 Fx  0 :
F  1800 N  cos 41.7  0 F  1344 N
 Fy  0 :
V  1800 N  sin 41.7  0 V  1197 N

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
• Cut member BCD at K. Determine a force-couple
system equivalent to internal forces at K .
Consider free-body BK:
MK  0:
1200 N 1.5 m   M  0 M  1800 N  m
 Fx  0 : F 0
 Fy  0 :
 1200 N  V  0 V  1200 N

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.1
REFLECT and THINK:
The mathematical techniques involved

in solving a problem of this type are
not new; they are simply applications
of concepts presented in earlier
chapters. However, the physical
interpretation is new: we are now
determining the internal forces and
moments within a structural member.
These are of central importance in the
study of mechanics of materials.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2 - 18

Edition
Eleventh
CONCEPT QUIZ
1. A column is loaded with a vertical 100 N force. At P

which sections are the internal loads the same? • 100 N
A) P, Q, and R B) P and Q Q
R
C) Q and R D) None of the above.
2. A column is loaded with a horizontal 100 N

P
force. At which section are the internal loads
Q 100 N
largest?
R
A) P B) Q S
C) R D) S

Edition
Eleventh
Given: The loading on the beam.
Find: The internal forces at point C.
Plan: Follow the procedure!!
Solution:
1. Plan on taking the imaginary cut at C. It will be easier to
work with the left section (point A to the cut at C) since
the geometry is simpler.

Edition
Eleventh
2. First, we need to determine Ax and Ay using a FBD of the
entire frame.
400 N
Ax
Ay By
Free Body Diagram
Applying the E-of-E to this FBD, we get
 +  Fx = Ax + 400 = 0 ; Ax = – 400 N
+  MB = – Ay(5) – 400 (1.2) = 0 ; Ay = – 96 N

Edition
Eleventh
3. Now draw a FBD of the left section. Assume directions for VC, NC
and MC as shown.
1.5 m
400 N NC
MC
A C
96 N VC
4. Applying the E-of-E to this FBD, we get
 +  Fx = NC – 400 = 0; NC = 400 N
 +  Fy = – VC – 96 = 0; VC = – 96N
+  MC = 96 (1.5) + MC = 0 ; MC = -144 N m

Edition
Eleventh
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. Determine the magnitude of the internal loads 100 N
(normal, shear, and bending moment) at point C.
80 N
0.5m
A) (100 N, 80 N, 80 N m) 1m •
B) (100 N, 80 N, 40 N m) C
C) (80 N, 100 N, 40 N m)
D) (80 N, 100 N, 0 N m )
P
2. A column is loaded with a horizontal 100 N
force. At which section are the internal loads 100N
Q
the lowest?
R
A) P B) Q S
C) R D) S

Edition
Eleventh
Various Types of Loading and Support
• Beam - structural member designed to support
loads applied at various points along its length.
• Beam can be subjected to concentrated loads or

distributed loads or combination of both.
• Beam design is two-step process:

1) determine shearing forces and bending
moments produced by applied loads
2) select cross-section best suited to resist
shearing forces and bending moments

Edition
Eleventh
Various Types of Loading and Support
• Beams are classified according to way in which they are

supported.
• Reactions at beam supports are determinate if they
involve only three unknowns. Otherwise, they are
statically indeterminate.

Edition
Eleventh
Shear and Bending Moment in a Beam
• Wish to determine bending moment
and shearing force at any point (for
example, point C) in a beam subjected
to concentrated and distributed loads.
• Determine reactions at supports by

treating whole beam as free-body.
• Cut beam at C and draw free-body

diagrams for AC and CB. By
definition, positive sense for internal
force-couple systems are as shown for
each beam section.
• From equilibrium considerations,
determine M and V or M’ and V’.

Edition
Eleventh
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
• Variation of shear and bending
moment along beam may be
plotted.
• Determine reactions at
supports.
• Cut beam at C and consider
member AC,
V   P 2 M   Px 2
• Cut beam at E and consider
member EB,
V   P 2 M   P L  x  2
• For a beam subjected to

concentrated loads, shear is
constant between loading points
and moment varies linearly.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.2
STRATEGY:
• Taking entire beam as a free-body,
calculate reactions at B and D.
• Find equivalent internal force-couple
systems for free-bodies formed by
cutting beam on either side of load
application points.
Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the beam and loading • Plot results.
shown.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.2
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Taking entire beam as a free-body, calculate
reactions at B and D.
• Find equivalent internal force-couple systems at
sections on either side of load application points.
 Fy  0 :  20 kN  V1  0 V1  20 kN
 M 2  0 : 20 kN 0 m   M 1  0 M1  0
Similarly,
V2  20kN M 2  50kN  m
V3  26kN M 3  50kN  m
V4  26kN M 4  28kN  m
V5  14 kN M 5  28kN  m
V6  14 kN M 6  0kN  m

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.2
• Plot results.
Note that shear is of constant value
between concentrated loads and
bending moment varies linearly.
REFLECT and THINK:
The calculations are pretty similar

for each new choice of free body.
However, moving along the beam,
the shear changes magnitude
whenever you pass a transverse
force and the graph of the bending
moment changes slope at these
points.
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
STRATEGY:
• Taking entire beam as free-body,
calculate reactions at A and B.
• Determine equivalent internal force-

couple systems at sections cut within
segments AC, CD, and DB.
Draw the shear and bending moment
• Plot results.
diagrams for the beam AB. The
distributed load of 40 lb/in. extends
over 12 in. of the beam, from A to C,
and the 400 lb load is applied at E.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
• Taking entire beam as a free-body, calculate
reactions at A and B.
MA  0:
B y 32 in.  480 lb 6 in.  400 lb 22 in.  0
B y  365 lb
MB  0:
480 lb 26 in.  400 lb 10 in.  A32 in.  0
A  515 lb
 Fx  0 : Bx  0
• Note: The 400 lb load at E may be replaced by a

400 lb force and 1600 lb-in. couple at D.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
• Evaluate equivalent internal force-couple systems
at sections cut within segments AC, CD, and DB.
From A to C:
 Fy  0 : 515  40 x  V  0
V  515  40 x
 M1  0 :  
 515 x  40 x 12 x  M  0
M  515 x  20 x 2
From C to D:
 Fy  0 : 515  480  V  0
V  35 lb
 M 2  0 :  515 x  480 x  6  M  0
M  2880  35 x  lb  in.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
• Evaluate equivalent internal force-couple
systems at sections cut within segments AC,
CD, and DB.
From D to B:
 Fy  0 : 515  480  400  V  0
V  365 lb
M2  0:
 515 x  480 x  6  1600  400 x  18  M  0
M  11,680  365 x  lb  in.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
• Plot results.
From A to C:
V  515  40 x
M  515 x  20 x 2
From C to D:
V  35 lb
M  2880  35 x  lb  in.
From D to B:
V  365 lb
M  11,680  365 x  lb  in.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.3
REFLECT and THINK:
Shear and bending-moment diagrams

typically feature various kinds of
curves and discontinuities. In such
cases, it is often useful to express V
and M as functions of location x as
well as to determine certain numerical
values.

Edition
Eleventh
Relations Among Load, Shear, and Bending Moment
• Relations between load and shear:
V  V  V   wx  0
dV V
 lim  w
dx x0 x
xD
VD  VC    w dx  area under load curve
xC
• Relations between shear and bending moment:
M  M   M  Vx  wx x  0
2
dM
 lim
M
 lim V  12 wx  V
dx x0 x x0
 
xD
M D  M C   V dx  area under shear curve
xC

Edition
Eleventh
Relations Among Load, Shear, and Bending Moment
wL
• Reactions at supports, R A  RB 
2
• Shear curve,
x
V  V A    w dx   wx
0
wL L 
V  V A  wx   wx  w  x 
2 2 
• Moment curve,
x
M  M A   Vdx
0
 
x
L  w
M   w  x dx  L x  x 2
0 2  2
wL2  dM 
M max   M at  V  0
8  dx 
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.4
STRATEGY:
• Taking entire beam as a free body, determine
reactions at supports.
• Between concentrated load application
points, dV dx   w  0 and shear is
constant.
• With uniform loading between D and E, the
shear variation is linear.
Draw the shear and bending-
moment diagrams for the beam • Between concentrated load application
and loading shown. points, dM dx  V  constant. The change
in moment between load application points is
equal to area under shear curve between
points.
• With a linear shear variation between D
and E, the bending moment diagram is a
parabola.
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.4
• Taking entire beam as a free-body,
determine reactions at supports.
MA  0:
D24 ft   20 kips 6 ft   12 kips 14 ft 
 12 kips 28 ft   0
D  26 kips
 F y 0 :
Ay  20 kips  12 kips  26 kips  12 kips  0
Ay  18 kips
• Between concentrated loads, dV dx   w  0
and shear is constant and determined by
appropriate section cut and solution.
• With uniform loading between D and E, the shear
variation is linear.
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.4
• Between concentrated load application
points, dM dx  V  constant. The change
in moment between load application points is
equal to area under the shear curve between
points.
M B  M A  108 M B  108 kip  ft
M C  M B  16 M C  92 kip  ft
M D  M C  140 M D  48 kip  ft
M E  M D  48 ME  0
• With a linear shear variation between D

and E, the bending moment diagram is a
parabola.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.4
REFLECT and THINK:
As expected, the values of shear and

slopes of the bending-moment curves
show abrupt changes at the points
where concentrated loads act. Useful
for design, these diagrams make it
easier to determine the maximum
values of shear and bending moment
for a beam and its loading.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.6
STRATEGY:
• The change in shear between A and B is equal
to the negative of area under load curve
between points. The linear load curve results
in a parabolic shear curve.
• With zero load, change in shear between B
and C is zero.
• The change in moment between A and B is
Sketch the shear and bending-
moment diagrams for the
points. The parabolic shear curve results in
cantilever beam and loading
a cubic moment curve.
shown.
• The change in moment between B and C is
points. The constant shear curve results in a
linear moment curve.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.6
• The change in shear between A and B is equal to
negative of area under load curve between points.
The linear load curve results in a parabolic shear
curve.
dV
at A, V A  0,   w   w0
dx
VB  V A   12 w0 a VB   12 w0 a
dV
at B,  w  0
dx
• With zero load, change in shear between B and C is

zero.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.6
• The change in moment between A and B is equal
to area under shear curve between the points.
The parabolic shear curve results in a cubic
moment curve.
dM
at A, M A  0, V  0
dx
M B  M A   13 w0 a 2 M B   13 w0 a 2
M C  M B   12 w0 aL  a  M C   16 w0 a3L  a 
• The change in moment between B and C is equal

to area under shear curve between points. The
constant shear curve results in a linear moment
curve.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 7.6
REFLECT and THINK:
Although not strictly required for the

solution of this problem, determining the
support reactions would serve as an
excellent check of the final values of the
shear and bending-moment diagrams.

Edition
Eleventh
Cables With Concentrated Loads
• Cables are applied as structural elements
in suspension bridges, transmission lines,
aerial tramways, guy wires for high
towers, etc.
• For analysis, assume:
a) concentrated vertical loads on given
vertical lines,
b) weight of cable is negligible,
c) cable is flexible, i.e., resistance to
bending is small,
d) portions of cable between successive
loads may be treated as two force
members
• Goal is to determine shape of cable, i.e.,
vertical distance from support A to each
load point.

Edition
Eleventh
Cables With Concentrated Loads
• Consider entire cable as free body. Slopes of
cable at A and B are not known, so two
reaction components required at each support.
• Four unknowns are involved and three
equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to
determine the reactions.
• Additional equation is obtained by
considering equilibrium of portion of cable
AD and assuming that coordinates of some
point (e.g., D) on the cable are known. The
additional equation is then
 M D  0.
• For other points on cable,
 M C2  0 yields y2
 Fx  0,  Fy  0 yield Tx , T y
• Tx  T cos  Ax  constant
Edition
Eleventh
Cables With Distributed Loads
• For cable carrying a distributed load:
a) cable hangs in shape of a curve
b) internal force is a tension force directed along
tangent to curve.
• Consider free-body for portion of cable extending
from lowest point C to given point D. Forces are
horizontal force T0 at C and tangential force T at D.
• From force triangle:
T cos  T0 T sin   W
W
T  T02  W 2 tan  
T0
• Horizontal component of T is uniform over cable.
• Vertical component of T is equal to magnitude of W
measured from lowest point.
• Tension is minimum at lowest point and maximum
at A and B.
Eleventh Edition
CHAPTER VECTOR MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS:
10 STATICS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
David F. Mazurek Method of Virtual Work

Edition
Eleventh
Learning Outcomes
At the end of chapter the students would be able to:
• Define work of a force and work of a couple (CO1-PO1)

• Use the principle of virtual work to solve for reactions (CO2-PO2)
• Use potential energy to solve for position of equilibrium (CO2-PO2)
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2-2

Edition
Eleventh
Contents
Application
Introduction
Work of a Force
Work of a Couple
Principle of Virtual Work
Applying the Principle of Virtual Work
Mechanical Efficiency of Real Machines
Sample Problem 10.1
Sample Problem 10.2
Sample Problem 10.3
Work of a Force During a Finite Displacement
Potential Energy
Potential Energy and Equilibrium
Stability and Equilibrium
Sample Problems 10.4
Edition
Eleventh
Application
In certain cases, for example the analysis of a
system of connected rigid bodies, the method of
virtual work is a more efficient method than
applying equilibrium conditions.

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh
Introduction
• Principle of virtual work - if a particle, rigid body, or system of
rigid bodies which is in equilibrium under various forces is given
an arbitrary virtual displacement, the net work done by the external
forces during that displacement is zero.
• The principle of virtual work is particularly useful when applied
to the solution of problems involving the equilibrium of
machines or mechanisms consisting of several connected
members.
• If a particle, rigid body, or system of rigid bodies is in equilibrium,

then the derivative of its potential energy with respect to a variable
defining its position is zero.
• The stability of an equilibrium position can be determined from the

second derivative of the potential energy with respect to the position
variable.

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh
Work of a Force
  
dU  F  dr = work of the force F corresponding to

the displacement dr
dU  F ds cos
  0, dU   F ds    , dU   F ds   2 , dU  0
dU  Wdy

Edition
Eleventh
Work of a Force

Edition
Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

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Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.3
STRATEGY:
The principle of virtual work allows you to find a
relationship between the force applied by the
cylinder and the weight without involving the
reactions. However, you need a relationship
between the virtual displacement and the change in
angle θ, which is found from the law of cosines
applied to the given geometry.
MODELING:
A hydraulic lift table consisting of two • Create a free-body diagram for the platform
identical linkages and hydraulic cylinders and linkage.
is used to raise a 1000-kg crate. Members
EDB and CG are each of length 2a and
member AD is pinned to the midpoint of
EDB.
Determine the force exerted by each
cylinder in raising the crate for q = 60o, a
= 0.70 m, and L = 3.20 m.
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.3
ANALYSIS:
• Apply the principle of virtual work for a virtual
displacement q
U  0  QW  QFDH
0   12 Wy  FDHs
• Based on the geometry, substitute expressions for the

virtual displacements and solve for the force in the

hydraulic cylinder.
y  2a sin q s 2  a 2  L2  2aL cosq
REFLECT and THINK: 2ss  2aLsin q q
y  2a cosqq
The principle of virtual work aL sin q
s  q
gives you a relationship between s
forces, but sometimes you need aLsinq
0   12 W 2a cosqq  FDH q
to review the geometry carefully s
to find a relationship between the s
displacements.
FDH  W cot  q FDH  5.15 kN
L
Edition
Eleventh
• Work of a force corresponding to an
infinitesimal displacement,
 
dU  F  dr
 F ds cos
• Work of a force corresponding to a finite

displacement,
s2
U12   F cos ds
s1
• Similarly, for the work of a couple,

dU  Mdq
U12  M q 2  q1 

Edition
Eleventh
Work of a weight, Work of a spring,

dU  Wdy dU   Fdx  kxdx U12   12 F1  F2 x
U12    Wydy
y2
U12    kxdx
x2
y1
x1
 Wy1  Wy2
 W y
 12 kx12  12 kx22

Edition
Eleventh
Potential Energy
• Work of a weight
U12  Wy1  Wy 2
The work is independent of path and depends only on
Wy  Vg  potential energy of the body with 
respect to the force of gravity W
U12  Vg   Vg 
1 2
• Work of a spring,
U12  12 kx12  12 kx22
 Ve 1  Ve 2
Ve  potential energy of the bodywith
respect to the elastic force F

Edition
Eleventh
Potential Energy
• When the differential work of a force is given by an

exact differential,
dU  dV
U12  V1  V2
 negative of change in potential energy
• Forces for which the work can be calculated from a change

in potential energy are conservative forces.

Edition
Eleventh
Potential Energy and Equilibrium
• When the potential energy of a system is known,
the principle of virtual work becomes
dV
U  0  V   q
dq
dV
0
dq
• For the structure shown,
V  Ve  Vg  12 kx B2  Wy C
 12 k 2l sin q 2  W l cosq 
• At the position of equilibrium,

dV
 0  l sin q 4kl cosq  W 
dq
indicating two positions of equilibrium:
θ = 0, and θ = cos-1 (W/4kl)

Edition
Eleventh
Stability of Equilibrium
dV
0
dq
d 2V d 2V Must examine higher

0 0
dq 2 dq 2 order derivatives.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.4
STRATEGY:
• Derive an expression for the total potential
energy of the system.
V  Ve  Vg
• Determine the positions of equilibrium by

setting the derivative of the potential
energy to zero.
dV
0
dq
• Evaluate the stability of the equilibrium

Knowing that the spring BC is unstretched positions by determining the sign of the
when q = 0, determine the position or second derivative of the potential energy.
positions of equilibrium and state whether d 2V ?
the equilibrium is stable, unstable, or  0
dq 2
neutral.

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.4
• Derive an expression for the total potential energy of the
system.
V  Ve Vg
 12 ks2  mgy
 12 k aq   mgbcosq 
2
• Determine the positions of equilibrium by setting the

derivative of the potential energy to zero.
 dV
 0  ka2q  mgbsin q
dq
4 kN m0.08m
2 2
ka
sin q  q q
mgb 
10kg 9.81m s 0.3m
2

 0.8699q
q 0 q  0.902 rad  51.7
 Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. 10 - 34
Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.4
• Evaluate the stability of the equilibrium positions by
determining the sign of the second derivative of the
potential energy.
V  12 kaq   mgbcosq 
2
dV q 0
 0  ka2q  mgbsinq
dq q  0.902 rad  51.7

d 2V
 ka2  mgbcosq
 dq 2
 
 4 kN m0.08m  10kg 9.81m s 2 0.3mcosq
2
 25.6  29.43cosq
d 2V
at q= 0:  3.83  0 unstable
 dq 2
d 2V
at q= 51.7o:  7.36  0 stable
dq 2

Edition
Eleventh
Sample Problem 10.4
REFLECT and THINK:
If you just let the block-and-disk system fall on its own, it

will come to rest at θ = 51.7. If you balance the system
at θ = 0, the slightest touch will put it in motion.

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Mechanics engineering : Statics

By Ilyani Akmar Abu Bakar

ECS 416 STATICS

1. The subject of mechanics deals with what happens to a body

2. ________________ still remains the basis of most of today’s

ECS 416 STATICS

Study of what happens to a “thing” (the technical name is

Either the body or forces can be large or small.

ECS 416 STATICS

Rigid Bodies Deformable Bodies Fluids

Statics Dynamics Incompressible Compressible

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

Four fundamental physical quantities (or dimensions).

Newton’s 2nd Law relates them: F = m × a

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

3. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

4. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

ECS 416 STATICS

• For addition for forces

Force, mass, time and acceleration are related by Newton’s

We will work with one unit system in statics:

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

• No plurals (e.g., m = 5 kg, not kgs )

• Most symbols are in lowercase.

ECS 416 STATICS

ECS 416 STATICS

Must have dimensional “homogeneity.” Dimensions have to

Use an appropriate number of significant figures (3 for

Be consistent when rounding off.

ECS 416 STATICS

1. Evaluate the situation in which mass (kg), force (N), and

ECS 416 STATICS

2. Give the most appropriate reason for using three significant

ECS 416 STATICS

1. Interpret: Read carefully and determine what is given and

3. Execute: Carry out your steps. Use appropriate diagrams and

ECS 416 STATICS

1. For a static’s problem, your calculations show the final answer as

2. In the three-step approach to problem solving called IPE,

ECS 416 STATICS

Rigid body Equilibrium

ECS 416 STATICS

Rigid body Equilibrium

ECS 416 STATICS

Rigid body Equilibrium

ECS 416 STATICS

Rigid body Equilibrium

ECS 416 STATICS

Statics, Fourteenth Edition in SI Units Copyright ©2017 by Pearson Education, Ltd.

1. Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?

2. For vector addition, you have to use ______ law.

Statics, Fourteenth Edition in SI Units Copyright ©2017 by Pearson Education, Ltd.

There are three concurrent

To do this, we need to know

Statics, Fourteenth Edition in SI Units Copyright ©2017 by Pearson Education, Ltd.