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Contributions of Cognitive Science to

the Rorschach Technique: Cognitive and
Neuropsychological Correlates of the
Response Process
Marvin W. Acklin & Pamela Wu-Holt
Published online: 10 Jun 2010.

To cite this article: Marvin W. Acklin & Pamela Wu-Holt (1996) Contributions of Cognitive Science to the
Rorschach Technique: Cognitive and Neuropsychological Correlates of the Response Process, Journal of
Personality Assessment, 67:1, 169-178, DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa6701_13

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6701_13

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 JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT. 1996 67(J!, 169-k?E;
Cnpynght Q 5995, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Inc

Contributions of Cognitive Science to the

Rorschach Technique: Cognitive and
Neuropsychological Correlates of the
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Response Process
Marvin W. Acklin and Pamela Wu-Holt
Ciinical Studies Program
IJrriversity qfffawaiiat Mmwa

This article presents an understanding of the Rorschach Technique in terns of

emergent models from cognitive science. We propose a iiakage between cognitive
psychology and neuropsychology in understanding the operations that underlie the
Rorschach response process. Contemporary information processing modeis are de-
scribed. The Rorschach Technique Is conceived of as a complex process involving
all areas of the cerebral hemispheres, encompassing various aspects of visual attention
and perception, object recognition, associative memory, hguage production. and
executive functioning. Exner's m d e i of the response process is delineated, including
both Association and Inquiry phases. in terms of rquisire underlying neuropsy-
chological abilities and anatomical substrates. The question of the Rorschach Tech--
nique's status, utility, and potential as a neuropsychoIogical assessment tool is
discussed. Understanding the Rorschach in terms of contemporary cognitive psycho-
1ogicaI md neuropsychoiogicaf models heightens appreciation of the technique's
complexity and provides a heuris~icand concepeuaI foundation for empirical research.

The c o p t w e revolut~onnn psycholog? that has taken place over the iast 30 years,
In combrnatron with recent developments In neuroscience and cognmve neutopsy-
chojogq, has set the stage for applqrng excxnng new perspectives to the Rorschach
Technique. As yet, appircatlons of cognrtwe psychology and neuropsycholog) to
the Rorschach Technique are noc welt deveioped. The Rorschach response process
1s a complex process lntegratrng visual, semantnc. and executn e cerebral functions
Cognmve psychoiog~caland neu~opsycholog~cal &as pro\ ide fertile resources for
u!lderstandimg the processes that rn~mderhethe decepttveIy slrnpie task of answering
the questnon: "What might thls be?'"
TIIS amcle ns the third In a serles articulating Rorsihach ps! chologj in terms
of a donnnnant psychologrcal paradrgm: cognitive science (Acklln. 1991,1993) The
 purpose of this study rs an exminatnon of the cognitive, psychoBogrca1. and
neuropsychoHagicaE functions and abilitnes that attend Exner's conceptualization of
the Rorschach response process CExner. 1389, 1393). We believe that a cognltwe
neuropsychologicaE approach to the Rorschach represents re potendaUy useful,
contemporaneous framework for understanding Rorschach phenomena. Our pur-
pose here 1s to demonstrate how a cognitive science framework ~llummatesthe
processes into which the Rorschach Technique taps.
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STATUS OF THE RORSCHACH IN

NEURBPSYCHBLOGiCAL ASSESSMENT

The status, utility, and potential of the Rorschach Technique as a neurogsychologt-

car assessment tool has never been developed. Defining a nearropsycBaoHogica1
assessment instrument, however, is not as straightforward as it might ini~ialEyseem.
A sharp debate is current about the definition, relationship, and what distinguishes
cognitive and neuropsychohogical assessment zxxmres iMapou & Spector, 1995).
Lezak (19941 defined a neuropsychoiogicd test as 'kprocedure that examines the
integrity of the brain by examining its khaviord prducr" (p. 9). Mapoar (19&8),
on the other hand, argued that using neuropsycho~crgicaltesting to kocalize or
iateralize brain function is no longer a necess~qenterprise and that instruments
should be evaluated based on their sensitiviiy 80 clranges ins specific aspects of
cogniave &nction. rather than their sensitivity to brain damage per se. Nevertheless,
aseuropsychologists continue to insist that. sensitivity, localization, and larerahza-
tion remain the ultimate tests of an instrument's validity (Spector, 139.5, p. 346).
tez& (1983) suggested the rase of the Rorschach to assess perceptual abilities in
brain-injured subjects. She specified faur aspects of perceptual activity that Ror-.
schach and other tests using ambiguous visual stimuli may tap: (a) accuracy of
percept, (b) subject's ability to process and integrate multiple stimuli, jc) reliability
(e.g., many brain ~njaredpatients do not tmst their perceptions), and (d) use of
reaction time. Though Exner has frequently presented Pr\wkshopslinking neurop-
sychoiogical evaluation data with the Rorschach, the literature is absent of publish-
ed studies. En short, the status of the Rorschach as a cognitive andlor neuropsy-
chologicaj assessment measure is currently undeveloped, though we contend that
it. may have gear potential, especialIy with a standardized approach provided by
the Comprehensive System and increasing sophistication in classifying neuropsy-
chological insults by means of neurodiagnostic imaging techniques,

Enformatnon processrng approaches are at the center of the cognitive revolution,

Information-processing analyses define human cognition as a series of stages, or
 COGNITIVE RORSCHACH 171

transforrnat~ons.between st~mulusInput and response output (Greenwald, 1992).

hformatron processing approaches focus on the structures and operations of
cognmon and hov, they funct~onIn the selection, transfonnatmn. encodrng. storage,
retrieval, and generation of rnformat~onand behawor (Ackiln, 1994).
In its rnatral stages. the cognitive revolutron made gmnt leaps forward rn
understanding human cagnmon by ayproachrng mental processes In terms of h e
send or sequentral processor of a dngltal computer. The ''sequentlid symbolrc" or
"~jmbohc"paradigm has domrnated the fieid of cognmve psychobgy for almost
thee decades. Frgure 1 dep~ctsa typical symbolic model of mentd processes
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IAckIm, 1994: Feidman 8r BaIIxd, 1982). The emergence of an mforrnatlon

processing paradigm atlowed fox a more sophst~catedvre\ru of the way people thmk
and was a potent catalyst for research In cognltrve experlrnenial psychoIogy More

FIGURE 1 Schema of a send or symbolic model of mental processes From "Some contn-
butions of cognitwe science to the Rorschach test." by M W AcWin. 1994, Ro~sc/mliiium,
XIX. p 135 Copyright 199.: by Hogrefe and Huber Publ~shers,Seattle Office,F 0 Box 2487,
I(lrkimd..WA 98083 Repnnted ~ t pemssion
h
 recently. however, limtatrons of the sequential processrng model have become
apparent, speafically with respect to limts In the speed and s~multaneityof s e ~ a I
processang models tn srmuHatmg human cagnatlve processes.
Cuwentlq, theoraes of cognitrve achltecture are viewed as ather sequenhaVsym-
bollc, connecttonnst. or some annalgam of the two. The elements of syrnbolx
approaches consist of physncal tokens, or "ssymboks," that are stored ID assoclatwe
structures (Stein. i 992). SequentraL/symboIkpwadlgnns mcHude HekeTs of prwess-
mg m d e k G a i k & L o c b x t , 1972.~spreadrng actimtatron constmcts (Coilnrs &
Loftus, 1975). and schema approaches (Neasser, 1969). Connectmrs: models, on
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the other hand, vaew cognrtmn as drstributed and pardiel-processed, based on

mtercomected neurai networks (Rumeiharr & McCleiland. l986a, 1986b) Fsgnre
2 depicts a cosrnectaogirst nerwork iIBustrating the continuous and s~n:oltaneous
processmg performed by numerous sample, bur densely iwtesconnecaed, elements.
Connectmnlsa systems attempt to model mentai processes by approxmatmg the
funcrm-inreg of neural networks. Wtth the advent of parallel-drstributed processmg
and wemd network models, reirance an a nereraD rather than a computer metaphor
for mental funct~onnnpbetter approxrmates the way h e bram actua!.Ej! works
PaakleI-ct;sir~buaedprocessing models expion "'bxaln-l~Le"models of rnformataon
processrng iNorrnaa, 1956).With the advancemeni sf neura: modeis of ~nformrateon
processing, the focus is now on pxalbels between cognatmn and brain processes

WWWE 2 A connectmust network niEustratmg contanuous and s~multaneonsprocessing

From "Some contrlbutlons of copn?we sclence to the Rorschach test," by M W Ackhn. 1994,
Rorschachmnb; X I X , p 136 Copyright 1994 by Hogrefe and Hubs Publashen. Seattle Office.
P Q Box 248;. krlrland. WA 98083 Repranted wtth permssrora
 Rapid developments ~n neurorrnagmg, specrficallg. positron-em~sslon tornograph)
(PET) and regmnal cerebral blood @om(rCBF) technology, as a means for obseri -
ing real-time brain processes mvolved nn the performance of problem-snlvrng (e g..
solving a chess problem), promises to open a whole nea frontler In understand~ng
human cogmtion (Grafman & Tarnmrnga, 1995. Sefernon, Goldman-Rahc. &
Tammrnga, 1995).

RESPONSE PRQCESS
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AckIln (1991, I994), rn two prevlous art~cles,applned basic cognrtlve psychobogy.

nncludmg rnfom~at~on processmng, schema theor), and connectlonrst rncdels. to the
Rorschach response process. The current contrtbution extends t h ~ schmkmg to a
more defined exarnmatlon of Exner's notions of the response process In terms of
underiymg cognlttve processes and neurspsychoIogncd abrlrt~esExner's concep-
tmn of the Rorschach response process contam an embedded nnfomatton process-
mg model (see Table 1; Exner, 1989, Piowe\ er, he does not address Issues of
mtemd processmg and transformatmi of blot mfmnation. Ignoring, partrcularly,
the role of parallel and dlstnbuted processmg or schema actrtat~onWe belleve. that
exphcatmg the processes that underhe the response process wtll both deepen
undewaandmg and apprecaatmn of the test and assnst rn developmg testable hypothe-
ses for resexch

ASSOCIATION PHASE

To bepn expionng the cognmve compiexlt~esinherent in the Rorschach response

process, we speclfned the neuropsychoiogicaE and cognrtrve abrlmes assmated w ~ t h
Exner's conceptuahzatntlon of the task. For the assocaation phase, these rnelude
short-term audrtory attentron; vlsual attent~on.scmnmg, and encodmg, retneval
from long-term memory; short-term t ~ s u dstorage, pattern recogn~t~on
and g o d -

TABLE S
Response Process Phases and Operattons
Phase E I Encodmg the strmulus fieid
2. Classifying the encoded amage and ~ t parts
s Into potentlai answers
Phase I1 3. Rescanmng the fieid to refine potential answers
4. Discarding unusable or unwanted answers by pared-comparison rankmg or
censorshp
Phase 111 5 . Find selection from remamilag potential answers
6. Articulation of the sclcctcd answer
Nore. Exner's concep;uaIizatrori of the Rorschach response process. From "Searching for
projection ar, the Rorschach."by 3 E Exner, Jr., 1989, Journal qfPersonalrt~Assessn~eni~
53.
g 522 Copyright I989 by Laa rence Erlbaum kssocrates, Inc Repmted with pemlssioii
 ness-of-fir operamoars; semantic processing; and verbal expression and articulation.
In addition, the context of the evaluation must be maintained in "working memory"
{BaddeleyB Witch, 1994)as a sort of censor, became what one says may o f entimes
have practical consequences. The notions of a visuospatial 'kketchpd" (Baddeky
& Hitch, 1994): which stores md manipulates input, and an "attentional window"
(Kosslyn & Koenig, 19921, which directs attention in stimulus search and classifi-
cation processes, are useful in considering the fianctioning of working memory.
Determination of amtomicai areas involved in these functions is somewhat arbi-
tray because processing is concinuolas and simdtaneous. NeuropsyehoHogicallp,
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these operations inwoIve functions that are widely distributed and integrated in the
response process, including the prefronrd areas in maintaining attention, context
information, and response inhibition; temgord cortex and hippocmpus in memory
processing; visual and associationai cortex in retrieval and "goodness of fit'"
operations; and left-hemisphere language processing for response production and
articulation.
Our focus is on "higher levell" or "top down," processing. though one cannot
overlook the need for the integrity of "lower kevei" processing. These indude
sensory receptors, neural tracts, brain stem operations, and cerebelix Functioms that
are involved in maintaining a conscious, aware, upright, and sentient human subject
(Kim, Upurbil, B Strick, 1994).Higher level processes. our concern here, are those
that are the most "mental" (Kosslyn & Koenig: 1392) and distinguish humans from
lowet animak.
The processes o l visual attention. scanning, and processing involve two primary
neural tracts. The ventral system of brain areas runs from the occipital lobe down
to the inferior temporal lobe. The ventral system processes stimulus information
related to object properties such as shape and color. The dorsal system runs from
the occipitd lobes up to the parietal lobes. The dorsal system deals with spatial
properties of the stimulus, including Iocatiola in space, actud size, and orientation.
Neurons in both areas have Ewge receptive fields. Outputs from both ventral and
dorsal encoding systems converge in associative memory where they are matched
to stored information (Gochin, Colombo, Dorfn~an,Gerstein, & Gross, i994:
Kossiy~~ & Koenig, 1392). As noted by Kosslyn and Koenig (199%):"'Stored
information is used to make a guess about what we are seeing, and this guess then
guides hrther encoding" (p. 57). This use of stored information in subsequent
scanning and processing is a sort of hypothesis testing phase, or "classificrption"
during Exner's Phase 1 (see Table 1) and "Wescanning and Discarding" (most of
Exner9sPhase HI). In categorizing the stimulus, property %ak-up" (i.e., identifica-
tion and categorization) subsystems access associative memory in search of dis-
tinctive stored properties of the candidate object. and their properties (Kosslyn d
Koenig, 1992).If the object represented ta the visual fields is cmbiguou~ or requires
more extensive processing as, for example, aspects of the Rorschach blots that are
mot readily classified (i.e.. Dd areas), then constraints set by stimulus features as
 CoGNKtVE RORSCHACH f 75

well as context-direct subsequent processing. These constraints result in activatmn

of specific spatid reEationships to the attention shifting subsystem, as well as a
similar activation of the pattern activation subsystem. The attention window is
moved to the location of the to-be-imaged part, and the image of that p m is
acti~ated.(KossIyn 8: Koenig, 1992).
Memory processes play a central roie in the Rorschach response process. The
neural processes underlying the formation and maintenance of perceptud and
propositional memory involve a set of matomica1 structures-the hippocampus.
Iimbic thalamus, and basal forebrain. Ttae hippocampus is not only involved in the
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storage of new representations of stimulus properties, but also in storing associa-

tions between representations(Mishkin B Appenzeller, 1987).The Iimbic thalamus
appears to be involved in attentiond processes, especially in priming. amplifying,
augmenting, and relaying to-be-remembered information (Mishkin 6r Appenzelier,
1987). The basd forebrain is Iinked through acetylcholine-containing neurons to
various structures involved in perceptual encoding. as well as to the hippocampus
(KossIyn & Koenig. 1992).
Object identification,of course, implies more about the stimulus than is apparent
during immediate input. Identification of an apple, for example, impties knowledge
about what an apple is, what it is for, where it comes from, and what is inside it
(Kosslyn 8: Koenig, 1992, p. 53). Sinnilxi\:, activation of long-term memory
processes during the association phase of the Rorschach Test activates episodic
memory: that is, biographical memory that has self reference (Acklin. Blbb, Boyer.
8 Jain, 1991). This tends to support the long-held contention that Rorschach
"percepts" are ultimately Iinked to experience and phenomenology (Acklin, 1994).
This approach dso eliminates the distinction, long held in projective psychology.
between the notion of "pure" perception and apperception, in which perception is
inevitably linked with weeds, motivation, organismic states, and episoctx memory
(Belt&, 1975; Bruner, 1992: Greenwaid! E992). Bruner (1992) wrote drat the
message of the "New Look" was that "perception was not, in the positivist sense,
a mere registration of what wrns 'out there' but was, rather, an activity affected by
other concurrent processes of thought, memory, and so on" (p.780).
Validation of these notions awaits studies of the Rorschach Test in relation to
functional deficits associated with specific cerebral damage; for example, "im-
paired processing subsystems, impaired connections among subsystems, compen-
satory changes, and reduced actkation" fKosslyn & Koenig. 1992, p. 10). These
studies might include Rorschach examination of rypicatly encountered lesion-as-
sociated neuropsyehoiogical conditions, including visual agnosias!prosopagnosia,
and visual neglect. Bran scanning techniques have found that visual mental
imagery processes nsult in Iarge increases in rCBF in the occipital lobe, posterior
superior parietal lobe, and posterior inferior temporal lo&! all of which have been
yreviousIy mentioned as central to visual encoding processes. Simifarly, PET
research has shown that the occipital Iobe is activated when people perform visual
 Imagery tasks. Confimarlisn of these notions as they apply to the Rorschach awant
rCBF and PET studies.
Exmer's Phase III of the response process. Fmal Selection, nnvdves the "styles,
habits, and dnsposatnons" aspect of the process that lies at the heart of what we cdl
personalnty. Although we cannot rule out the idea that mdzvsduak~ryof mformarmn
processsng ss the distrlbuted output of whole brarn operations, it is likely that these
aspects sf persornainty are assocaated wash the prefiontai areas sf the brann. Scheims,
as nnformatmn structures that are ~ndrvsdual~zed and the result sf Hearnmg. f o m the
basis for both "styies" and content of the response. These mcIude, for ex,mple.
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selectrve attention and perceptual defense. stxhes of wh~chdimrmg the: era s f the
N e m Look illurnmated how emotional or mot~vaaoanalprocesses rmpact prceptlon
(CreenwaBd, 1382) They would ~nclude.further. selective or biased attenatson to
emot~snalmemory in the retr~evdFrom long-term memory dunlag the choxe,
censoring. and formulatam of the verbal response. Many of these processes may
be cornscious, that rs, rntentnsnal Most others. and this as the basis of the notson that
the Rorschach taps nnto more covert personaiatj processes. a ~ enot The robe of
schematic acuvatnon as an orgalanzer sf thankrng ss not normalIy conceptoahzed as
berng a process that can be monatored by metacognitnon, namely the partmpant's
knowledge. understanding, and awareness of cognitiveprocesses and states (Green-
. I FrnaIEy, made from process factors In how the response is formulated,
~ d d 1'992
there ss the actual content of the response. Addm (19941, quotnng Norman (1986).
noted rhat schema are essentially d hoc prorotypes that are constructed anew for
each occasnon bq combining past experiences wa~hiheer bsases and actwation Bevels
resultmg from the current experience and the context In which ~t occurs. Rorschach
content, as mee~t~oned esriner. accesses epssodrc memory and ss a retrieval of Inved
experience.

INQUIRY PHASE

The rnstructaonai set rmposed by the Inqurq as both more and iiess complex for the
pareacrpant. The particnpanat ss confronted with hrs or her prductmns. and ss regusred
to rehear, rescan, remember. jrastsfy, and rersrt~cuhte This requires susta~neci
attentton, short-term verbal and visual m e m q ygoodness-of-fit operataons with the
previously articulated response, and verbal and logical jlast~ficatronof h e response.
Here. agasn, a haghIy nntegrated blend of prefrontd. temporal, ~ccapital.and pareeta1
operrptnons are required to fine-tune the response and justify fg:tan terms of iog~cal
categories and reasons

SUMMARY

The test of the Rorschach's profmdrty is rrs ability to transcend theoreticai and
pxadsgmatic shifts and fads. The napact OF cognitive newsscrence and neuropsy-
 COGNITIVE RORSCHACH f 77

chology ss just beginnmg to be felt In Rorschach psychology and hket) to be

influentmi for a long alme to come. The rue \ d u e of parad~gmshrfts 1s the
1ncretnetsta2capacrty of the ne%framework to dlumnate the phenomena of merest
We subrn~tthat a cognltwe neuropsj choiog~calapproach to the Rorschach promnses
to further deepen our understandrng and appreciation of the test. We behe\e that
emergrng appl~catlonsof cognltwe science to the Rorschach wdl deepen our
understandrng of the test as we11 as provide the basis for a nevL frontler of research
Desptte wdespread concern that the emergence of neuroblologlcal models of
cognatron will threaten psycholog~caltheorres and tests based on them. mcludsng
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the Rorschach, the incorporation of these ad) ances. we contend, wrll aklou for a
more soph~stlcatedapproach to understanding human behavror and, ultnmately. its
ut~derlyrng cognltrve processes

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