TOPIC:

ETHICS AS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY

RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS TO SCIENCE
DIVISION OF ETHICS

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY'S origin is Greek word ‘Philosophia’ meaning 'love of knowledge',

'pursuit of wisdom', 'systematic investigation. English word 'Philosophy' comes from a
combination of two Greek words, which are 'Philo' meaning ‘love’ and ‘Sophia’ meaning
‘wisdom’.
Philosophy is the systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of
fundamental truths, a quest for a comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of
principles of conduct, and much more.

ETHICS
ETHICS is derived from the Greek word ethicos which itself is derived from the Greek
word ethos, meaning custom or character.
ETHICS is rules of behavior based on ideas about what is morally good and bad and it
is a belief that something is very important.

ETHICS as a BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY

Ethics is the normative science of the conduct of human beings living in societies – the
science, which judges this conduct to be right or wrong, to be good or bad.
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally
good and bad, right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of
moral values or principles.
In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is “good.” The field of ethics or moral
philosophy involves developing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior.

Ethics (or moral philosophy)

How should I live my life?
What sort of person should I strive to be?
What values are important?
What standards or principles should I live by?

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ETHICAL THEORIES INTO THREE GENERAL SUBJECT
AREAS
META-ETHICS investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they
mean. Are they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our
individual emotions?
Meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will
of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
NORMATIVE ETHICS takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral
standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good
habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of
our behavior on others.
APPLIED ETHICS involves examining specific controversial issues, such as abortion,
infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment,
or nuclear war.

RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS WITH OTHER SCIENCES

ETHICS AND LOGIC
ETHICS is the study of correct action or doing, while LOGIC studies the process
of correct and organized thinking.
Doing follows thinking.
ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY studies how man behaves, while ETHICS studies how man ought
to behave.
PSYCHOLOGY is not interested in the morality of human behavior, while
ETHICS is concerned with man’s moral obligation or the result of his behavior.
ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY deals with the study of social order while ETHICS deals with the
study of moral order in the society. There is no social order if there is no moral order.
ETHICS AND ECONOMICS
Economics is the proper allocation and efficient use of available resources for the
maximum satisfaction of human wants. Man indeed is an economic being. He has to
learn a living. He must observe justice and fairness with his fellow beings.
ETHICS AND EDUCATION
Education liberates men from ignorance not only from ethical standards but also
from laws that are implemented by the society. Education is concerned with the total
human development that includes the moral, intellectual and physical faculties of man.
ETHICS AND LAW

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 Laws imposed by the society must be fair, just and humane. It must be for the welfare
of the majority of the people and not offensive to morality. There is a difference between
what is moral and what is legal.
ETHICS AND ART
Man’s artistic creation must have a noble purpose, which should not be offensive to
morality.
ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the study of state and government. Politics is concerned with
the material needs of man while ethics is concerned with the spiritual; these two are
inseparable.

DIVISION OF ETHICS
GENERAL ETHICS
It is the branch of Ethics which deals about the general principles of ethics. “General”
means applicable to a lot of cases without much exemption. It presents truths about
human acts and from these truths deduce the general principles of morality.
At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make
decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and
society and is also described as moral philosophy.

SPECIAL ETHICS / SPECIALIZED ETHICS

It is the branch of Ethics which deals with a specific case or a specific scenario. It is not
“general”. Instead, it is “applied”. It applies the principles of general ethics in different
departments of human activity, individual and social.

MUCH OF APPLIED ETHICS IS CONCERNED WITH THREE THEORIES:

UTILITARIANISM, where the practical consequences of various policies are
evaluated on the assumption that the right policy will be the one which results in the
greatest happiness.

DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS OR DEONTOLOGY

It is the normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on
whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on
the consequences of the action.

VIRTUE ETHICS are normative ethical theories which emphasize virtues of mind and
character.
Virtue ethicists discuss the nature and definition of virtues and other related problems.

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ACTIVITY:

True or False
1. Ethics is a study of principles of conduct and much more.
2. Philosophy is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies.
3. Meta-ethical answers questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of
God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
4. Normative ethics involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the
duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
5. Ethics studies how man ought to behave while psychology studies how man
behaves.

Enumeration
1. Give three (3) relationships of ethics to sciences.
2. Division of ethics

PREPARED BY:
Alababa, Leigh Rence P.
Alcantara, Reanyl S.
4
 TOPIC:
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
DILEMMA

MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS

MORALITY
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is
right and wrong, or good and evil.
Morality is a manner, character, proper behavior, and is the differentiation of
intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and
those that are improper.
Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, or culture or it can derive from a standard that a person
believes should be universal.
Morality may also be specifically synonymous with goodness or rightness.
Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human
behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or right and wrong)
behavior.

MORAL STANDARDS
Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of
actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we
believed to be morally good or morally bad.
Moral standards normally promote the good, that is, the welfare and well-being
of humans as well as animals and the environment.
Moral standards therefore prescribed what humans ought to do in terms of rights
and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and
values. In other words

Norms are understood as general rules about our actions or behaviors.

For example, we may say, we are always under the obligations to fulfill our
promises. Or it is always believes that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.

5
Values are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and
desirable or not.
For example, we may say helping the poor is good. Or cheating during exam is
bad.
Characteristics of Moral standard:
1. Moral standards deals with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals and the environment.
Example: Child abuse, Rape and Murder

2. Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of

authoritative individuals or bodies.
Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to
support and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a lot to back up our moral
conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.

3. Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over standards
and considerations, especially of self-interest.
Example: Consider a business firm (a drug company) that lies about the side
effects of one of its medical drug.

4. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence moral standards

are fair and just.
This means one should not be biased or prejudiced when making a decision.
Example: A judge should not judge on the basis of friendship. If he does, then
his judgment will be partial, not impartial.

5. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Prescriptively it indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral
standards.
These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such
as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’).
These principles are proposed for use, to advice, and to influence to action.
Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and
blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.

NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad
and right or wrong in a non-moral way.

Examples of non-moral standards are:

1. Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad.

6
 2. Standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal.

3. Standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish.

NOTE: We should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, aesthetics, or even with
religion.
Non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference hence a scrupulous observance
of these types of standards does not make one a moral person.
Violation of such standards also does not pose any threat to human well-being.

ACTIVITY:
Distinguishing Moral standards or Non-moral standards
1. Do not harm innocent people. (moral standard)
2. Do not talk when your mouth is full. (non-moral standard)
3. Do not text while driving. (non-moral standard)
4. Do not steal. (moral standard)
5. Do not interrupt when someone is talking. (non-moral standard)

DILEMMA
Etymology:
“Di” – means two
“Lemma” – means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’, theme or subject

Dilemma
Dilemma’s ‘double proposition’ has technical meanings in rhetoric and logic.
• In rhetoric, a dilemma is an argument that forces a person to choose between two
undesirable alternatives.
• In formal logic, a dilemma features two conditions that imply the same conclusion,
often, though not necessarily, unfavorable in nature.

 A dilemma is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
Example:
He was faced with the dilemma of whether or not to return to his country. The issue
raises a moral dilemma.
 Dilemma is a problem where choice or decision has to be made. To have more than
one choice put you in a dilemma.
 A dilemma is to make a choice between two or more unpleasant or undesirable
things.
Example:

7
 I have to choose between going to school or attending the funeral.

 A dilemma also can be a tough or difficult choice.

Example:
If we operate on your child he might die, if we don’t, he will certainly die.

TYPES OF DILEMMA
1. PRISONER’S DILEMMA
- The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up in such a way that both parties choose
to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant.
Example:
 If Prisoner 1 and Prisoner 2 each betray the other, each of them serves 2 years
in prison.
 If Prisoner 1 betrays Prisoner 2 but Prisoner 2 remains silent, Prisoner 1 will
be set free and Prisoner 2 will serve 3 years in prison (and vice versa)
 If Prisoner 1 and Prisoner 2 both remain silent, both of them will only serve 1
year in prison (on the lesser charge)

2. MORAL/ETHICAL DILEMMA
- Situations that challenge one's ability to choose the most ethical course of
action and in which to obey one would result in transgressing another.
- The choice to be made will be going against one or more of their moral
instinct
Example:
 Whether to co-operate with others to work towards a long term gain for all, or
act self-interest for a short term gain for oneself.
 Whether to steal to feed your family.

3. DOUBLE BLIND
- An emotionally distressing dilemma in communication in which an individual
(or group) receives two or more conflicting messages, and one message
negates the other.
Example:
The workers are encouraged to take their time off to rest but at the same time to
meet the performance target on time by an employer who is habitually
overworking the workers.

8
ACTIVITY:

Identification
1. A body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, laws, belief or culture.
2. It refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
in a non-moral way.
3. Standards by which we judge art as good or rubbish.
4. It is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
5. It is the enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
6. Standards by which we judge something as legal or illegal.
7. A greek word means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’

Identify if it is Moral Standard, Non-moral Standard or Dilemma

1. Child Abuse
2. Cheating during exam
3. Going to school or attending the funeral
4. One betrays the other, while the other remains silent
5. Table manners
6. Girls without makeup are beautiful
7. Murder
8. Selling marijuana is illegal in the Philippines

PREPARED BY:
Alvarez, Renalyn M.
Angelical, Paula Maureen T.

9
 TOPIC:
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

MORAL

Moral is concerned with the principles of what is right and wrong, behavior and
the goodness or badness of human character.
Moral are the prevailing standards of behavior that enable people to live
cooperatively in groups. Moral refers to what societies sanction as right and acceptable.
Most people tend to act morally and follow societal guidelines. Morality often requires
that people sacrifice their own short-term interests for the benefit of society. Those
people or entities that have indifferent to right and wrong are considered a moral, while
those who do evil things or act are considered immoral.
DILEMMA
Ethical dilemmas, also known as a moral dilemmas, are situations in which there
is a choice to be made between two options, neither of which resolves the situation in an
ethically acceptable fashion. In such cases, societal and personal ethical guidelines can
provide no satisfactory outcome for the chooser.
In dilemma you’re in between two options in which you have to choice on what is
right but there is a consequences that may hurt someone else. Let’s make an example for
better understanding.
For example, you’re in a boat together with your parents and the boat has sink
and you’re the only one who knows how to swim. Who would you choose to save your
mother or your father? It’s like you’re on a situation that may confuse you on making a
decision.

MORAL
+
DILEMMA
=
MORAL DILEMMAS

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 Moral dilemmas are thought experiments which ask you to imagine a difficult
situation and decide what you think the morally correct course of action would be. There
are no truly ‘right’ answers to these questions, as they often ask you to compare two
different moral imperatives and choose which one you feel is most important.
There is a conflict between two moral norms: repaying ones debts and protecting
others from harm. The agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two
actions, but doing both is not possible.

Something morally right Bad outcome

Something morally wrong Good or better outcome

A situation in which, whatever choice is made, the agent commits a moral wrong.
If moral is concerned about what is right and wrong and dilemma is about choosing
between two situations. In moral dilemma it’s about making decisions that you think is
right. While the society thinks it’s wrong because you’re violating the rules and
regulations of the society.
Example:
If we accept that it is morally correct to never torture a living creature, and that it
is morally correct to save a human’s life if you have the ability to do so, how do you
decide what to do if you can only save a human’s life by torturing someone else?

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He expanded on the
earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children, which he believed follows a series of stages.
Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post conventional. Each level has two distinct stages. During the
preconvention level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge
an action based on its consequences. In the conventional level, an individual’s sense of
morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the
rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and societal order. And in the post conventional level, a
person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values.
People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward
white, upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral
judgments. He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas. In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between

11
the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being
unfairly treated. One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man
called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Example situation in which you will see the three stages of moral dilemma:
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug
might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried
desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to
make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only
raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the
chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the
rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and
was going to make money from it. The husband was very desperate to save his wife.
What do you think the husband would do?
Questions:
Heinz should steal the drug and not go to prison as this is unfair?
Heinz should not stealing the drug because his breaking the law?
Heinz should steal the drugs and accept, any prison sentence?
Answers:
If Heinz steal the drug and not go to prison as this is unfair he is under Post
conventional stage of moral development.
If Heinz did not steal the drug because his breaking the law he is under the Pre-
conventional stage of moral development.
If Heinz steal the drugs and accept, any prison sentence he is under the Conventional
stage of moral development.

THREE LEVEL OF MORAL DILEMMA

Level 1: Pre-conventional
Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such
as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses
largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
This perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or
what is personally satisfying. Pre-conventional has two stages the Obedience-and-
Punishment Orientation and Instrumental Orientation

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

12
 Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
Behavior is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
So, obviously this level deals with children, people of younger age. At this basic
level, authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on physical
consequences of actions. So children see rules as fixed and absolute. So obeying the
rules means to avoid punishment so if the child is good, they’re going to avoid being
punished by their parent. And if they are punished, that means they must have done
something wrong.
For example:
An action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the
worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based
on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours”
mentality.
Behavior is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on
receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs. In this stage basically, children recognize
that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. So they start
to understand that different individuals have different viewpoints.
Example:
An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child
asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.

Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure
positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by
others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to
maintain social order.

13
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
In this stage what it means is that the child or the individual is good in order to
be seen as being good by other people. So they’re taking it to other peoples thoughts into
account. So there’s an emphasis of conformity. So being nice and having that
consideration of how choices influence our relationships is important. Behavior is
determined by social approval.
The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by
being a “good person.”

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. The child becomes aware of the wider
rules of society. So judgments, concern, obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt. It’s all about what society says at this point.
Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now takes into
consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes
more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and
laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what
one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four
is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold
laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is
still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Post conventional

Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
defined in terms of more abstract principles and values.
In post conventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or
her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply
to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all
individuals.
People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate
entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles
that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules

14
as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question.
Because post-conventional elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over
social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused
with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.
Individual judgment is based on self- chosen principles.
Were beyond law and order. We’re thinking at an even higher level and were
having higher moral reasoning. It’s based more on individual rights and justice for the
greater good. So in this step, the individual becomes aware that even though rules and
laws exist for the good of the greater number of people, there are times that this law in
order still may work against the interest of particular people. So the issues aren’t always
clear cut. So for example in Heinz dilemma, was the protection of life important than
breaking the law against stealing? Well according to people that reach his level five of
the social contract. Yes, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law
and stealing. So the rules of law are important for maintaining society, but members
that reach this level, realize that society should also agree upon these standards and that
sometimes the law must be broken to uphold these higher morals.
Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and rules as
flexible tools for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are
exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the
interests of the majority, it does not bring about good for people and alternatives should
be considered.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do
not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. People at this stage develop their own set of moral guidelines which may or
may not fir the law. The principles apply to everyone such as human rights, justice and
equality. And the person who upholds and believes in this wholeheartedly, has to be
prepared to act and defend these principles. Even if it means going against the rest of
society in the process. And even if they have to obey consequences of disapproval or
imprisonment. And Kohlberg believed that very few people reach this stage. And also

15
according to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. The appropriate action is determined by
one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and
universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every
person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.
Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.

ACTIVITY:

Test I. Identify the following.

1. It is thought experiments which ask you to imagine a difficult situation and
decide what you think the morally correct course of action would be?
2. He defined the three stages of moral development?
3. On what year did Lawrence Kohlberg agreed with Piaget’s theory of moral
development?
4. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled?
5. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships?
6. On this stage a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values.
7. The world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.
8. The children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
9. A child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
10. The moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles.

PREPARED BY:
Arjona, Anjeanette O.
Aurin, Trexy Kylah M.
Baldonado, Dindy P.

16
 TOPIC:
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM - RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S
ACTS AND OTHERS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND
IMPARTIALITY

FOUNDATION FOR MORALITY: FREEDOM

Freedom, generally, is having an ability to act or change without constraint. A

thing is "free" if it can change its state easily and is not constrained in its present state.
In philosophy and religion, it is associated with having free will and being without
undue or unjust constraints, or enslavement, and is an idea closely related to the
concept of liberty. A person has the freedom to do things that will not, in theory or in
practice, be prevented by other forces. Outside of the human realm, freedom generally
does not have this political or psychological dimension. A rusty lock might be oiled so
that the key has freedom to turn, undergrowth may be hacked away to give a newly
planted sapling freedom to grow, or a mathematician may study an equation having
many degrees of freedom. In mechanical engineering, "freedom" describes the number
of independent motions that are allowed to a body or system, which is generally referred
to as degrees of freedom."
In philosophical discourse, freedom is discussed in the context of free will and
self-determination, balanced by moral responsibility.
Advocates of free will regard freedom of thought as innate to the human mind,
while opponents regard the mind as thinking only the thoughts that a purely
deterministic brain happens to be engaged in at the time.
Freedom can be defined in many ways. It is the power to choose among
alternatives, or to act in certain situations independently of natural, social or divine
restraints. It has been said that “Man is condemned to be free.” This is not the case in
the animal kingdom, as all animals follow their instinct. However, complete freedom is
an illusion and would be detrimental, not only to ourselves, but also to our fellow
human beings. In the present state of man's evolution he has not yet overcome his
animal instincts and tendencies. Complete freedom would immediately create
possibilities to corrupt the loftiest ideals. Freedom requires a stem spiritual discipline
and discrimination, as propagated by yoga and Theosophical literature.
The freedom to choose is the privilege of every man and woman, and it can be
used either rightly or wrongly. By means of trial and error we have to find out what is
the best way to act. The process of evolution, which widens one's consciousness, enables
us to discover gradually how to use this freedom for the benefit of fellow humans,
realizing that their well-being is also in our own interest. In a wider frame this freedom
should also be applied to fostering the well-being of all sentient beings, including the

17
lower kingdoms of the animals, plants and even minerals. Freedom and responsibility
are all-encompassing, excluding nothing.
Humanity as a whole has reached the point in evolution where it begins to realize
that all life is one, and that by hurting one of its parts, it is also hurting the whole. The
science of ecology has become crucial. Nowadays we speak of sustainable development,
indicating progress for humanity without endangering the life of future generations on
this planet.

Freedom or free will as moral imagination

Rudolf Steiner, who collaborated in a complete edition of Arthur Schopenhauer's
work, wrote The Philosophy of Freedom, which focuses on the problem of free will.
Steiner (1861–1925) initially divides this into the two aspects of freedom: freedom of
thought and freedom of action. The controllable and uncontrollable aspects of decision
making thereby are made logically separable, as pointed out in the introduction. This
separation of will from action has a very long history, going back at least as far as
Stoicism and the teachings of Chrysippus (279–206 BCE), who separated external
antecedent causes from the internal disposition receiving this cause.
Steiner then argues that inner freedom is achieved when we integrate our sensory
impressions, which reflect the outer appearance of the world, with our thoughts, which
lend coherence to these impressions and thereby disclose to us an understandable
world. Acknowledging the many influences on our choices, he nevertheless point out
that they do not preclude freedom unless we fail to recognize them. Steiner argues that
outer freedom is attained by permeating our deeds with moral imagination.” “Moral” in
this case refers to action that is willed, while “imagination” refers to the mental capacity
to envision conditions that do not already hold. Both of these functions are necessarily
conditions for freedom. Steiner aims to show that these two aspects of inner and outer
freedom are integral to one another, and that true freedom is only achieved when they
are united.[134]

Personal Morality
The personal aspect of morality—which might more properly be called ethics—is
about the cultivation of virtue: the development of character traits so that choosing the
good becomes a matter of habit.
An efficient and well-run ship is like a virtuous person: both have regularized the
internal practices necessary to be a good example of what it is. There is one crucial
difference, however: a ship’s crew is run hierarchically, under the command of a captain.
But a person, in order to be truly virtuous, must be free to cultivate the virtues, or not.
There is no virtue in being temperate when you are being forced not to indulge.
There is no virtue in being charitable when someone is forcing you to give up what is
yours. Virtue can be guided by cultural traditions and social institutions, but it cannot be
coerced. A virtuous man must also be a free man.

18
Morality Regarding Others
The interpersonal aspect of morality is more about rule following. These rules are
important because, like the rules governing ships in a fleet, they prevent us from
“colliding” with each other. They permit us to live together in harmony, and they also
make us recognize, apart from the mere consequences to ourselves, the rights of others.
Here too, liberty is essential.
When some people are permitted to dominate others, they treat others as merely
a means to an end, rather than ends in themselves. Not only does this fail to honor the
basic dignity within each person, it also stifles the flourishing of human potential and
creativity. A society of domination will be a society that never reaches its full potential in
the human sciences, physical sciences, and creative arts. Liberty affords us the greatest
space possible to pursue our projects, in a way that enables us to live well with one
another.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND

IMPARTIALITY
Requirements of ethical thinking and reasoning
Ethical thinking in professional context has certain requirements. It should be universal,
normative, interpersonal, rational, and sensitive to circumstances. All of these
requirements are discussed in more detail below.

Normativity
Normativity means that ethical reasoning should always lead to a claim how a
professional should act in a certain situation. In a broader scope, we may enquire how
the rules or conventions in a workplace should be designed to support ethical conduct.
Therefore, active ethical thinking is always progressive: it seeks to improve current
conditions and prevent problems by developing better policies and by applying pre-
emptive measures.
An important dimension of normative ethics is justifying policies or actions. As a
rule of thumb, ethical justification is usually based on prevention of harm or protection
of rights of a person. For example, a change in the code of conduct of a hospital should
always be justified by either of these principles. If the change is targeted at some other
good, such as smoothing cooperation or rationalizing resources, it should neither
conflict with nor impair the realization of these principles.

Inter-personality
The object of ethical assessment is interpersonal activity: How are one’s actions
affecting other persons? Actions that affect only the actor herself are not ethically
relevant. Instead we can ask if for example self-harming is prudential (which means
rational and considered). Non-prudential acts are not unethical: it is not ethically wrong

19
to be unwise, stupid or reckless. Thus self-harming or other non-prudential acts cannot
be used as justification for intervention unless there are other pressing ethical duties
present (like the duties of a parent or a care-giver). The problem of justifying
intervention in a case of self-harming is called the problem of justifying paternalism.
Rationality
Ethical claims should always be logically consistent, compatible with the facts
concerning the situation and well-grounded in evidence. Common beliefs or gut-feelings
are not enough to validate an ethical claim although emotions always should be taken
serious, because they can serve as a guide to find underlying moral values and
standards. Ideally, ethical thinking is critical and constantly assesses common beliefs
and justifications for actions.

Universality and circumstances

Ethical rules and principles should be as universal as possible. There are no
different ethics for different nations, religions or genders. Thus, ethical claims should be
designed without any necessary dependence to disputable religious or ideological beliefs
because not everyone shares them.
The relation between universal rules and applying them according to the
circumstances is a complicated question. Basically, sensitivity to circumstances means
that we should not be too harsh with condemning unethical conduct in a situation where
the agent is for example a minor, mentally disabled or under pressing conditions (i.e.
self-defense or a doctor making decisions in a lose-lose situation). Similarly, a person
consenting to a boxing match cannot blame her opponent for unethical conduct when
being hit – even if generally we may consider hitting a person an unethical thing to do.
It is always necessary to take into account the context in which ethical decisions have to
be made, that is, the reason why it is important to reflect on moral questions in everyday
practice.

Impartiality (also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness) is a principle of

justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the
basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for
improper reasons.

20
ACTIVITY:

Identification and Enumeration

1. It is having an ability to act or change without constraint.
2. In philosophical discourse, freedom is discussed in the context of _______ and
___________, balanced by ___________. (3 points)
3. Two aspects of freedom by Steiner.
4. It is sometimes referred to as rationality.
5. Requirements of ethical thinking and reasoning. (4 points)

True or False
1. Rationality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
2. Cognitive-Instrumental Reason is what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in
the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures.
3. Aesthetic reason is typically found in works of art and literature, and
encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that
those practices embody.
4. Moral-Practical Reason is the kind of reason employed by the sciences. It is used
to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world
on the basis of its hypotheses.
5. Freedom is necessary for morality.

PREPARED BY:
Benaro, Carole Jean M.
Calma, Erika Mae T.

21
 TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

MORAL AGENTS

A moral agent is a person who has the ability to

discern right from wrong and to be held accountable
for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral
responsibility not to cause unjustified harm. Moral
agents are those agents expected to meet the demands
of morality. Not all agents are moral agents. Young
children and animals, being capable of performing
actions, may be agents in the way that stones, plants
and cars are not. But though they are agents they are
not automatically considered moral agents. For a
moral agent must also be capable of conforming to at least some of the demands of
morality.
This requirement can be interpreted in different ways. On the weakest
interpretation it will suffice if the agent has the capacity to conform to some of the
external requirements of morality. So if certain agents can obey moral laws such as
‘Murder is wrong’ or ‘Stealing is wrong’, then they are moral agents, even if they respond
only to prudential reasons such as fear of punishment and even if they are incapable of
acting for the sake of moral considerations.
According to the strong version, the Kantian version, it is also essential that the
agents should have the capacity to rise above their feelings and passions and act for the
sake of the moral law. There is also a position in between which claims that it will suffice
if the agent can perform the relevant act out of altruistic impulses. Other suggested
conditions of moral agency are that agents should have: an enduring self with free will
and an inner life; understanding of the relevant facts as well as moral understanding;
and moral sentiments, such as capacity for remorse and concern for others.

Moral Agency
Moral agency is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some
notion of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions. A moral agent is
"a being who is capable of acting with reference to right and wrong.
Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who can be held responsible
for their actions. Children, and adults with certain mental disabilities, may have little or

22
no capacity to be moral agents. Adults with full mental capacity relinquish their moral
agency only in extreme situations, like being held hostage.

Culture
The word 'culture' hails from the Latin
word cultura which is derived from colere that
means, 'to cultivate'. Our culture has a major share
in cultivating our minds. The common traits and
beliefs that form the mindset of a group, define
their culture.
Culture is our way of life. It includes our values,
beliefs, customs, languages and
traditions. Culture is reflected in our history, in
our heritage and in how we express ideas and
creativity.
Our culture measures our quality of life, our
vitality and the health of our society. Through our
culture we develop a sense of belonging, personal
and cognitive growth and the ability to empathize
and relate to each other. Direct benefits of a strong
and vibrant culture include health and wellness,
self-esteem, skills development, social capital and
economic return.
New Brunswick’s cultural policy renewal will address how culture is fostered,
strengthened, recorded and preserved, and how our culture is expressed and re-
interpreted. It will touch on how we experience culture in our lives, the role of the arts
in creating a vibrant cultural community, our natural, human and built heritage, and the
role of culture as an economic driver.
Culture in our Everyday Lives
Whether you attend a free concert in the park, visit a museum, attend a school play or
sing in a choir, culture is present in many aspects of our daily lives. Culture is a key part
of wellness and learning, and can play a role in healing and social development.
The Arts
Artists and arts organizations are central to the creation of works of art, cultural events
and festivals, products and industries. Authors, theatre companies, dancers, musicians,
film makers, businesses or teachers, artists and arts organizations are at the heart of
many of the cultural creations that we enjoy.
Our Collective Heritage
Our historic and contemporary buildings, museums, monuments, libraries, burial sites
and sacred places, archaeology, artifacts and archives are all critical aspects in our
culture and our heritage. Our living heritage – our traditions, customs and practices –

23
along with our natural heritage, add to the legacy of our ancestors that are part of the
identity and cultural life that we share

WHY IS CULTURE IMPOR TANT?

Culture is a strong part of people's lives. It influences their views, their values,
their humor, their hopes, their loyalties, and their worries and fears. So when you are
working with people and building relationships with them, it helps to have some
perspective and understanding of their cultures.
But as we explore culture, it's also important to remember how much we have in
common. People see the world very differently, but they know what it is like to wake up
in the morning and look forward to the adventures that of the day. We are all human
beings. We all love deeply, want to learn, have hopes and dreams, and have experienced
pain and fear.
At the same time, we can't pretend our cultures and differences don't matter. We
can't gloss over differences and pretend they don't exist, wishing we could all be alike,
and we can't pretend that discrimination doesn't exist.
This chapter will give you practical information about how to understand culture,
establish relationships with people from cultures different from your own, act as an ally
against racism and other forms of discrimination, create organizations in which diverse
groups can work together, overcome internalized oppression, and build strong and
diverse communities.

7 Major Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is shared
Every culture is shared by a group of people,
usually inhabiting the same part of the world. The
region they live in, the geographical conditions
around them, their country's past, the belief system
and values of its people, and the heritage they are
proud of, constitute their culture. Being common to
a group, these aspects develop a sense of unity and
belonging among the people of that group. People of
the same community share the same values, beliefs, and traditions. Their literature and
history is the same. Their language and mannerisms, and the way they communicate is
similar. Built by their belief system, their personalities share certain traits. Their roles in
the family and society are defined by their culture. Their occupations and lifestyles may
be influenced by their culture. Culture gives the people a collective identity. It belongs to
a community and not to any single human being. It is shared.

24
 2. Culture is learned.
Culture is not biologically passed from older
generations to the newer ones. It is learned through
experience. The members of a culture share certain
ideals which shape their lives. The future
generations learn to follow the same ideals. Culture
propagates through generations, which adopt their
old customs and traditions as a part of their culture.
The ideals they base their lives on, is a part of their
culture. Cultural values are imparted from one
generation to another, which is the reason why they continue. The language, the
literature, and the art forms pass down from generation to generation. Culture is
learned, understood, and adopted from what is taught by society and assimilated from
the environment. No individual is born with a sense of culture. In the course of life, he
learns it.

3. Culture changes.
Cultures undergo a gradual change. With
passing time, some beliefs change, certain traditions
or rituals are eliminated, language and mannerisms
of people change, and thus their culture. Migration
and globalization lead to a mixing of cultures. When
people from different parts of the world come
together, they influence each other and effectively,
each other's cultures. These factors contribute to the
formation of a multicultural society and sometimes, even new cultures develop.

Over time, some traditions are dropped out of a culture because they are
dangerous or due to their arduous nature. Due to education and increased awareness,
newer generations become flexible to change and look at concepts like religion and
culture with a broader perspective and have a liberal view about them. So some rituals
or customs become less rigid, some are replaced by simpler ones and some are
discontinued.

4. Culture takes years to form.

It is true that culture influences us, but it is
also true that we influence culture. In fact, culture
evolves over time and takes years to develop. It is not
a set of rules made by one or more people and
followed by generations. With passing time, a culture
develops and even changes in the process.

25
 The geographical location and climatic conditions of a region have a direct effect
on the living conditions of the inhabitants. The climate, for instance, may influence the
traditional clothing and food habits of the people living there. The geography of a region
has an impact on the occupations of its inhabitants, and thus their lifestyle. It influences
the art forms, sports, and other activities the people engage in, thus defining their
culture.
Some traditions are created with a cultural or political purpose or in the interest
of the nation. They are passed down from one generation to another. These include
holidays, festivals, beliefs, and rituals. Similarly, art and literature is also passed down
through generations, thus shaping the culture of that community and taking years to
form.

5. Culture cannot be isolated.

Studies have brought out the fact that no culture
can remain in isolation. There is hardly any social
community that is completely isolated from the rest of the
world. Every culture is mostly influenced by cultures of
the surrounding regions. Years ago, there were tribal
societies that stayed in seclusion, unaware of the world
outside. Today, most of these once-secluded groups are
connected to the rest of the world. And there is hardly any
community, and thereby any culture which is totally
isolated.

6. Culture is essential.
Culture gives us an identity. The art and history
that we are proud of, the literature we learn from, our
education, and our upbringing shapes our personalities.
What we observe around us, what our folk tales teach us,
and what our culture says, is deeply ingrained in our
minds. Our cultural values, and our system of beliefs
dictates our thinking and behavior. Rituals and traditions
are a part of our daily living. The way we carry ourselves in society and who we are as
human beings, is highly influenced by the culture we belong to. To make us feel a part of
the group and to give us the guiding principles of life, culture is essential.

7. Culture is transmitted across generations.

Cultural values are transferred across generations in
the form of symbols and stories that make them easier to
understand. The beliefs that a culture holds, take the form
of customs and rituals that people are supposed to follow.

26
The languages which are a part of culture, are integrated into the education system.
Sometimes, values and religious beliefs are also made a part of it. The art, music, and
dance forms that are representative of a culture are also transmitted across generations.

ROLE OF CULTURE
Political leadership
In a country, the political landscape changes with time, and people with diverse
beliefs and motivations hold power to motivate and alter the thinking of a majority of
people in the country, this belief and motivation of leaders affect the culture for the good
or for the bad. People learn new habits; certain odd behaviour becomes new normal and
definition of bizarre changes. These leadership changes over time shape the culture, a
good leadership induce and motivate everybody around them to attain good habits and
deliver their best with honesty and affects the behaviour of almost everyone in the
country. The vice versa of it is also true, a bad leadership, which has selfish motivation
affect the culture badly and it encourages everyone to act selfish and selfishness creates a
bad culture, in such culture self-interest defines the normal behaviour and not the social
values.

Big Events
Like war, political movements change the culture and induce new habits in
people. Our habits change when we have to survive in an extraordinary situation, we,
human adapt to it quickly to survive. Like in a place where there is a prolonged war,
people become extremely anxious and children become violent and people stop caring
much about ethical values. If some country is going through economic crises and people
don’t have much money to feed their children, people develop a bit of dis honesty to save
and earn more money and that become new normal. The bad thing about these events is
that they happen and culture change but once this event is over, the culture change
persist. The sequence of such events shapes the culture.

How culture affects corporate productivity

In corporations, the cultural traits like hard work, fair competition, free speech, open
feedback and mutual respect affect overall corporate’s productivity and longevity. The
culture where employees can speak freely about issues and opportunity helps to shape
the corporate culture. In such an environment new hires who are mediocre employees of
other companies become stars in the new culture, they probably have never gotten a
chance to perform fairly in earlier organisation’s ill cultured environment but here they
can thrive.
A culture boost not only productivity but creativity also, employees who know they can
talk about new opportunity and would not be discouraged, usually come up with
innovative ideas. Culture also boost customer trust, a satisfied, happy and respected

27
employee treat customers well and do his best to make them happy, a happy mind is best
suited to spread happiness.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or
ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture,
are all equally valid and no one system is really
“better” than any other. This is based on the idea
that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so
every judgment about right and wrong is a product
of society. Therefore, any opinion on morality or
ethics is subject to the cultural perspective of each
person. Ultimately, this means that no moral or
ethical system can be considered the “best,” or
“worst,” and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be considered “right” or
“wrong.”
The contradiction of cultural relativism becomes immediately apparent. A
society that embraces the notion that there is no ultimate “right” or “wrong” loses the
ability to make any judgments at all. The way in which relativism, including cultural
relativism, has permeated modern society is demonstrated in the bizarre ways in which
we try to deal with this contradiction. “Tolerance” has mutated to imply unconditional
support and agreement for all opinions or lifestyles. However, those who choose to be
“intolerant” are not to be supported or agreed with. Tolerance, therefore, becomes an
“ultimate good” in and of itself, which is contradictory to the entire idea of relativism. In
the same way, heinous crimes such as rape and murder demand a moral judgment -- but
strict cultural relativism cannot say that such things are always wrong.
Relativism in general breaks down when examined from a purely logical
perspective. The basic premise is that “truth is relative.” If every truth statement is valid,
then the statement “some truths are absolute” must be valid. The statement “there are
no absolute truths” is accurate, according to relativism -- but it is an absolute truth
itself. These contradict the very concept of relativism, meaning that absolute relativism
is self-contradictory and impossible.
Since this philosophy is nonsensical, there must be some fundamental absolutes
of right and wrong, regardless of the opinions of any given society. Since there are
disagreements among different cultures, we cannot assume that these truths are
developed by one particular group of people. In fact, the only logical place for these
concepts to originate from is something more universal, or at least more fundamental,
than culture.

28
ACTIVITY:

Fill in the blanks.

1. A person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own action is called ________.
2. The word 'culture' hails from the Latin word ______ which is derived from
colere that means, 'to cultivate'.
3. ______ is our way of life. It includes our values, beliefs, customs, languages and
traditions.
4. For a moral agent must also be capable of conforming to at least some of the
demands of _____.
5. _______ is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to
culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really “better” than any other.
6. _______ is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some
notion of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions.
7. Children, and adults with certain _______ disabilities, may have little or no
capacity to be moral agents.
8. _________ means that no moral or ethical system can be considered the
“best,” or “worst". and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be
considered “_________” or “________. (3 points)

Enumeration
1. Give five major characteristics of culture.

PREPARED BY:
Cayabyab, Danice N.
Comandante, JahzielB.
Conde, Alondra D.

29
 TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
3. ASIAN AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR:
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ASIAN AND FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR

UNDERSTANDING THE CULTURE AND BEHAVIOR OF ASIANS

The economic miracle of East Asia is

followed by the emergence of a new common
identity in Confucianism among the nations in the
region. Being the predominant cultural
determining force in East Asia, Confucianism has
deeply influenced East Asian behaviour. Three
behavioural traits in East Asians are discussed.
First, the East Asian's lack of "personality" is traced
to the Confucian social institution of Li-rules of
propriety. Second, the East Asian's lack of
principled moral thinking is linked to the dyadic,
relation-based character of the Confucian ethic, its lack of hypothetical reasoning and its
hierarchical view of human relationships. Third, the East Asian's lack of assertiveness is
rooted in the Confucian ideal of man as a reflection of harmony in the cosmos and the
Confucian ideal of society as based on the fulfillment of duties rather than the assertion
of rights. The implications of these Confucian traits suggest the need to re-formulate
Western conceptions of and approaches to East Asian behaviour.
What is Culture? Culture is the way of life of a group of people. Included in
culture are language, values, practices, religion, customs, beliefs and traditions. One of
the characteristic of culture is that it is an adaptation to the environment. It is developed
through interactions with other people. The family is the primary agent of cultural
diffusion because the parents and older relatives act as the first teachers of values and
socially acceptable practices to the younger generation.
Religion as a Determinant of Ways and Behavior • Religion is one of the factors
why Asians have different values and practices. • In Judaism and Christianity, men seek
to control the environment and be master of the universe. For example, floods and
droughts are forces of nature that are caused by the gods to test human capacity to
survive.
It is the opposite in Taoism and Shinto. Generally, these religions consider nature
as a great and caring. Taoism teaches that man has to conform and follow the flow of
nature. In Shinto, spirits known as kami live in natural things. Offerings are given and
ceremonies are performed for these kami.

30
 Asian Ways and Behavior • Religion and philosophy shape culture. This culture is
reflected in the people’s behavior and ways.

Ways and Behavior in China

Socially hierarchy is very important for the Chinese
in their interaction with other people. This is a result of
Confucian influence in Chinese civilization. • Chinese
would like to determine the place of birth, age, civil status
and earning capacity of a new acquaintance. • Respect and
high regard for elders. Example: – Greeting elder people
first before the younger ones. – They wait for the elder
people to sit before they do so. – When the elder goes out
of the door, the younger person usually assist him or her by opening the door. – Chinese
people usually do not show their affection and feelings to non-relatives and distant
friends through actions like hugging and back-slapping.
Chinese table manners, rice and soup are served on bowls, wine and tea in cups
and main dishes on plates. • Noodles or soup are usually served hot and eaten with
slurping sounds to show that the food is delicious. • When the Chinese eat rice from the
bowl, they place the bowl near their mouth to keep the rice from falling to the table.

Ways and Behavior in Japan

The Japanese also have high regard for social
hierarchy. This is depicted in the manner of bowing – the
duration and lowness of bending one’s body. • Sometimes
they combine the handshakes as a greeting. • In calling the
attention of another, they usually add the word san to the
last syllable of a person’s family name. For example,
Tanaka-san and Takizawa-san.
Surname Yamada-san 山田さん Mr. Yamada given
name Yoko-san 陽子さん Miss. Yoko occupation honya-san 本屋さん bookseller
sakanaya-san 魚屋さん fishmonger title shichou-san 市長さん mayor oisha-san お医者
さん doctor bengoshi-san 弁護士さん lawyer.
"~ kun （～君）" is used to address men who are younger or the same age as the
speaker. A male might address female inferiors by "~ kun," usually in schools or
companies. It can be attached to both surnames and given names. It is less polite than
"~ san." It isn't used between women or when addressing one's superiors. • "~ chan （～
ちゃん）" is often attached to children's names when calling them by their given names.
It can also be attached to kinship terms in a childish language. • Mika-chan • 美香ちゃん
Mika • ojii-chan • おじいちゃん grandpa • obaa-chan • おばあちゃん grandma • oji-chan
• おじちゃん uncle
31
 Just like the Chinese, the Japanese use chopsticks in eating. However, Japanese
chopsticks are shorter, more pointed and made of ivory or lacquered wood. They also
eat their soup and noodles with a slurping sound. • Tea drinking was elevated into an
art. • Japanese drink a traditional rice wine called sake.

Ways and Behavior in India

The traditional greeting among Hindus in India is
namaste which means “good day.” They say this greeting
with hands held together as if in prayer, placed near the
chin and with the head slightly bent forward. • The
greeting among Muslim is Salaam aleikum (Sahlahm a-
laykuhm) or may peace be with you. For the Sikhs, it is
Sat Sri Akal (Saht shree ah-kahl). • Public display of
affection – kissing, hugging and holding hands is highly
discouraged.
At least one arm’s length distance when opposite sex meet and talk in public. •
Indians believed that the head is a very sensitive part of the body so it should not be
touched by other people. • Indians consider that the food they eat and religion are
closely connected since all their food emanate from their gods. Men and women eat
separately. They only use the right hand for eating because they consider the left hand as
unclean and unsanitary.

Ways and Behavior in Indonesia

Indonesia, the largest archipelago in the world,
has served as an important trade center in the region
and a crossroad of different cultures. Islam is the
dominant religion in Indonesia.
Bahasa Indonesia is the official language in the
country. • Selamat pagi- greeting in the morning •
Selamat siang - for the afternoon (from 12 noon to 4 in
the afternoon) • Selamat sorae - for late afternoon (from
4 in the afternoon until dusk) • Selamat malam - for the
evening.
When introduced to another person, an Indonesian usually offers his or her right
hand for a handshake while the left hand is placed on the chest to show sincere pleasure
in meeting the other person (not done with between opposite sexes). • Holding hands in
public between unmarried males and females is not encouraged.
It is important to address those who have done so with the title of Haji (for
males) or Hajjah (for females) as a sign of respect. • Head of the person consider as the
seat of the soul and sacred part of the body. For this reason, patting or touching the
head of another person even child is avoided.

32
 Spoons and forks are not usually utilized in eating. Like other Muslims,
Indonesians only use their right hands for eating and their left hands for washing their
private parts. • Considered unclean, the left hand is likewise not used to receive or hand
out money.

Ways and Behavior in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is one of the important countries in
West Asia. Two of the most sacred places of Islam –
Mecca and Medina – can be found in this country. •
Burqah or Burka – it is a long dress that almost totally
covers the head and body, leaving only the eyes
exposed. • Bedouins – the nomadic people who live in
tents in the desert of Arabia
• The custom of the Bedouins is to invite into
their tent any traveler who passes by. The travelers are
offered food and invited to stay, usually up to three
days in their tents. • Assalamu alaykum (may peace be with you) – greeting of the owner
of the tent • Wa’alaykum as salam (and peace be with you also) – response of the guest
to the greeting
• Some Bedouin tribes do not eat until the guests are finished eating. • On the
special occasions like Ramadan, Bedouin women prepare special dishes. • The biggest
and wealthiest family in the tribe serves the special dishes before sunrise and after
sunset.
Synthesis • Culture is an important determinant of ways and behavior of any
group of people. It determines the manner of interaction among people and the frame of
mind with which to view the world and one’s life. • Some of the values and practices
common among Asian peoples are respect for elders, respect for the collective interest,
being helpful to others and respect for the environment. • It is important to maintain
Asian ways and behavior in order to preserve our Asian identity.

Understanding the Moral Behavior of Filipino.

Filipino values are, for the most part, centered at
maintaining social harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to
be accepted within a group. The main sanction against diverging
from these values are the concepts of "Hiya", roughly translated
as 'a sense of shame', and "Amor propio" or 'self-esteem'. Social
approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a group are
major concerns. Caring about what others will think, say or do,
are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos.
Human activities

33
 This is the shared sense of identity and consciousness of the 'other'. It means
treating others with respect and dignity as an equal, not someone below the individual.

Family orientation
The basic and most important unit of a Filipino's life is the family. Unlike in
Western countries, young Filipinos who turn 18 are not expected to move out of their
parents' home. When a Filipino's parents are old and cannot take care of themselves,
they are cared for in their children's homes and are very rarely brought by their children
to Homes for the Aged. The practice of separating the elderly from the rest of the family,
while common in Western countries is often looked down upon in Filipino society.
Family lunches with the whole clan with up to 50 people, extending until the line of
second cousins, are not unusual. The Filipino puts a great emphasis on the value of
family and being close to one's family members.

Joy and humor

This famous trait is the ability of Filipinos to find humour in everything. It sheds
light on the optimism and positivity of Filipinos in whatever situation they are in so as to
remain determined in going through struggles or challenges. It serves as a coping
technique, the same way a child who has fallen laughs at himself/herself to hide his/her
embarrassment.

Flexibility, adaptability, and creativity

Studies show that Filipinos often have an aversion to a set of standardised rules
or procedures; They are known to follow a "natural clock" or organic sense of time—
doing things in the time they feel is right. They are present-oriented: which means that
one attends to a task or requirement at the time it is needed and does not worry much
about future engagements. This allows the Filipino to adapt and be flexible in doing the
tasks at times not bound to a particular schedule or timeframe. This allows them think
on their feet and be creative in facing whatever challenge or task they have even when it
is already right in front of them.

Faith and religiosity

The Philippines is approximately 85 percent Christians (mostly Roman
Catholics), 10 percent Muslim, and 5 percent 'other' religions, including the Taoist-
Buddhist religious beliefs of Chinese and the 'indigenous' Anitism belief of peoples in
upland areas that resisted 300 years of Spanish colonial rule. This is a reflection of the
Filipinos' strong faith in God as seen in their various practices. This includes the
numerous church holidays they observe, the customary (and obligatory) Sunday Mass,
the individual's basis of their moral standpoints, the influence of the Church on the
minds, actions, and opinions of the majority, importance of the Sacraments, praying at
almost any possible time of the day, the extreme practices during Holy Week.

34
Ability to survive
The Filipinos as a people who have been constantly under the rule of numerous
powerful countries has over time, developed a sense of resourcefulness or the ability to
survive with whatever they have. They have the extraordinary ability to make something
out of almost nothing. If a Filipino was given just a screwdriver, plastic bagseut, and
some tape, he would still be able to build a bird tree, especially for the sake of survival,
and provided that he be allowed to hunt for some needed surrounding material.

Hard work and industriousness

With resourcefulness comes hard work. Filipinos are very determined and
persevering in accomplishing whatever they set their minds to.
Filipinos over the years have proven time and time again that they are a people
with an industrious attitude. Sadly, this is seen by others as Filipinos being only useful
as domestic helpers, working abroad to help their families in the country. This is also
present in the country’s workforce particularly the farmers. Even with little support,
technological weaknesses and the country’s seasonal typhoons, the Filipino farmer still
strives to earn their daily meal.

Hospitality
Foreigners who come to visit the Philippines speak of Filipinos going out of their
way to help them when lost, or the heartwarming generosity of a Filipino family hosting
a visitor in their poverty-stricken home. Meanwhile, most foreigners who attend Filipino
gatherings abroad (which are frequently organized for hundreds of reasons) testify to
the warmth and friendliness of Filipinos as they experience that feeling of
“belongingness.” Indeed, the legendary Filipino hospitality is not limited to the
Philippines. It is everywhere wherever there are Filipinos.

35
ACTIVITY:

Identification
1. The way of life of a group of people?
2. Is the primary agent of cultural diffusion?
3. One of the factors why Asians have different values and practices?
4. It teaches that man has to conform and follow the flow of nature?
5. This is very important for the Chinese in their interaction with other people?
6. They also have high regard for social hierarchy like Chinese?
7. The traditional greeting among Hindus in India?
8. What does Salaam aleikum mean?
9. The very sensitive part of the body believed by the Indians?
10. The basic and most important unit of a Filipino’s life?

PREPARED BY:
Dayahan, Shamei G.
Dorado, SherlynM.

36
 TOPIC:
THE MORAL AGENTS:
B. THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT

Moral Agent
A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to
be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm.
- A person who knows what is right and wrong can be considered as moral agent. We
as a human we are also a moral agent only people with certain mental disabilities
may have little or no capacity to be moral agents.

What is Virtue?
For Aquinas, virtue is the perfection of human activity — Virtue describes the
best traits of human action. The word itself comes from the Latin word for strength or
power, Vis. As with any human strength, it is built up through repetition. Do something
good repeatedly and it becomes a good habit; do it long enough and it becomes a
virtue.
- Virtue is the traits of a human which conveys only for god thing they always choice
what is good and what is right until it becomes their habit.

According to Aristotle, virtue is a habit:

“Ethics is not merely a theoretical study for Aristotle. Unlike any intellectual
capacity, virtues of character are dispositions to act in certain ways in response to
similar situations, the habits of behaving in a certain way. Thus, good conduct arises
from habits that in turn can only be acquired by repeated action and correction, making
ethics an intensely practical discipline.”
- Based on Aristotle virtues is the basis on how you act in a certain things into similar
situation. If you adapt this king of things by doing good conduct it will be your habit
and you always want to correct your action that is why ethics should practice by
everyone. He believes that virtue habits requires an intentional choices by an
individual.

How does a person develop virtues?

37
 Virtues are developed through learning and through practice. As the ancient
philosopher Aristotle suggested, a person can improve his or her character by practicing
self-discipline, while a good character can be corrupted by repeated self-indulgence.
- Our character is based on how we develop our virtues through practicing self-
discipline and know what the ethical things to learn is. We should know our limit
and be responsible in our action we should not harm other people just because we
choice to do our decisions.

A person's character traits are not developed in isolation, but within and by the
communities to which he or she belongs, including family, church, school, and other
private and public associations.
- One’s character or traits are developed not just his/her own it develops within the
societies they adapt their traits that makes a person change and develop their own
self. As we grow older are values is deeply influenced by the people we us to be in our
surroundings and applied it in their life.

MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

• A moral character is defined as an idea in which one is unique and can be
distinguished from others.
• A moral person understands right and wrong and willfully chooses what is right; a
virtuous person engages in good behavior intentionally, predictably, and habitually; an
ethical person figures out what is right or good when this is not obvious.
• The development of a moral character is an intellectual topic that has been argued for
many years.
• A moral character is defined as an idea in which one is unique and can be
distinguished from others. Perhaps it can assemble qualities and traits that are different
from various individuals.

THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral Development
It is the process by which human beings develop the ability to distinguish
between good and bad behaviors. We are aware on the ways on how we distinguish right
from wrong as we grow and mature.
- Moral Development develops one’s perspective, as we grow older we can easily
identify what action to take it’s either good or bad. It molds us as a human, develop
our spiritual beliefs and proper etiquette to be responsible in our own decisions and
action that we did in our life.

Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of Moral Development

38
 A comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s
theory of moral judgment for children (1932).
 He elaborate the study of Jean Piaget and developed the Lawrence Kohlberg in the
year of 1932. His theory focused on the thinking process of an individual whether
their action is right or wrong.
- Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers
of complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral
development.
 He divided his six stages into 3 level and each level has two stages which is arranged
sequentially. This stages focused in human development in the context of the social
world.

Stages of Moral Development

Level 1:Pre-conventional level

At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards.
This perspective involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or
what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
 In this level still individual knows what is right and wrong and avoid punishment.
The authority has still in control and the people still follows orders and laws.

Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

Behaviors is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
 People tend to follow rules just because they were afraid to be punish.
Individual learn from other mistakes because they are afraid for the
consequence to happen in their life. They belief that they do is good until they
are not been caught and been given a punishment.

39
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on
receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs.
 In this stage individual do right because they are aware that they will receive
something from what they did. They follows rules or norms out of interest for
example in the company if you continue to come early you will get an
incentives that is why you pursue yourself not to come late.

Level 2: Conventional level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the
individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other
people and social systems.
 In this level they still considered the rules that has been given to them for self-
interest to build relationship and to get the approval of the others such us peers,
parents and authorities.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

Behaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or
win the affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”
 Individuals do well because it is his/her responsibilities to maintain his/her
good personalities. For example a company make a program which will help
the poor people or do charity work. They just do that for their self- interest to
maintain company name clean in the eyes of the costumers.

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into
consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes
more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and
laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.
 This mean that rules and laws is giving importance by the individuals. They
think for the good or positive side of their decision making. They do their duty
as a human and that is to live in the right way and be good. For example the
army even though their life is in danger they still fight for our country. They
did not considered their own life and do their responsibilities and duty.
Level 3: Post-conventional or Principled level
The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality
is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and
societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.

40
 Individuals considered the opinion of the others. They think first what others will
think if they do a certain action. They become conservative and always choice what is
best for everyone.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

Individual rights determine behaviour. The individual views laws and rules as
flexible tools for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are
exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the
interests of the majority, it does not bring about good for people and alternatives should
be considered.
 People become aware about their society they thinks about the others if their
action can do good or bad with the other people. They believe that laws and
rules is essential to promote peace and goods for the others.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he
claimed that some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate
action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience.
 In this stage only few individuals have it. In every action they take they assure
that it was ethical and good in the eyes of the authorities and the others. This
type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every person or group that
could potentially be affected by the decision. They considered the condition of
their fellow men.

41
ACTIVITY:

I. Identification. Write the correct answers.

1. It describes the best traits of human action.
2. The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality
is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations
and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.
3. A person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm.
4. Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into
consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws.
5. It is the process by which human beings develop the ability to distinguish
between good and bad behaviors. We are aware on the ways on how we
distinguish right from wrong as we grow and mature.

II. Enumeration
1. Give the 3 levels of Moral Development (3 points)
2. Give the stages of Moral Development (7 points)

PREPARED BY:
Ernieta, Jarrie Ann A.
Esqueres, Leuvielyn R.
Gamayon, Vernadeth M.

42
 TOPIC:
HOW TO GET TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF CONSCIENCE – BASED
MORAL DECISIONS

MORAL DECISION

A moral decision is a decision made in a way so that

action or inaction conforms to one’s morals. Typically,
we refer to a moral decision when the choice made is
not the choice that would be valid per some rationale,
such as greater comfort, financial reward or lower cost
or elimination of some problem.
Morals are acquired (learned or self-developed) rules of behavior categorized into
‘right’ or ‘wrong’, where the rules typically omit context and nuance.
Curiously, morals have a high-level of culturally and socially acquired variation.
Often, this occurs for morals originating in religious rules over conduct by followers. It
is also found where there is enforced social stratification.
In the mid-20th century southern US it was immoral for the races to mix. At that
same time, a visiting white Northerner might determine it immoral to use a white’s only
water fountain or bathroom, reasoning that to drink from an obviously better fountain,
for whites, only, would be an endorsement of segregation.
In a manner similar to laws, violating a moral has negative consequence. Rather
than fine or imprisonment, the penalty is loss of self-esteem. If the action becomes
known to the group sharing the moral, the consequence may range from diminished
status to more serious punishment.
A shopper returns to her car outside a grocery store to find another shopping cart
with one bag still in it. The bag has everyday paper products, things that would not be
harmed by time outside on that sunny day. The moral decision would be to take the bag
in to the store’s customer service counter, and notify them it was left behind. The moral:
One does not take what does not belong to them. Not only does our shopper not take the
bag, but he or she spends the time and effort to walk back into the store.
Other possible decisions would be to take the bag, as a lucky find. Reasoning may
be that the value of the items may not be enough to give the purchaser reason to come
back for them, given the chance that the items would have been taken already. The items
would be useful at home. Rain predicted for later in the day would ruin the items.
Anyone else would take them. “Finders, keepers” is not a moral. After all, to not keep is
also allowed, if there is no personal interest or use in keeping what is found.

Conscience

43
 A cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an
individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience stands in contrast to elicited
emotion or thought due to associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and
reflexive responses, as in sympathetic central nervous system responses. In common
terms, conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person
commits an act that conflicts with their moral values. An individual's moral values and
their dissonance with familial, social, cultural and historical interpretations of moral
philosophy are considered in the examination of cultural relativity in both the practice
and study of psychology. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before
an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based on reason has
occasioned debate through much of modern history between theories of
modern western philosophy in juxtaposition to the theories of romanticism and other
reactionary movements after the end of the Middle Ages.

3 Levels of Conscience
Subconscious
The first level of consciousness, the subconscious, is relatively dim in awareness:
it is the stuff of which dreams are made. We may think of it as the repository of all
remembered experiences, impressions left on the mind by those experiences, and
tendencies awakened or reinforced by those impressions. Every experience we’ve ever
had, every thought, every impression of loss or gain, resides in the subconscious mind
and determines our patterns of thought and behavior far more than we realize. The
subconscious, being unrestricted by the rigid demands of logic, permits a certain flow of
ideas. This flow may border on intuition, but if the ideas are too circumscribed by
subjectivity, they won’t correspond with the external world around us. When we dream
at night, we are mainly operating on the subconscious level of consciousness. The
subconscious mind can all too easily intrude itself on our conscious awareness, tricking
us into thinking we’re getting intuitive guidance, when actually we’re merely being
influenced by past impressions and unfulfilled desires. The subconscious mind is in
some ways close to the super conscious, where real intuition resides. Both represent a
flow of awareness without logical obstructions. The subconscious is therefore more open
to the intuitions of the super conscious, and sometimes receives them, though usually
mixed with confusing imagery. To be really clear in the guidance we receive is difficult,
but very important. Calamitous decisions have been made in the belief that one was
drawing on higher guidance, when in fact one was responding only to subconscious
preconditioning.

Conscious
The next level of consciousness from which we receive guidance is the conscious
state, the rational awareness that usually guides our daily decisions. When we receive
input from the senses, analyse the facts, and make decisions based on this information,

44
we are using this conscious level of guidance. This process is also strongly affected by
the opinions of others, which can cloud our ability to draw true guidance. Dividing and
separating the world into either/or categories, the conscious level of awareness is
problem-oriented. It’s difficult to be completely certain of decisions drawn from this
level, because the analytical mind can see all the possible solutions. But ultimately it
doesn’t have the ability to distinguish which one is best. If we rely exclusively on the
conscious mind, we may find ourselves lacking in certainty and slipping into a state of
perpetual indecision.

Super conscious
Intuition and heightened mental clarity flow from super conscious awareness.
The conscious mind is limited by its analytical nature, and therefore sees all things as
separate and distinct. We may be puzzled by a certain situation, but because it seems
unrelated to other events, it’s difficult to draw a clear course of action. By contrast,
because the super conscious level of consciousness is unitive and sees all things as part
of a whole, it can readily draw solutions. In super consciousness the problem and the
solution are seen as one, as though the solution was a natural outgrowth from the
problem.

How to get to the highest level of conscience?

 To get to the highest level of conscience, you need to test yourself on what level of
conscience you are in the present. Think of a situation that will test your moral
decision making, if you can already see things as a whole, when you are in an
analytical state of thinking in making moral decision then you are in the highest
level of conscience. Problems can be a puzzle with missing pieces it is hard to find
solutions and draw clear course of action. But being on the highest level of
conscience; problem and solution are seen as one wherein the solution cannot be
found from the outside but it is already in the problem.

ACTIVITY:

45
Identification
1. It is a decision made in a way so that action or inaction conforms to one’s moral.
2. What is the penalty of violating morals?
3. It is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an
individual’s moral philosophy or value system.
4. It is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an
act that conflicts with their moral values.
5. What are the three levels of conscience? (3 points)
6. It is relatively dim in awareness.
7. It is the rational awareness that usually guides your daily decisions.
8. In this level the problem and the solution are seen as one.

Essay
1. In your own words, how can you get to the highest level of conscience? (5 points)

PREPARED BY:
Garnel, Rachel ElizabethR.

46
 ANSWER KEY:
ETHICS AS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS TO SCIENCE
DIVISION OF ETHICS

ACTIVITY:

True or False
1. Ethics is a study of principles of conduct and much more.
TRUE OR FALSE
2. Philosophy is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in
societies.
TRUE OR FALSE
3. Meta-ethical answers questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of
God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
themselves.
TRUE OR FALSE
4. Normative ethics involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the
duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.
TRUE OR FALSE
5. Ethics studies how man ought to behave while psychology studies how man
behaves.
TRUE OR FALSE

Enumeration
1. Give three (3) relationships of ethics to sciences.
ETHICS AND LOGIC
ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY
ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY
ETHICS AND ECONOMICS
ETHICS AND EDUCATION
ETHICS AND LAW
ETHICS AND ART
ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
2. Division of ethics (2 points)
GENERAL ETHICS
SPECIAL ETHICS / SPECIALIZED ETHICS

47
 MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
DILEMMA

ACTIVITY:

Identification
1. A body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion, laws, belief or culture.
MORALITY
2. It refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
in a non-moral way.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
3. Standards by which we judge art as good or rubbish.
STANDARDS OF AESTHETICS
4. It is a difficult situation in which you have to choose between two or more
alternatives.
DILEMMA
5. It is the enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
VALUES
6. Standards by which we judge something as legal or illegal.
STANDARDS OF LAW
7. A greek word means ‘premise’ or ‘assumption’.
LEMMA

Identify if it is Moral Standard, Non-moral Standard or Dilemma

1. Child Abuse MORAL STANDARDS
2. Cheating during exam NON-MORAL STANDARDS
3. Going to school or attending the funeral DILEMMA
4. One betrays the other, while the other remains silent DILEMMA
5. Table manners NON-MORAL STANDARDS
6. Girls without makeup are beautiful NON-MORAL STANDARDS
7. Murder MORAL STANDARDS
8. Selling marijuana is illegal in the Philippines NON-MORAL STANDARDS

48
 THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

ACTIVITY:

Test I. Identify the following.

1. It is thought experiments which ask you to imagine a difficult situation and
decide what you think the morally correct course of action would be?
MORAL DILEMMA

2. He defined the three stages of moral development?

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

3. On what year did Lawrence Kohlberg agreed with Piaget’s theory of moral
development?
1958

4. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled?

PRE-CONVENTIONAL

5. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal

relationships?
CONVENTIONAL

6. On this stage a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract

principles and values.
POST CONVENTIONAL

7. The world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.

SOCIAL-CONTRACT ORIENTATION

8. The children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
GOOD BOY, NICE GIRL ORIENTATION

9. A child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.

OBEDIENCE-AND-PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION

10. The moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles.
UNIVERSAL-ETHICAL-PRINCIPAL ORIENTATION

49
 FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM - RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S
ACTS AND OTHERS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND
IMPARTIALITY

ACTIVITY:

Identification and Enumeration

1. It is having an ability to act or change without constraint.
FREEDOM
2. In philosophical discourse, freedom is discussed in the context of _______ and
___________, balanced by ___________. (3 points)
FREE WILL, SELF- DETERMINATION, MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
3. Two aspects of freedom by Steiner.
FREEDOM OF THOUGHT AND FREEDOM OF ACTION
4. It is sometimes referred to as rationality.
REASON
5. Requirements of ethical thinking and reasoning. (4 points)
NORMATIVITY, INTERPERSONALITY, RATIONALITY,
UNIVERSALITY AND CIRCUMSTANCES

True or False
1. Rationality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the
benefit to one person over another for improper reasons.
FALSE
2. Cognitive-Instrumental Reason is what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in
the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures.
FALSE
3. Aesthetic reason is typically found in works of art and literature, and
encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that
those practices embody.
TRUE
4. Moral-Practical Reason is the kind of reason employed by the sciences. It is used
to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world
on the basis of its hypotheses.
FALSE
5. Freedom is necessary for morality.
TRUE

50
 THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

ACTIVITY:

Fill in the blanks.

1. A person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own action is called ________.
MORAL AGENT
2. The word 'culture' hails from the Latin word ______ which is derived from
colere that means, 'to cultivate'. CULTURA
3. ______ is our way of life. It includes our values, beliefs, customs, languages and
traditions. CULTURE
4. For a moral agent must also be capable of conforming to at least some of the
demands of _____. MORALITY
5. _______ is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to
culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really “better” than any other.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
6. _______ is an individual's ability to make moral judgments based on some
notion of right and wrong and to be held accountable for these actions.
MORAL AGENCY
7. Children, and adults with certain _______ disabilities, may have little or no
capacity to be moral agents. MENTAL
8. _________ means that no moral or ethical system can be considered the “best,”
or “worst". and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be considered
“_________” or “________. (3 points)
CULTURAL RELATIVISM, RIGHT AND WRONG

Enumeration
1. Give five major characteristics of culture.
•CULTURE IS SHARED
•CULTURE IS LEARNED
•CULTURE CHANGES
•CULTURE TAKES YEARS TO FORM
•CULTURE CANNOT BE ISOLATED
•CULTURE IS ESSENTIAL
•CULTURE IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS GENERATIONS.

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 THE MORAL AGENTS:
A. CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
3. ASIAN AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR:
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ACTIVITY:

Identification
1. The way of life of a group of people?
CULTURE

2. Is the primary agent of cultural diffusion?

FAMILY

3. One of the factors why Asians have different values and practices?
RELIGION

4. It teaches that man has to conform and follow the flow of nature?
TAOISM

5. This is very important for the Chinese in their interaction with other people?
SOCIALLY HIERARCHY

6. They also have high regard for social hierarchy like Chinese?
JAPANESE

7. The traditional greeting among Hindus in India?

NAMASTE

8. What does Salaam aleikum mean?

MAY PEACE BE WITH YOU

9. The very sensitive part of the body believed by the Indians?

HEAD

10. The basic and most important unit of a Filipino’s life?

FAMILY

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 THE MORAL AGENTS:
B. THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
1. ROLE OF CULTURE
2. THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVITY:

A. Identification. Write the correct answers.

1. It describes the best traits of human action.
VIRTUE
2. The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality
is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations
and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.
POST-CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL
3. A person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm.
MORAL AGENT
4. Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into
consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws.
LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
5. It is the process by which human beings develop the ability to distinguish
between good and bad behaviors. We are aware on the ways on how we
distinguish right from wrong as we grow and mature.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT

B. Enumeration
3. Give the 3 levels of Moral Development (3 points)
LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL

4. Give the stages of Moral Development (7 points)

STAGE 1: PUNISHMENT/OBEDIENCE ORIENTATION
STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL PURPOSE ORIENTATION
STAGE 3: GOOD BOY/NICE GIRL ORIENTATION
STAGE 4: LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLE ORIENTATION

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 HOW TO GET TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF CONSCIENCE – BASED
MORAL DECISIONS

ACTIVITY:

Identification
1. It is a decision made in a way so that action or inaction conforms to one’s moral.
MORAL DECISION

2. What is the penalty of violating morals?

LOSS OF SELF-ESTEEM

3. It is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an

individual’s moral philosophy or value system.
CONSCIENCE

4. It is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an

act that conflicts with their moral values.
CONSCIENCE

5. What are the three levels of conscience? (3 points)

SUBCONSCIOUS
CONSCIOUS
SUPERCONSCIOUS

6. It is relatively dim in awareness.

SUBCONSCIOUS

7. It is the rational awareness that usually guides your daily decisions.

CONSCIOUS

8. In this level the problem and the solution are seen as one.
SUPER CONSCIOUS

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 LINKS AND SOURCES:
BOOKS AND OTHER MATHERIALS
 Bulaong, O. Jr., et al., Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation, Rex Book Store
 Corpuz, Ronald M., et al., Ethics: Standards of Human Conduct
Fernando, Emmanuel Q., Environmental Ethics and Law, 2012
Padilla, Reynaldo A., Business Ethics (A College Textbook), Rex Book Store
Padilla, Reynaldo A., Business Ethics, Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2004
 Roa, Fr. Floriano C., Business Ethics and Social Responsibility, Rex Bookstore,
Inc. 2008
 Ryle, Gilbert., Dilemmas, The Tarner Lectures.1953

WEBSITES
 https://brainly.ph/question/250719
 http://citywalktalk.blogspot.com/2009/11/is-virtue-habit.html?m=1
 https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/culture/cultural-competence/culture-
and-diversity/main
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-
stages-of-moral-development/
 http://eduhutch.blogspot.com/2014/03/etymological-meaning-of-
philosophy_21.html
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscience
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_values
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_agency
 https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/moral-agent
 https://historyplex.com/characteristics-of-culture
 https://medium.com/@tomarsamar/how-does-culture-influence-behaviour-
27223c4c32f9
 http://ourhappyschool.com/node/824
 http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/ethics/
 http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/06/08/ethics/moral-standards/
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-moral-development-definition-
stages.html
 https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/cultural-relativism.htm
https://www.ananda.org/meditation/meditation-support/articles/the-three-
levels-of-consciousness/

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 https://www.britannica.com/science/Lawrence-Kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-
development
 https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/k/Kohlberg%2527s_sta
ges_of_moral_development.htm
 https://www.ethicssage.com/2010/12/what-is-ethics.html
https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/
https://www.getrealphilippines.com/2013/07/asian-values/
 https://www.google.com/search?q=Stages+of+moral+development&source=ln
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixzZ_947PgAhUbAogKHVcsA9EQ_AUIDig
B&biw=1366&bih=635#imgrc=kYk_nkClDYXiNM:
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2073227
 http://www.nysec.org/whatis
 https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/kohlbergstheory/
 https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/ethics-everyone/201411/the-habit-
model-moral-development
 https://www.quora.com/How-do-general-ethics-differ-from-special-ethics
https://www.quora.com/What-is-moral-decision-What-are-examples-of-this
 https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/moral-agents/v-1
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/ethics-
and-virtue/
 https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
 https://www.slideshare.net/caloy089/cultureof-asian-ways-and
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=135&v=5czp9S4u26M

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