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Collection refers to the collection of sewage from different points of generation and conveying sewage to any
desired points through a network of sewers. Sewage treatment includes any process, which may be used to
favourably modify the characteristics of sewage. Sewage disposal refers to the discharge of liquid wastes to
the environment. Normally, but not always, disposal implies some degree of treatment prior to discharge.
Building sewer
Branch (lateral)
sewers
Main sewer
Trunk sewer
Manhole
To treatment Intercepting sewer
plant
Figure 1 Layout of sewers
Outfall sewer
SEA
Estimation of ‘design flow’ is important in that it ultimately determines the sizes of sewers to be provided.
These must be of adequate capacity to handle the waste flow at the end of the design period. Wastewater
flows are highly variable and contain floating and suspended particles. Consideration of flow hydraulics in
sewer design is, therefore, important in minimizing solids deposition in sewers, thereby minimizing
maintenance requirements.
Evaluation of such factors for a particular region leads to an estimate of the design population, which is
essential for determining wastewater quantities.
Population estimates are often made using the following simple equation
Pn = Po [1 + r ] n
where Pn = future population after n years
Po = present population
r = population growth rate (as decimal)
The quantity of sewage will also be affected by factors affecting water use, such as
characteristics (economic level) of the population (50-380 lpcd)
metering of water supply
other factors (e.g. climate, quality, pressure, and conservation programs)
Groundwater infiltration rate may vary widely e.g., from 3,000 litres/hectare/day to 50,000 litres/hectare/day
depending on age of the sewers, sewer materials, type of area and level of the groundwater table.
The wastewater flow is not uniform throughout the day and throughout the year. It varies during the day, due
to the varying use of water for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes. Variations throughout the year
is due to seasonal variation of rainfall and rainfall intensity. Due to such variations in wastewater flow, the
following terms are used:
Average Dry Weather Flow (ADWF)
Peak Dry Weather Flow (PDWF)
Peak Wet Weather flow (PWWF)
The ratio of peak to average dry weather flow is termed as the “peak factor”. It is a variable and depends
greatly on population size and density. Generally, the ratio will fall as the number of contributors increases.
Storm contribution is made up of direct entry of storm water through flooded manholes, illegal connections of
storm run off, and also by infiltration of groundwater through defective or fractured sewers and fittings.
4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes -5-
Minimum flows occur during early morning, when water consumption is lowest. The first peak flow
generally occurs just after the late morning water use. A second peak flow generally occurs in the early
evening.
The average daily dry weather flow is calculated as the sum of the flows from the different types of land use
from all individual parts of the catchment.
∑ D = P.qr + Ac .qc + Ai..qi
where P = population
qr = residential discharge rate (say, 100-400 lpcd)
Ac = commercial area
qc = commercial discharge rate (say, 0.25 – 1.5 l/sec/ha for sub-urban business areas but may be up to
8.0 l/sec/ha in high-rise business area).
Ai = industrial area
qi = industrial discharge rate (depends on industry type, e.g. , 0.25 – 0.35 l/sec/ha)
Values of ‘d’ may vary from 3.0 for small areas to 1.7 for larger areas.
The infiltration factor or the wet weather flow factor, i, varies from 1.0 for small areas to 0.5 for large areas in
a manner similar to the decrease in rainfall intensity with increasing area.
The ground constant, K depends on many factors. It varies with different ground types: higher values, for
clayey soils and lower values for sandy soils. It also varies with density of residential areas (i.e., number of
connections), type of sewer joints (low values for good joints), and different types of land use (e.g.,
residential, commercial and industrial). For industrial and commercial areas, the values are reduced to a
quarter. The value of K will vary from place to place and should be determined from observations over many
years.
The basis of the minimum velocity approach is that the mean tractive force (shear) between the flowing
wastewater and the pipe wall must, at least once per day, be as great as the tractive force on a similar size
pipe graded to run full at 0.6m/sec. It is on this basis that the design of sewers relies on the peak dry weather
flow at least once a day.
Because of the fluctuations in wastewater flows, it is not possible to maintain self-cleansing velocity at all
times, and during minimum flow conditions, the velocity will be much less resulting in deposition of
materials in the sewer and hence blockages. To avoid this problem,
i) A minimum velocity of 0.3 m/s should be maintained in the sewer
ii) A minimum velocity of at least 0.75m/s is recommended at least once a day
iii) A range of 0.3-1m/s is acceptable.
The maximum permissible velocity at which no such scouring action takes place is known as non-scouring
velocity. This velocity mainly depends on sewer materials. Recommended non-scouring velocities are:
2.5 – 3.0 m/sec for concrete sewers.
3.0 – 3.5 m/sec for vitrified sewers
2.0 – 2.5 m/sec for brick sewers
3.5 – 4.0 m/sec for cast iron sewers
Hazens-Williams
Values of Kstr have a relationship with the wall roughness coefficient K for given hydraulic radius. This
relationship is represented in charts (Fig. 2) from which the values of Kstr can be read for the different
materials whose K values are known once the R value is determined. Common K values used for designing
water pipelines and sewers are:
K (mm)
• Street sewers 1.5
• Main sewers 1.0
• Pumping mains 0.4
The design of pipelines for partially filled flows makes use of tables or charts. This chart (Fig. 3) for partially
filled flows relates the depth of flow to the velocity and discharge. The chart shows that when the flow is >
50% full (= h/D>50% or Q/Qfull> 50%) flow resistance due to trapped air in the pipe occurs and this reduces
the velocity of flow hence a low v/ vfull .
Design procedure
i) Choose the diameter, D
ii) If for example K is given, use graph/tables to determine Kstr.
iii) Calculate A and R if h is known
iv) For the terrain choose S> Smin
v) Calculate Qfull from the selected velocity equation
vi) From tables of Q/Qfull, V/Vfull vs h/D determine Q and V for different h/D.
Note:Velocity of flow should be > 0.3m/s (or at least 0.75m/s once a day). Typical range 3-5m/s.
The design for a sewer system should consider the following (see the figure below):
• Layout the sewers
− Conveniently with respect to dwellings, streets, treatment plant
− Economics
− Grade/topography depending on map of area
• Place manholes at the appropriate locations (see section 4.11)
• Name manholes for example 1, 2, 3 etc
• Divide area into contributory areas to determine effective areas for each sewer
• Name areas e.g., A1, A2, A3 etc.
4 2
1.5
5 6 3 1
1.5
9 8 7
11 10
1.5
15 14 13 12
WWTP
The various steps to be followed for the construction of sewers are as follows:
marking of alignment before starting excavation;
setting benchmarks as reference points for maintaining accurate sewer invert level;
establishing grade lines by installing sight rails for determining reduced levels of excavations,
bedding and sewer invert;
excavating the trench with or without shoring (timbering), depending on soil condition and depth of
trenches;
dewatering of trenches when excavating below groundwater table;
providing bedding for surface of uniform and required grading;
laying of sewers in a proper fashion and jointing of pipes using appropriate jointing materials;
testing of sewers against leakage before backfilling of trenches;
backfilling of trenches in layers and properly compacting by ramming and watering.
The minimum recommended cover to protect the sewer against surface forces = 0.8m.
Manholes are usually located at the following points in the sewage distribution network:
At points of change in direction;
At junctions;
Where there is change of grade/gradient;
A change of diameter of pipes e.g. from a lateral to a main, or within the same pipe, but increased
discharges due a number of connected people;
At given intervals for very long straight sewers. On main sewers, manholes are usually installed at
intervals of 40 to 80 metres.
4.12 Hazards of Sewer Maintenance
The following hazards are associated with sewer maintenance
Direct contact with sewage and its pathogens
Dangerous gases that are found especially in large deep sewers. These gases may lead to - suffocation
(asphyxiation) e.g. H2S; Fire risks as they are highly flammable e.g., CH4, H2 etc.