CHAPTER 5 CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN

CONTENTS
• Review of wastewater treatment plant layout
• Design of trickling filter systems (Low rate & High rate trickling filters)
• Design of activated sludge systems - Modification of ASS, Sludge disposal

Symbols and Dimensions

Q flow rate (m3/h ; I/s)
QR return flow rate
QD daily wastewater production (m3/d)
L load (kg BOD/d)
VL volume load (kg BOfl/m3.d)
LA surface load (kg BOD/m2.d)
S substrate concentration (mass/volume) or wastewater concentration (mg BOD/L; mg COD/L)
Si, Se, So, St
substrate conc. (or wastewater conc.) of influent, effluent, at time 0, at time t
X biomass concentration (mass/volume)
WS weight of biomass or sludge weight (kg MLSS)
M mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (g MLSS / I; kg MLSS/m3)
F/M food/biomass - ratio
LS sludge load (kg BOD/kg MLSS.d)
T time (S; h; d)
tAT detention time in the aeration tank a aeration time
Tst detention tine in the sedimentation tank
TX residence time of biomass in the system
tS sludge age = residence time of the activated sludge in the system
PX net growth of biomass (mass/time)
PS net growth of AS excess sludge production (kg MLSS/d)
Y yield coefficient = biomass produced per unit mass of substrate utilized (mass/mass)
YS sludge yield coefficient = AS produced per unit weight of BOD utilized (kg MLSS/kg BOD)
KP growth rate or biomass production rate or sludge production rate (mass/mass.time; kg MLSS/kg MLSS.d)
kp max maximum rate of biomass production
kd rate of decay (mass/ mass.time ; g biomass /g biomass.h; kg MLSS / kg MLSS.d)
ks substrate utilization rate (mass/mass.time ; g substrate/g biomass.h ; kg BOD/ kg MLSS.day)
krs substrate respiration rate
kre endogenous respiration rate
km overall reaction rate (mass/ mass.time)
S* substrate~concentration or wastewater concentration at which kp =
kp max/2 (mass/volume; mg BOD/l)
E efficiency of the biological system with regard to
SVI sludge volume Index (ml/g MLSS)
R recirculation ratio (%)
a oxygen consumed by biomass for substrate respiration per unit weight of substrate utilized mass/mass; g
O2/g substrate)
as oxygen consumed by AS for substrate respiration per unit weight of BOD utilized (kg 02/kg BOD)
T temperature (0C)
K overall oxygen transfer coefficient (m3/h.kg O2/g O2)
kT overall oxygen transfer coefficient at temperature T
C gas concentration or oxygen concentration (mass/volume; mg/i)
CS* oxygen conc. at saturation in tap water of T = 10 oC and at air pressure I bar (mg/I)
CST oxygen conc. in water or In mixed liquor at saturation and temperature T (mg/I)
CL oxygen conc. In water or In mixed liquor under the conditions of operation (mg(i)
qA hydraulic surface load (m3/m2.h = m/h)
SLS surface load with sludge (m3 sludge/m2.h )
V volume of reactor or tank (m3 )
VAT volume of aeration tank (m3)
VST volume of sedimentation tank (m3)
A area (m2; cm2)
AST surface area of sedimentation tank (m2)
AS activated sludge
4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 1
 5.1 Review of characteristics of wastewater and wastewater treatment plant
(You are encouraged to review your third year notes on wastewater characteristics and management)

Review of wastewater treatment plant layout

Secondary treatment

Influent Pump Bar Aerated Primary Final Chlorine

station rack grit settling Aeration settling contact
removal tank tank tank tank
Effluent

Return
sludge

Grit Waste
activated
Recycled sludge
flows Thickened waste
Blending activated sludge
Flotation
& storage thickener
Thickener effluent
Blended
sludge Gas

Sludge Digested sludge Sludge Ultimate

digester dewatering Disposal

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 2

Industrial and Domestic wastewater treatment
Processes may be
• Aerobic (Trickling filters, Rotating discs, Activated sludge systems-ASS, Algal ponds and Aerated
lagoons)
• Anaerobic (Anaerobic ponds, Upflow Anaerobic Sludge blanket reactor-UASB, Anaerobic filters)

The choice between aerobic and anaerobic treatment processes is based on the following factors:

Factor (per kg BOD removed) Aerobic Anaerobic

1. Energy requirement 1-2 KWh -
2. Energy production - 0.7m3 CH4
3. Sludge production 500 - 700 grams/d/sludge 80-300gds
4. Nutrient requirement BOD: N:P 120:5:1 250:5:1
5. Odors ? Problem of H2S
6. Sludge growth rate Slow
7. Efficiency (of removal) BOD 90-99% 80-90%
Kjedahl Nitrogen 80-90% 10%
8. Sensitivity to toxicity More sensitive
9. Organic loading kg/BOD/m3d ASS: 1-3 UASB: 5-50
10. Setting processes OK Gases?
11. Sludge storage (dry period of plant Not possible Possible (if T<15°C)
redundancy)

5.2 Principles of Biological Wastewater Treatment

In aerobic biological sewage treatment unstable organic solids in the suspended, colloidal or dissolved state
are decomposed and converted into settleable biological flocs and into stable inorganic compounds, which
remain in solution or escape as a gas.

This process of bioflocculation and mineralization is brought about in the presence of dissolved oxygen by
a diversified microflora and -fauna, primarily bacteria and fungi in close association with species of
protozoa. The bacteria utilize the organic solids as food. Principal workmen are certain zoogleal bacteria,
such as Zoogloea ramigera, which surround themselves with voluminous masses of gelatinous slime. This
bacterial jelly has the property of absorbing organic matter from solution and of adsorbing colloidal solids
and finely suspended particles. Slime production is essential for floc formation.

Biological sewage treatment is most commonly applied by means of trickling filters or of activated sludge.
The principal function schemes of the two methods are shown in Fig. 1. The biochemical processes
involved in both methods are practically alike, both methods may serve to produce a well-oxidised effluent.
The difference is primarily one of the physical and technical procedure: The necessary contact of organic
solids in sewage and biologically active masses is accomplished in trickling filters by allowing the sewage
to flow as a thin film over the slimy microbial growth on the surface of the filter stones whereas in
activated sludge treatment the sewage and the flocculant activated sludge is mixed, agitated and aerated
within a tank.

The choice of the method of biological waste treatment depends on economical considerations, particularly
on energy and labour cost, further on the climatical situation and last but not least on the availability of
trained and understanding personnel for operation and supervision.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 3

 Activated sludge system

Diss.+ Susp. Dissolved

Org. S AT Biol Flocs (settleble)
FST Inorg. S
Influent Biochem + Diss.Inorg.s Effluent
Sedimentation
Reactions and
Flocculation

Biological flocs (Return Sludge)

Biol. Sludge
(Excess sludge)

Trickling Filter system

Diss.+Susp. Solids
Biol Flocs (settableble)
(not settleable) TF + Diss. Inorg. Solids Diss.Inorg. S
Biochemical FST
Influent Reactions Sedimentation Effluent

Return of Effluent Water

Sludge (Humus)

Fig. 1 Principal scheme of removal of degradable organic solids by the activated sludge process and the
trickling filter process

5.3 Description and Design of the Activated Sludge Process

The activated sludge process (AS-process) may be defined as a biological sewage treatment process, in
which a mixture of sewage and flocculent activated sludge (mixed liquor) is agitated and aerated. The
activated sludge portion is continuously returned to the process. The excess sludge, resulting from sludge
growth during continued operation, is wasted.

The important units of an AS-system are the aeration tanks with the devices for aeration and agitation and
the final sedimentation tanks with their devices for sludge removal. The sludge return from the
sedimentation tanks to the aeration tanks is facilitated by means of pumps. The excess sludge is usually
treated and disposed together with the sludge from primary sedimentation.

Preliminary mechanical treatment of the raw sewage ahead of the AS-process is generally necessary:
Removal of coarse material by means of screens, sand and grit removal by grit chambers, flotation and
skimming in case of excessive quantities of oil and grease, and elimination of the settleable solids in
primary sedimentation tanks. However there is less need for a high degree of sedimentation ahead of AS-

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 4

 treatment than is in case of trickling filter treatment. Primary sedimentation is even omitted in some
modifications of the AS-process.

5.3.1 Reactor Types

With respect to the hydraulic flow characteristics two principal types of continuous flow reactors are
differentiated:
The "completely mixed flow reactor (CMF-reactor)" and the longitudinal flow-reactor, frequently called
"plug flow reactor (PF-reactor)" (Fig. 2). The aeration tank of an AS-plant can be regarded as biochemical
continuous flow reactor.

The fluid entering an ideal CMF-reactor is instantly dispersed throughout the whole tank volume. The
detention time of the fluid elements within the tank ranges from 0 to ∞. Within a CMF tank serving as a
biochemical reactor the concentration of the substrate is uniform throughout the tank and equal to the
effluent concentration, Se. Hence the reaction rate which depends on the substrate concentration (as
expressed for example by Monod’s equation) is comparatively low. And accordingly long reaction time is
necessary to produce the required low effluent concentration.

QSi QSe QSi QSe

Si Se

Se

(a) (b)

S S
Si Si

S Se
tank length tank length

Fig. 2 Flow scheme of (a) CMF- reactor and (b) PF- reactor

In an ideal PF-Reactor the fluid flows horizontally from the inlet to the outlet in an orderly manner. Under
ideal PF-conditions there is no longitudinal mixing or dispersion of the fluid. The detention time of all fluid
elements within the tank is equal to the nominal detention time (=V/Qdes).

5.3.2 Comparison of the CMF- and the PF-Reactor

i) The reaction time, needed in a CMF-reactor to produce the required effluent concentration Se is
considerably longer than in a PF-reactor. Hence a large reactor volume is needed in a CMF-reactor
than in a PF-reactor.
ii) On the other hand, the CMF-reactor has the advantage of dampening and minimising surge and
shock loadings and of reducing influent toxic material concentration by mixing and dilution, and of
equalising other variations in influent wastewater characteristics. That is why this type of reaction
tank is especially suited for the treatment of industrial wastes, which are discharged with wide
variations of flow and concentration.
iii) For the same reasons reaction tanks of the CMF-type are also frequently used for the purpose of
treating domestic wastewater in small communities ("extended aeration").
iv) Plug flow tanks are frequently used in middle or large size communities for the treatment of
municipal wastewater, even when it contains some industrial wastewater. They may also be used to

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 5

 treat industrial effluents, which are discharged separately or only with moderate variations of flow
and concentration.

5.3.3 Introduction to a Mathematical Approach to the Activated Sludge Process

A description of the conventional AS-process by means of a mathematical approach may be helpful for
better understanding of the process kinetics and to explain the significance of the most important operation
parameters. The description of the AS-process by means of a mathematical model necessitates the
evaluation of substrate removal, production of activated sludge, and oxygen requirements. The substrate
concentration is mostly expressed in terms of BOD. In order to simplify the mathematical approach, the
sludge concentration can be replaced by the concentration of active biomass, assuming that both
concentrations are proportional. It is further on assumed that the aeration tank is functioning as a CMF-
reactor and that no biological action is going on within the final sedimentation tank.

Reactor
Sedimentation tank
effluent
Influent
X Xe
Q X, Se, V Se Se
Si
Xi M Q+Qr Q-Qex

Xr
M Xr
Se Se excess sludge
Qr
Sludge recirculation Qex

Fig. 3 Flow scheme of the activated sludge system

Si = influent substrate concentration (total BOD) (mg/l or g/m3)

Se = effluent substrate concentration (soluble BOD) (mg/l or g/m3)
Q = influent flow (m3/d)
Qr = return sludge flow (m3/d)
Qex = excess sludge flow (m3/d)
X = biomass concentration (mass/volume)
Xo = biomass concentration in influent (mass/volume)
M = mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (gMLSS/l; kgMLSS/m3)
Xr = return activated sludge suspended solids concentration (mg/l or g/m3)
VAT = Reactor volume (m3)

Two mass balances can be done, one for the substrate and the other for the biomass. These mass balances
are essential for the sizing of the biological reactor.

Biomass mass balance

In the reactor, suppose the rate of growth of bacterial cell is designated rg
mass
rg = = K p X LLLLL (1)
volume * time
Where X = concentration of microorganisms and Kp = specific growth rate (t-1)
rg = F(X, S), where S is the concentration of the substrate (usually expressed in terms of BOD)

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 6

 Kp

Kpmax

1/2Kpmax

S* SCMF SPF S
According to Monod’s kinetic equation,

Se
K p = k p max * LLLLL (2)
S + Se
*

With kpmax = max biomass growth rate, S* = substrate concentration at 1/2Kpmax and Se is the substrate
concentration in the water.
Substituting Kp as defined in eq.(2) in eq. (1) gives

k p max* XS e
rg = LLLLL (3)
S * + Se

Growth yield, Y
The growth yield, Y is defined as the ratio of the change of increment of biomass (∆X) to a resultant
change in the utilization of substrate (∆S). This is represented as
∆X dX
Y= ⇒ lim ∆S →0 Y = LLLLL (4)
∆S dS

Endogenous respiration
Some energy is derived from the internal oxidation of the micro-organisms/biomass through endogenous
respiration rather than external substrate oxidation. In this case, the biomass balance becomes

Net growth = total growth − biomass loss due to endogeneous respiration

 dX   dX   dX 
  =  −  LLLLL (5)
 dt  N  dt  T  dt  E

Biomass loss follows 1st order kinetics, that is, the rate at which the biomass is lost to endogeneous
respiration is proportional to that present.

 dX   dX 
  ∝ X ⇒  = k d X LLLLL (6)
 dt  E  dt  E
where kd is the endogeneous decay coefficient (t-1).

Substituting eq. (6) in eq. (5) gives

 dX   dX 
  =  − k d X LLLLL (5)
 dt  N  dt  T

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 7

But from (4)
dX dX dt dX dt
Y= = * = *
dS dS dt dt dS

dX dS
⇒ =Y LLLLL (6)
dt dt

Hence substitution of the total growth given by eq. (6) into eq.(5) gives the net rate of growth biomass as

 dX  dS
  =Y − kd X
 dt  N dt

Considering the biomass mass balance of the reactor which is given as

rate of accumulation of microorganisms = rate of input − rate of outflow + net growth

dX
V = QX i − QX + Vrg
dt

dX  k p max XS 
⇒ V = QX i − QX + V  * − k d X  LLLLL ( A)
dt  S +S 
(X i < X )
Assuming steady conditions (here the accumulation is zero) and simplifying the above equation by
considering that X0 =0 gives eq. (A) as

QX  k p max XS 
=  * − k d X 
V  S +S 

Substrate removal
The substrate mass balance of the reactor is given as

rate of accumulation = rate of inflow − rate of outflow + net reduction

dS
V = QS i − QS + VrsLLLLL (7)
dt
rs is the substrate utilization rate (mass/(unit volume*time)) and is given as

− k s XS e
rs = LLLLL (8)
S * + Se

Where ks is the maximum substrate utilization rate.

Substitution of eq.(8) into eq. (7) therefore yields

dS  k XS 
V = QS i − QS e − V  *s e  LLLLL ( B )

dt  S + Se 

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 8

Assuming steady conditions (here, the accumulation is zero), and making the substitution ks = kpmax/Y into
eq.(B) yields

QS i QS e 1 k p max . X .S e
− = . *
V V Y S + Se
The above equation can be written as
1
QS i − .k p . X .V AT = Q.S e which leads to Q (Si - Se) = 1/Y Kp. X .VAT
Y
1
(S i − S e ) Y .k p . X .V AT 1 Wx
E= = = .k p . This is the efficiency of the system where
Si (Q.S i ) Y L

Wx/L = 1/ “F/M” ratio

Hence the efficiency may be expressed as a function of the food-biomass-ratio (F/M).

That is E = (1/Y) (Kp / F:M ratio)

5.3.4 Operation and Design Parameters

5.3.4.1 Sludge Load (F/M-Ratio) and Sludge Age
As noted in section 5.3.3, the efficiency of the AS-process as to substrate removal or in technical terms
BOD-reduction depends to a large extent on the "F/M" ratio, which is frequently, also called the "sludge
load". Hence the sludge load is the governing design parameter. In technical terms it is defined as

L L
Ls = = [kgBOD / kgMLSS.d ]
V AT .M WS

Filtered BOD

Unfiltered BOD

The significance of the sludge load with

reduction of degradable organic carbon
or of BOD has been proved by field
studies in numerous AS-plants. This as
well as nitrification following some
plant investigations is represented in
Fig. 4.

Treatment with a sludge load of ≤ 0.3

kg BOD/kg MLSS is regarded as low
load treatment resulting in a BOD-
reduction of mostly ≥90 %, while the
application of sludge load of > 1.0 kg
BOD/kg MLSS is frequently called
high-load treatment.

F:M

Fig. 4 Utilization of degradable organic carbon

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 9

A lowering of the sludge load below 0.3 kg BOD/kg MLSS.d do not improve the efficiency of BOD
reduction very significantly but do result in increased nitrogen removal by nitrification. Sludge load levels
of Ls≤ 0.05 kg BOD/kg MLSS.d result in sludge stabilisation. The degree of nitrification depends on
sludge load and temperature.

The sludge age, ts is the overall time that the sludge remains in the system (d). This is also referred to as the
biological solids retention time. There is a close correlation of sludge load, Ls, and sludge age, ts, which in
technical terms is defined as

V AT .M Ws 1
ts = = =
Ps Ps k p

where VAT = tank volume (m3)

Ps = net growth of activated sludge (excess sludge production) (kgMLSS/d)
kp = biomass growth rate (d-1)
M = Mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (kgMLSS/m3)

With a chosen sludge load the sludge age is also given and vice versa. Hence the sludge age may be used
as the basic design parameter as well as the sludge load. Conventional full biological treatment for a BOD
reduction of about 90% requires a sludge age from 3-4 days, whereas 30 -40 days are required for sludge
stabilisation.

5.3.4.2 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids Concentration, M

Mixed liquor suspended solids is the concentration of active biomass in the system. Activated sludge plants
treating municipal wastewater are mostly operated at suspended solids concentrations of the mixed liquor
(MLSS) in the range from 2 to 5 kg MLSS/m3. From section 5.3.4.1, the influence of the MLSS-
concentration on the required aeration tank volume follows:

VAT = L
Ls . M
The volume of the final sedimentation also depends on the MLSS-concentration as follows:
VST = AST . Dm = Qdes . M . SVI . Dm
SLs

SVI (m3/kg MLSS); SLs is the surface loading of sludge on the sedimentation tank (m3sludgel/m2.h); Qdes is
the design flow; Dm is the effective or mean depth of the tank (m) (for a rectangular section this is the mid-
depth).

From the above, it is seen that for economic reasons, a high Si or SLs or low SVI calls for a comparatively
high MLSS concentration (M) and vice versa.

The first step in the design computation of an AS-system is in general the choice of the sludge load Ls and
of the MLSS-concentration M. Suggested design figures, which may be used in case of a BOD range (in
the presettled sewage) from 100 to 200 mg/l are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Suggested design figures for normal municipal wastewater with SI = 100 - 200 mg/L BOD
Required degree of E% Ls M tAT
treatment Kg BOD/kg Kg MLSS/m3 hours
MLSS.d
Partial ≤80 > 1.0 2 1
Full ≥ 90 0.3 3 2
Full + T = 7o C > 90 0.1 3.5 6
nitrification 12o C > 90 0.2 3.5 3
17o C > 90 0.3 3.5 2.5
Sludge stabilization > 93 0.05 4 24
4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 10
5.3.4.3 Aeration Time (= Reaction Time)

This refers to the hydraulic retention time (detention of the liquid) and is given by

V AT
t AT =
Qdes

With VAT = L/(Ls.M) and a known design flow rate Qdes the aeration time can also be calculated as:

L
t AT =
MLs Qdes

In a system, M, Ls and Qdes are usually fixed and hence tAT is function of L. This implies that the aeration
time is a function of the strength of the wastewater. In the case of a dilute wastewater the aeration time out
may become very short. With regard to the time requirements for the physical and biological processes and
to the hydraulic situation in the tank the aeration times should not be less than the tAT values given in Table
1.

Note that tAT << ts where the latter is the retention time of the solids in the system. Why?

5.3.4.4 Sludge Recirculation Ratio, R (QR/Q = M/(MR-M)

The sludge recirculation ratio, R is given by

Qr M
= where MR is the mixed liquor suspended solids in the return sludge.
Q MR − M

The MLSS-concentration of the return sludge (MR) ranges mostly from 6 - 12 kg MLSS/m3.

MR is not easily determined in field operations. Instead we try to relate the MR value to the SVI. The
determination of MR in this case is by simulating what is taking place in the final sedimentation tank and
determining the SVI. SVI is an indication of the settleability of sludge in the FST.

Sludge
from FST
(1)

1L
Cylinder
1L capacity
Decant
supernatant (3)
Sludge from FST
allowed to settle for
30mins (2)

ml
Dry & weighto obtain dry
weight of solids (4)

If we assume SS concentration in experimental sludge = SS concn in ASS then

1  gSS  1000  kgSS 

MR = or  
SVI  ml  SVI  m3 

In the field, SVI determined (from MR values) is always less than that determined in the lab. This implies
that SVI lab incorporates safety factor.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 11

For the field,

M .100 M .100 M .100.SVI

R% = = = in the field for Mfield and SVIfield .
MR − M 1000 1000 − M .SVI
−M
SVI

To relate field values to laboratory values, multiply lab values by a factor of 1.2 that is,
M R field = 1.2 M R lab

With this, the recirculation ratio, R% can be expressed as

R% =
100.M .SVI 10 −3 (
=
)M .SVI .10 −1
for SVI in m3/kgMLSS
−3 −3
1.2 − M .SVI .10 1.2 − M .SVI .10

This formula may be used to estimate the capacity of the recirculation pumps in plant design. It indicates,
that the required recirculation ratio depends on the MLSS concentration in the aeration tank and on the
sludge volume index. Nowadays most AS-plants are designed for a recirculation ratio of 100 % or even
more. This relatively high figure is chosen to shorten the detention time of the sludge in the final
sedimentation tank and to achieve the return of a fresh and active sludge. The required total pump capacity
for sludge recirculation should be distributed on two or more pumps, thus enabling the operator to change
the recirculation ratio according to changes of the sludge volume index, which may particularly occur on
account of industrial waste water components.

5.3.4.5 Excess Sludge production

The excess sludge production (or net growth of activated sludge) can be expressed as

Ps = Y s . E . L - kds . M . VAT
100
Sludge production - sludge decay

The sludge yield coefficient Ys usually lies mostly within 0,5 to 0.65 kg MLSS/kg BOD whereas the decay
rate Kds ranges from 0.03 to 0.15 kg MLSS/kg MLSS.d, depending on the sludge load (F/M ratio) and
temperature. Kds has a wide range and thus the value chosen has an important effect on the design of the
system. To determine which values to use for municipal or industrial wastewater pilot studies are
undertaken or empirical formulae are used.

An empirical formula for the computation of the excess sludge production, which has proven reliable and
can be used for design purposes in case of municipal wastewater of normal composition, has been
employed by Hunken:

Ps (kg MLSS/d) = 1.2 . Ls0.23 . E . L

100

5.3.5 Aeration
The quantity of oxygen required in the system should be such that the following demands are met:
• Oxidation of the carbonaceous organic matter
o Oxidation of the organic carbon to supply energy for bacterial synthesis
o Endogenous respiration of the bacterial cells
• Oxidation of the nitrogenous matter (nitrification)

This is mathematically written as,

Oxygen supply = substrate respiration + endogeneous respiration + Full nitrification

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 12
 a s .E.L
Os [kgO2 / d ] = + k re MV AT + 3.5 L NOX
100

where as = factor of O2 consumption rate per kg BOD

= 0.5kg O2/kg BOD
kre = f (Ls) and is the endogenous respiration rate (kgO2/kgMLSS.d)
LNOX = kgNH4-N/d, the nitrogen load.

Some values of kre are given below:

Ls, kg BOD/kgMLSS.d ≤0.1 0.3 0.5 ≥1.0

kre, kgO2/kgMLSS.d 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.15

There are two ways to calculate oxygen requirements for the satisfaction of the carbonaceous demand.
Both are equivalent and inter-related, and naturally lead to the same values:
• Method based on total carbonaceous demand and on the removal of excess sludge
• Method based on the oxygen demand for synthesis and for endogenous respiration
The oxygen demand for the nitrification is based on a stoichiometric relation with the oxidised ammonia.

Nitrification
Step 1
NH 4+ + 1.5O2 + 2 HCO3− Nitrosomon
  as
→ NO2− + 2 H 2 CO3 + H 2 O + ∆E

Step 2
NO2− + 0.5O2 Nitrobacte
 r → NO3− + ∆E

The overall reaction is

NH 4+ + 2O2 + 2 HCO3− 
→ NO3− + 2 H 2 CO3 + H 2 O + ∆E

Based on the above the following conversions are obtained

3.56 gO2 gNH 4+
4.57 gO2 gN
The latter implies that we would require 4.57gO2 to convert 1g of N2 to nitrate.

5.3.5.1 Oxygenation rate & Oxygenation capacity

An aeration system consists of the aeration devices and the aeration tank. The design of the aeration tank
with regard to dimensions, shape, flow pattern has to be such that the chosen aeration device can be
operated with optimal oxygenation efficiency.

On the basis of Fick’s law the oxygenation rate of an aeration system can be expressed as

OR (kgO2 / h) = k T (c s − c L )LLL (i )

Where kT is called the “oxygen transfer coefficient” at temperature T, cs is the saturation concentration of
O2 gas in water at a given temperature and cL is the O2 concentration in water. The oxygenation rate for
standard conditions (tap water, T= 10ºC, air pressure = 760mmHg, cL = 0) is also designated as the
“oxygenation capacity” of the aeration system, which can be derived from eq. (i) as

OC (kgO2 / h) = k10 .c s* LLLL (iii )

Where c s* = oxygen concentration in tap water at T = 10ºC and air pressure = 760 mmHg.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 13

The coefficients kT or k10 can be found for a given aeration system by an aeration experiment as described
in a number of texts. From eqs. (i) and (ii) follows

k10 .c s*
OC = OR. LLLL (iii )
k T (c s − c L )

The actual oxygen supply rate under operational conditions may be written as OR*α with the oxygen
utilization factor α expressing that portion of dissolved oxygen which is available to the microorganisms.
The magnitude of α depends on the presence of surface-active agents in the water (e.g., detergents) and
amounts in general from 0.7 to 0.9 though usually 0.8 is adopted.

As the actual oxygen supply rate must satisfy the oxygen consumption requirements of the activated sludge
it is to be recognised that

α * OR = Os LLL (iv)

From eqs. (iii) and (iv) follows

Osc s* k k D10
OC = * * 10 which with 10 = can be rewritten as
α c s − c L kT kT DT

Os c s* D10
OC = * * LLL (v)
α cs − cL DT
where DT = diffusion constant at temperature T (cm2/s).

D10
Figures for for oxygen in water are
DT
T, °C 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
D10 1.000 0.964 0.928 0.895 0.861 0.830 0.799 0.770
DT

Eq. (v) enables the designing engineer to compute the required OC value of the aeration system, when the
oxygen consumption rate of the ASS is known. He should ask the manufacturer of the aeration device to
guarantee this oxygenation capacity under given conditions with respect to type, shape and dimensions of
the aeration tank.

5.3.5.2 Aeration devices

There are 2 types of aeration devices.
i) Compressed air aeration by means of submerge air diffusers
ii) Mechanical aeration by means of surface aerators mounted on either horizontal or vertical
shafts.

Compressed air (bubble) aeration

Air is supplied via pipe and compressed through aeration material e.g., porous plates, porous domes and
aeration tubes.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 14

Air blower
Air blower

PLATES DOMES TUBES

Characteristics
• High oxygenation capacity -High oxygenation capacity -Wide aeration band
• Poor agitation -Less agitation -Better agitation but
• Presedimentation required may req more energy

Mechanical aeration

The tank shape does affect the aeration with this method as shown below.

cL = c

cL = 0

Dead zone

UNDESIRABLE CONDITION OPTIMUM CONDITION BAFFLED TANK-Compromise

- dead zones at bottom and corners - no dead zones - aerated volume is small
- possibility of short-circuiting - construction not practical - no possibility of short-circuiting
of surface water

The air for aeration should be clean and free from oil (etc), which may block pipes.

Comparison between compressed air and mechanical aeration systems

Compressed air aeration
1. Cost of installation is high
2. Possibility of introducing additional blowers
depending on demand, thus more economical
3. Standby capacity possible
4. Possibility of pore blockage and surface clogging
5. Maintenance requires emptying of tank and access to
bottom to remove and replace plates, domes etc
6. Fewer parts wear out since they are immovable
7.
8.
Mechanical aeration
Cost of installation is lower
Introduction of additional rotors not economical since the
reactor must be modified
If aerator rotor breaks down system has to be stopped
No possibility of blockage or clogging
Easier to maintain (though it may require more frequent
repair and servicing)
Rotation of rotors imparts moment on shaft leading to
frequent bearing failure
In temperate regions, during winter icicles may form on
rotors
The production of aerosols by surface aerators may also
be a problem

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 15

 5.3.6 Final Sedimentation
The sedimentation tank is an important part of the activated sludge system. It serves two purposes:
i) Separation of the biological sludge floc from the clear effluent (= clarification)
ii) Thickening of the settled sludge, which is later on returned to the aeration tank.

Sedimentation of activated sludge can be demonstrated by means of a batch experiment similar to the
sludge volume index (SVI) test. When a sample of mixed liquor containing suspended solids
concentrations in excess of about 1000 mg SS/l is allowed to stand within a glass cylinder, there is a short
initial phase of floc formation, which ends with the production of a visible interface between the
suspension containing the flocculent suspended solids in high concentration, and the clear supernatant. A
plot of the interface height against time for a particular sample will take the form shown in Fig. 5.
Initial phase of flocculation
Well shaken
suspension from A
FST
Liquor/slime Vs = hindered settling velocity, here the flocs and interface have constant
interface velocity. Depends on volume Conc. [Conc., mg/l * Sp. Vol, ml/mg of the
suspended particles, M*SVI]

B
Suspension Reduced Vs, increased conc. of flocs
SSv≥1000mg/l
All flocs beneath interface, touch each other and
C enter sludge layer
Compaction of
Sludge sludge (thickening)
t
Settling column, Sludge build up
Ø 10cm

Fig. 5 Height of interface versus time (Batch experiment)

A correlation of hindered settling velocity (Vs) and the product M.SVI (which is closely related to the
specific sludge volume) has been found from the above-mentioned batch experiments and is expressed by a
curve nearly equal to that shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Correlation of Vs and the product M.SVI

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 16

Fig. 6 shows that under most favourable conditions of M.SVI ≥ 1000l sludge/m3, Vs = 0.5m/hr while for
the normal range M.SVI ≤ 600l sludge/m3, Vs ≥ 1.0m/hr.

Design of sedimentation tank

Clarification purpose
Knowing M.SVI, Vs can be found or vice versa from the graph (Fig. 6), then since Vs and Q are known,
AST can be calculated. The conditions are such that,

Q Q
qA = ≤ Vs from which AST =   LL (i ) where qA is the hydraulic surface loading (m3/m2/hr).
AST  qA 

Thickening purpose
The minimum depth, Dmin (mid. depth for a rectangular tank or mean depth for other shapes) for sufficient
thickening following from field work activities in a large number of AS systems was noted be ≥ 2.7m
provided the surface loading with sludge (SLs) ≤ 0.3 m3 sludge/m2.hr. This follows that

Q.M .SVI Q.M .SVI

SLs = ≤ 0.3 from which the required surface area, AST ≥ LLL (ii ) with SVI
AST 0.3
expressed in m3/kg SS.

Besides the hydraulic surface load and the surface load with sludge, the detention time is also an important
parameter, because time is needed for flocculation and thickening. This is determined as
VST
t ST = LLL (iii )
Q

tst is chosen ≥ 3.5hrs and the tank volume can then be determined from the eq.(iii). In horizontal flow tanks
a detention time of ≥3.5hrs is practically always given, when the area requirements according to eqs. (i)
and (ii) are satisfied and when the depth or in case of a sloped bottom the mean depth:
VST
Dm = is chosen as ≥ 2.7m.
AST
Suggested design data for final sedimentation tanks are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Design data for final sedimentation tanks

DWF RW
(Qdes) (in case of combined wastewater
collection)
Hydr.surf. load m/h < 0,5 < 1,0
3 2
Surf.load with sludge m sl./m ,h < 0,3 < 0,5
Detention time hrs < 3,5 > 2,0
Horizon.flow velocity mm/s < 10 < 15
in rectangular tanks
Weir loading l/m.s <5 < 10

For final sedimentation in middle or large size activated sludge plants mostly horizontal flow tanks of
circular or rectangular shape are used (refer to notes on water treatment). In circular tanks the necessary
continuous sludge removal is much better achieved than in rectangular tanks. Multiple circular tanks
require more ground area than multiple rectangular tanks because these can be combined within one block.

Circular tanks are designed with diameters from 20 m to 50 m, mostly 30 m to 40 m. The bottom should
have a slope of 1:8 or more. Rectangular tanks have a length from about 20 m to 60 m and a width from
about 5 m to 10 m. The ratio length: width should be within the range from 3: 1 to 6: 1. The bottom is
mostly flat.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 17

5.3.7 Operational problems of activated sludge systems
The following conditions may be observed in the activated sludge process:
Operational problem Causes
1. White foam on Very low MLSS due to
aeration tank -Too high F/M ratio
-Presence of toxic wastes
-Insufficient dissolved oxygen, DO
2. Rising sludge in final − Excessive nitrification (N2) in final
clarifier clarifier leads to floating sludge
− Low sludge removal rate (reducing
DO)
3. Pinpoint floc in final − Low F/M ratio
clarifier − Excessive aeration resulting in
(Sphaerotilus natans) formation of dispersed floc
4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes
Corrective measures
-Increase sludge return rate
-Ensure that no toxic wastes reach plant
-Increase DO by increasing aeration rate
− Reduce sludge age by increasing
sludge wasting rate; If possible,
reduce oxygen supply to reduce
nitrification
− Increase sludge withdrawal rate from
final clarifier
− Gradually increase sludge wasting rate
− Ensure proper aeration and mixing in
aeration tank
Page 18
5.4 Description and Design of the Trickling Filter Process
5.4.1 Principles of the TF-Process

The trickling filter (TF) (Fig.7) is a bed of highly permeable media, usually of circular shape and
surrounded by a tight wall. The media consists mostly of crushed rocks or gravel, sometimes also of plastic
material. A rotary distributor distributes the presettled wastewater as uniformly as possible over the top of
the bed. It trickles through the bed and is then collected in an under drain system which is designed as a
porous structure through which air can circulate.

Fig. 7 Trickling Filter

Since the wastewater is flowing as a thin film over the surface of the filter material, the organic solids
present in the water come in contact with the microbial slime layer, which is rapidly growing on the
surfaces of the rocks. The organic solids are absorbed and adsorbed by the biological slime to be degraded
by aerobic microorganisms. As the thickness of the slime layer increases, the microorganisms near the
media face are not any more sufficiently supplied with organic food and with oxygen. Therefore they enter
into an endogenous phase and lose their ability to cling to the media surface. The flowing liquid then
washes the slime off the media, and a new slime layer starts to grow. This phenomenon of losing the
biological slime is called "sloughing". The higher the organic load on the filter, the more rapidly for that
reason the growth rate of biological slime. This implies that a higher hydraulic load is required to produce a
sloughing effect sufficient to prevent clogging of the voids between the rocks. Too much sludge within or
even clogging of the voids would reduce or interrupt the air flow through the filter loading leading to
insufficient oxygen supply to the microorganisms. Under steady state conditions the rate at which the
biological sludge is flushed out of the filter is equal to the sludge growth rate in the filter.

The trickling filter does not need artificial aeration. Sufficient ventilation and oxygen supply is normally
brought about by the natural air draft (caused by the difference of temperatures inside and outside of the
filter) through the filter. The flow out of the trickling filter containing the slimy sludge particles is led to a
sedimentation tank in which the biological sludge is separated from the clear effluent. As these sludge
particles are comparatively compact and heavy, they settle rapidly. For that reason the SVI-test applied to
examine the settling and compacting properties of the flocculent activated sludge in AS aeration tanks is
not used in TF-treatment.
4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 19
Based on the BOD-load and hydraulic loading, two types of trickling filters are usually differentiated: The
low-rate and the high-rate filter.

5.4.2 Low (Standard) Rate Trickling Filter

The important process parameter of the low rate TF is its low organic load, also expressed as volume load
LV = L/VF. It is in the range of 0.10 – 0.15 kg BOD/ m3, d. The low organic load is comparable to a low
sludge load or F/M ratio in an AS system. Because of the resulting small growth rate of the biological
sludge, it is not necessary to apply hydraulic loading for the prevention of filter clogging. Hence the
residence time of the sludge within the filter can become very 1ong, resulting in a very high degree of
biological treatment: A BOD-reduction of mostly >95 % and full nitrification is achieved. The sludge
quantities delivered by the filter are only small. The sludge is mineralised to an extent, which can be called
"stabilization”. It does not need further treatment and can be dewatered and dried in the open air without
disturbing smell production.

Design considerations
Effective depth of the filter bed 2.00 - 2.50 m
Size of media 4 cm.
Support material (stone or rock) dia. 10 cm or more, about 0.5 m deep

Advantages of LRFT
i) There is no need for recirculation of effluent water. To keep the flow rate to the TF sufficient for
the rotation of the rotary distributor, intermittent loading may be practiced, with a pump or siphon
becoming operational when the water level in the sump is adequate to rotate the distributor arms.
ii) Operation and maintenance of low-rate filters are simple and do not ask for much understanding of
the operators.
iii) The filters produce little sludge, which is easily disposed of.
iv) Their efficiency with respect to BOD-reduction and nitrification is higher than what can be
obtained by one-stage high rate filters.

Disadvantages of LRTF
i) Larger land requirement and hence higher capital costs than high-rate filters.
ii) They are less flexible to changing load conditions
iii) They have larger tendency to clogging and ponding after comparatively short periods of
overloading.
iv) They are more susceptible to the growth of filter flies (Psychoda) and to difficulties because of ice
production at freezing temperatures.

Low-rate trickling filters are especially suited to the situations in small communities or single wastewater
delivering institutions. A classical wastewater treatment plant utilising a low rate filter consists of a hand
leaned bar screen, an Imhoff tank, the low-rate trickling filter and a small final sedimentation tank, which
sometimes has been omitted.

5.4.3 High-rate Trickling Filter

5.4.3.1 Operation Parameters and Factors affecting the Efficiency

5.4.3.1.1 Organic and Hydraulic Load
The high-rate TF (HRTF) was developed to reduce the area requirements and construction costs of LRTFs
by permitting a higher organic load. The high food supply to the microorganisms results in rapid biomass
growth and a comparatively high production rate of biological sludge. Rapid clogging of the filters occurs
unless the net sludge growth is continuously flushed out of the filter. The hydraulic load on the filter must
be sufficient to produce this flushing effect. Therefore recirculation of effluent water is an indispensable
requirement in high-rate filter treatment (Fig. 8).

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 20

 Q, Si QF, SF TF FST
PST

QR, Se

Fig. 8: Flow sheet of a high-rate TF plant

For these reasons and because of the difficulty to quantify biomass growth and F/M-ratio in a TF the
operation and design of high-rate filters is nowadays basing on the parameters:

Volume load: LV = L/VF [kg BOD/m3 .d] (0.20 - 1.5 kg BOD/m3.d)

Hydraulic surface load: qA = Q/AF [m3 / m2 .h] (0.7 - 1.5 m/h)

5.4.3.1.2 Recirculation
Recirculation is frequently limited to that rate, which is necessary to keep the hydraulic load on the filter
constantly at the required level (max QDWF = Q). In that case, the rate QF pumped on the filter is mostly
chosen equal to or only little more than the maximal hourly Dry Weather flow. The recirculation rate QR is
then at any instant: QR = QF – Q

Additional recirculation above this rate can be applied for the following purposes:
a. to improve the efficiency of treatment by increasing the contact time of the waste water within
the filter,
b. to dilute high concentrated waste water; (BOD-concentration onto the filter should be less than 200
mg/l or better still is < 150 mg/l).
c. to dampen peaks of concentration and of flow,
d. to reduce the effect of slugs of toxic or otherwise inhibiting substances.
e. maintain flow rates

The recirculation ratio R = QR /Q is a relevant operation and design parameter only when additional
recirculation is to improve the efficiency of treatment as defined in (a.) above. Ranges of 2-6 are applied.
As the recirculation flow is taken out of the effluent of the final sedimentation tank it adds to the hydraulic
load on this tank. For that reason high recirculation is asking for a comparatively large final sedimentation
tank.

5.4.4 Depth
The effective depth of the filter is chosen with regard to loading, recirculation, media, topography etc. The
common range for filters filled with rock material is 2.0 - 3.5 m. However filters with a depth up to 4.5 m
are often found in some European countries. A smaller depth, down to 1 m, is frequently used in USA. The
higher the recirculation ratio the smaller is in general the depth.

5.4.5 Media
The filter media should provide a large specific surface area and also a large void space. Natural rock of
diameter 40- 80 mm with a void space of 40-50% and plastic material having a void space up to 90% have
been used.

5.4.6 Some Design Formulae and Criteria

5.4.6.1 Evaluation of Formulae

The design formulae discussed here and others were developed on the basis of statistically evaluated data
gained in experimental or fieldwork. They do not consider in a distinct way the influence of substrate
concentration, temperature, type and dimensions of media, and other important factors. Consequently they
express the effect of the different operation parameters on the efficiency merely in an approximate way.
Nevertheless they can be used for practical design and operation purposes with satisfactory results as long
as their insufficiencies are not overseen.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 21

5.4.6.2 The Velz-Schultz Formula
As a result of experimental work on biological treatment of municipal waste water the removal rate of
organic matter mostly given as BOD, is frequently expressed as:
dS
= k * S with k (conc. S/conc. S * time = 1/time) = overall reaction rate constant. Integration of this
dt
equation leads to the well-known formula
S t = S o * e − k .t LLLLL (i)

Assuming the contact time in a TF to be proportional to the depth, eq. (i) may be written in the somewhat
modified form:

S e = S F *10 − K .D LLLL (ii )

Considering that the vertical flow velocity through the filter depends on the hydraulic load, Schultz
expressed the contact time as:
C.D
tF = LLLL (iii ) which with eq.(i) leads to:
Q An

S e = S i .e − K .D Q An LLLLL (iv)

with: K = reaction rate constant (= 0.51-0.76d-1 from experiments)

D = effective depth (ft)
QA = hydraulic surface load (gpm/ft2)
n = factor, depending on properties of media (= 0.67 for rock material)

The influence of temperature can be expressed as

K T = K 20 *1.035 (T − 20 )

5.4.6.3 The NRC – Formula

A formula, which is rather widely used up to now, has been developed by the National Research Council
(NRC) as a result of evaluating statistically the operation of many trickling filter plants in USA. It gives the
relationship of efficiency and BOD-load as
100
E= LLLLL (v)
1 + a .LD.F
AF

Within this formula the effect of recirculation is expressed by a "hypothetical effective depth":
Deff = D .F with F = 1 + R
2
(1+ 0.1R )
By the factor F the effect of recirculation is taken into account.

When recirculation is applied merely for the purpose to keep the hydraulic load at the required level
(virtually no recirculation), eq.(i) can be simplified: with R = 0 and F = 1 follows:
100
E= LLLL (vi)
1 + a LV

The factor a depends primarily on the concentration and composition of the wastewater, temperature, and
the filter media. For municipal wastewater with average composition, it can be taken out of the following
table, basing on the evaluation of data from fieldwork and literature:

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 22

 Si (mgBOD/l) 100 150 200
T (ºC) : 12 a: 0.50 0.46 0.42
16 0.44 0.40 0.36
20 0.38 0.34 0.30

5.4.6.4 Two-Stage Treatment

In middle-size or large waste water treatment plants one-stage trickling filter systems are in general
uneconomic, when a BOD-reduction of >85%, related to the BOD in the presettled waste water, is
required. Full nitrification can be achieved by one-stage treatment only at comparatively high wastewater
temperature ≥18°C, when a low volume load Lv≤ 0,25 and a recirculation ratio R ≤ 1 are applied. Therefore
two-stage treatment is frequently an adequate solution when a high quality effluent is to be produced.

The most frequently chosen system of a two-stage trickling filter plant is shown in Fig. 9. Most economical
is a combination of a high loaded first stage and a low loaded second stage with the filters of both stages
having the same size.

PS1
TFI ST I PS2 TF II ST II
PST

Fig. 9: Flow sheet of a two-stage high-rate TF-plant

From the NRC-formula, the first stage can be dimensioned by means of eqs. (v) and (vi). The second stage
is then to be designed by means of the formula:
100
E II
= LLLLLL (vii)
1+
a
. LV

1− EI F
S i − S eI
with EI = efficiency of the first stage in % = .100
Si
S − Se
EII = efficiency of the second stage in % = eI .100
S eI

In two-stage treatment recirculation is mostly used for providing sufficient hydraulic loading. Without
additional recirculation eq. (vii) can be simplified to:
100
E II
=
a
1+
1− EI
. LV

5.4.7 Final Sedimentation

Purpose: to separate the biological sludge from the clarified effluent. The sludge from the high-rate
trickling filters needs further processing, whereas the sludge from low-rate filters is mostly stabilized at an
extent that it can be dewatered and dried in the open air without any pre-treatment.

The design of these tanks is similar to the design of primary sedimentation tanks, except that the hydraulic
surface load is based on the plant flow (max QDWF) plus the recycle flow. The following design data can be
used:

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 23

 DWF RWF
(in case of combined wastewater collection)
Detention time (hrs) 2.0 - 3.0 ≥ 1.0
Overflowrate (m/h) 1.0 - 1.5 ≤ 2.5
Horiz. velocity (in rectangular tanks) (mm/s) < 10 ≤ 20
Depth (m) ~2.5 ~2.5

5.4.8 Operation and Maintenance

TF plants are less flexible in operation than AS plants, however some flexibility can be achieved by the
control of recirculation. Experiment with laboratory supervision will help to optimise recirculation.

Clogging of the filter or a portion of it may be caused by overloading, poor ventilation, or poor distribution
of the wastewater over the bed area. It leads to ponding on the surface and unequal distribution of the load
on the filter. Clogging results in disturbed ventilation, odour problems, and anaerobic conditions in the
filter, and a marked reduction of the efficiency of treatment. Relief may be obtained by increasing the
hydraulic load on the filter or slowing down the rotation speed of the rotary distributor for the purpose of
improving the flushing action. Stopping the rotation of the distributor and changing stepwise the position
of the distributor arms can strengthen this effect. Flooding of the filter (if it had been designed for
flooding), creating anaerobic conditions, and subsequent flushing may also 1ead to an immediate relief.
Chlorination of the influent has sometimes also proven helpful.

Satisfactory performance of the filter is also depending on frequent and regular cleaning the arms of the
rotary distributors for the purpose to prevent clogging of the nozzles.

The growth of filter flies, which is primarily observed on low-rate filters, can be controlled by flooding the
filter for 24 hrs or by chlorinating the influent of the filter.

4th Year Public Health Engineering Practice, Lecture Notes Page 24