NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

by Ray L. Lyerly and Walter Mitchell, III

 PLANTS
Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in
the life of every man, woman, and child in the !Tf
United States today. In the years ahead it will
affect increasingly all the peoples of the earth.
It is essential that all Americans gain an
understanding of this vital force if they are to
discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as
citizens and if they are to realize fully the
myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers w^'rwOBI^^^M ^ ^ H HBf- - . 1
them. ^^df^^^^H ^^1•p . 3
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 NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Nuclear energy is playing a vital role m
the life of every man, woman, and child in the by Ray L. Lyeriy and Walter Mitchell, ill
United States today. In the years ahead it will
affect increasingly all the peoples of the earth.
It is essential that all Americans gain an CONTENTS
understanding of this vital force if they are to
discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as
citizens and if they are to realize fully the
WHY USE NUCLEAR POWER? 1
myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers
them. FROM ATOMS TO ELECTRICITY 3
The United States Atomic Energy Com- REACTOR TYPES 5
mission provides this booklet to help you Boilmg-Water Reactors 7
achieve such understanding. Pressurized-Water Reactors 8
Gas-Cooled Reactors 9
Heavy-Water Reactors 11
Breeder Reactors 12
TYPICAL PLANT DESIGN FEATURES 15
The Reactor Vessel 17
The Core 18
The Primary Coolant System 21
The Overall Plant 21
THE COST OF NUCLEAR POWER 24
PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES 27
DEVELOPMENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES 44
Canada 44
Great Britam 45
•'t/
France 46
Japan 47
Soviet Union 48
THE COVER
West Germany 49
The San Onofre Nuclear Generating Sta- Other Countries 50
tion near San Clemente, California, one
of the new generation of nuclear power THE LAST WORD 51
plants, with an electrical capacity of SUGGESTED REFERENCES 52
430,000 kilowatts. It began commercial
operation m 1967. (See page 40.)
UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
Office of Information Services
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-60199
1967; 1973 (rev.)
The vessel and head of Unit #2 or the D} ( sdtn Sucltat Pom r Station is shoun on its 74U-niile ba)ge t>ippoi>i Mount
Vernon, Indiana iiheie it uas /ab> icated to Morris, Illinois It neighs 800 tons and is approximately 72 teet long and
22 feet in diameter (See Figiii e IS on page 28.)

a J" it 'I fc, I

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 AR POWER PLANTS

By RAY L. LYERLY and

WALTER MITCHELL, III

WHY USE NUCLEAR POWER?

Millions of Americans use electricity derived from
atomic energy. Millions more of us will light our homes
and power our appliances with electricity from nuclear
plants that are now being built. And m the future we, and
the other peoples of the world, undoubtedly will find that
nuclear energy is the source of a large portion of our
electric power.
What IS behind this pattern of change? Why have we
entered an e r a m which nuclear power plants—unknown a
relatively few y e a r s ago — are a commercial reality, p r o -
viding guaranteed performance at attractive cost? To
answer these questions we must look to the future a s well
a s the present.
In our growing world, our energy needs are growing
even faster than our population Projected energy r e q u i r e -
ments for the future suggest strongly that we must employ
atomic energy to generate electric power or face depletion
of our fossil-fuel r e s o u r c e s — c o a l , oil, and g a s . In short,
both conservation and economic considerations will r e -
quire us to use nuclear energy to generate the electricity
that supports our civilization.
h t- ^

1
 Until we reach the time when nuclear power plants a r e
as common a s fossil-fueled or hydroelectric plants, many
people will wonder how the nuclear plants work, how much
they cost, where they a r e located, and what kinds of r e -
actors they use. The purpose of this booklet is to answer
these questions. In doing so, it will consider only central
station plants, which a r e those that provide electric power
for established utility s y s t e m s .

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i&otcc-as. x r a a n c i r - X r : . Ciz: r e a n l T undergo fission -when a
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that Zj i c i r t a; * - f KT-T^-I; in addition, two or three new

3
 Until we reach the time when nuclear power plants are
as common as fossil-fueled or hydroelectric plants, many
people will wonder how the nuclear plants work, how much
they cost, where they are located, and what kinds of r e -
actors they use. The purpose of this booklet is to answer
these questions. In doing so, it will consider only central
station plants, which are those that provide electric power
for established utility systems.

FROM ATOMS TO ELECTRICITY

A nuclear power plant is similar to a conventional
thermal power plant: Each type uses steam to drive a
turbine generator that produces electricity. The heat energy
of the steam is converted to mechanical energy in the
turbine, and the generator then converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy, or electricity. Although the
turbine functions equally well no matter where the steam
comes from, the origin of tlie steam is important to us,
for it IS here that nuclear and conventional plants differ.
How is steam produced ? Well, conventional plants burn
coal, oil, or gas, and heat from the combustion of these
fossil fuels boils water to make steam. In nuclear plants,
on the other hand, no burning or combustion takes place.
Nuclear fission is used instead. The fission reaction gen-
erates heat, and this heat is transferred, sometimes
indirectly, to the water that produces the steam. Conse-
quently, it can be said that the fission reaction in a nuclear
plant serves the same purpose—the generation of heat —
as the burning of a fossil fuel in a conventional plant. We
will take a look at nuclear reactor systems a little later,
but first we should review the fission reaction.
The fission process requires a particular kind of heavy
element, such as uranium or plutonium, as a basic ma-
terial. Let us consider uranium. Natural uranium is a
mixture of three isotopes, atomic forms that are chemi-
cally alike but vary in mass. An atom of one of these
isotopes, uranium-235, can readily undergo fission when a
free neutron (an energetic subatomic particle) strikes its
heavy central nucleus. The nucleus breaks into two pieces
that fly apart at high speed; in addition, two or three new

3
neutrons are released, as illustrated in Figure 1. The
kinetic energy of the flying fission fragments is converted
to heat when they collide with surrounding atoms, and the
released neutrons cause a chain reaction by initiating new
fissions in other ^^^U atoms.
^ • l Fission
_ fragment
/
Nucleus / j^O
Neutron
__ neutrons
# "I'm interested in buying a coffeepot", he would probably
\
\ Figure 1 A typical
V fission reaction.
^ R Fission
^ " ^ fragment
Sustaining the chain reaction is important because more
than 30 billion fissions must occur in one second to r e -
lease each watt of energy. If the chain reaction is to be
useful, the fissions must occur at a desired rate, and the
heat that is generated by the process must be removed.
The job of the nuclear reactor, then, is to provide an
environment in which fission reactions can be initiated,
sustained, and controlled, and to make possible recovery
of the resultant heat.*
The essential components of a reactor are:
—the fuel, which fissions to produce neutrons and to
release energy;
—the control elements, which are used to set the energy
release rate; and
—the cooling fluid, which removes the heat generated
in the reactor.
Some of the relationships between reactors and the
actual production of steam are illustrated in the next
section, which describes some common nuclear steam-
supply systems.
• F o r more about fission and the operation of r e a c t o r s , see Our
Atomic Woylda.nd Nuclear Reactors, other booklets in this s e r i e s .
4 5
REACTOR TYPES
If you went into an appliance store and told a salesman,
ask, "What kind?" Depending on your reply, you might be
shown a percolator, a drip pot, or some other sort of
coffee maker: Each type brews coffee, but each does it in
a different way. Reactors, of course, aren't coffeepots,
but reactors do have a common product—heat—and they
do come in several types.
Before we consider the differences in reactors, let's
take a moment to consider something that has a bearing
on the development of nuclear power plants in our country.
This is the fact that our nuclear fuel resources are not
unlimited. It is obvious tliat nuclear power plants would
not have much of a future if they used up the available fuel
in a relatively short time.
What is not so obvious is that among the different types
of nuclear reactors there are wide differences in their
net consumption of nuclear fuel. On one end of the scale,
there are reactors that have a high net fuel consumption;
these are used in most of the commercial nuclear power
plants operating in the United States today. Next, come
reactors with a low, but positive, net fuel consumption. The
ultimate reactors, insofar as fuel conservation is con-
cerned, are those that have a negative net fuel consumption,
which means that they produce more fuel than they use.*
These are known as breeder reactors and will be popular
for central station nuclear power plants that begin opera-
tion in, say, 10 or 20 years. The breeding principle has
•Actually, they produce new fissionable material that can be
processed for use as fuel.
neutrons are released, as illustrated in Figure 1. The
kinetic energy of the flying fission fragments is converted
to heat when they collide with surrounding atoms, and the
released neutrons cause a chain reaction by initiating new
fissions in other ^^^U atoms.
/ g f c Fission
.-.^ fragment
/
Nucleus / j»-0
U ^^^MSF~~ ^ neutrons
Neutron # -™™.
\ o
\ Figure 1 A typical
V fission reaction.
^ ^ n Fission
^ " ^ fragment
Sustaining the chain reaction is important because more
than 30 billion fissions must occur in one second to r e -
lease each watt of energy. If the chain reaction is to be
useful, the fissions must occur at a desired rate, and the
heat that is generated by the process must be removed.
The job of the nuclear reactor, then, is to provide an
environment in which fission reactions can be initiated,
sustained, and controlled, and to make possible recovery
of the resultant heat.*
The essential components of a reactor are:
—the fuel, which fissions to produce neutrons and to
release energy;
—the control elements, which are used to set the energy
release rate; and
—the cooling fluid, which removes the heat generated
in the reactor.
Some of the relationships between reactors and the
actual production of steam are illustrated in the next
section, which describes some common nuclear steam-
supply systems.
*Por more about fission and the operation of r e a c t o r s , see Our
Atomic Worlda.nd Nuclear Reactors, other booklets in this s e r i e s .
4 5
REACTOR TYPES
If you went into an appliance store and told a salesman,
"I'm interested in buying a coffeepot", he would probably
ask, "What kind?" Depending on your reply, you might be
shown a percolator, a drip pot, or some other sort of
coffee maker: Each type brews coffee, but each does it in
a different way. Reactors, of course, aren't coffeepots,
but reactors do have a common product—heat—and tliey
do come in several types.
Before we consider the differences in reactors, let's
take a moment to consider something that has a bearing
on the development of nuclear power plants in our country.
This is the fact that our nuclear fuel resources are not
unlimited. It is obvious that nuclear power plants would
not have much of a future if they used up the available fuel
in a relatively short time.
What is not so obvious is that among the different types
of nuclear reactors there are wide differences in tlieir
net consumption of nuclear fuel. On one end of the scale,
there are reactors that have a high net fuel consumption;
these are used in most of the commercial nuclear power
plants operating in the United States today. Next, come
reactors with a low, but positive, net fuel consumption. The
ultimate reactors, insofar as fuel conservation is con-
cerned, are those that have & negative net fuel consumption,
which means that they produce more fuel than they use.*
These are known as breeder reactors and will be popular
for central station nuclear power plants that begin opera-
tion in, say, 10 or 20 years. The breeding principle has
* Actually, they produce new fissionable material th&t can be
processed for use as fuel.
proved workable, and economically attractive r e a c t o r s
must now be developed so that b r e e d e r plants can be
built.*
In the descriptions that follow, we will note the relative
fuel consumption of each type. What we will see for each
is actually the nuclear steam-supply system — that is, the
components used to produce steam for the power-generating
portion of the plant, shown in Figure 2. In this portion,
steam p a s s e s through the turbine and i m p a r t s energy in
the form of r o t a r y motion to the turbine shaft. The shaft
turns the generator rotor and produces electric power.
Steam
Water
Figure 2 The power-generating portion of a nuclear power plant.
When the " s p e n t " steam leaves the turbine, it enters the
condenser, p a s s e s over cooling tubes, and is turned back
into water. This water is pumped back to the nuclear
steam-supply system, where the cycle s t a r t s all over again
with conversion of the water to h i g h - p r e s s u r e , high-
temperature steam. Figure 2 shows the most common
method of cooling: Pumping cool water through the con-
denser tubes and back to the source (river, lake, or some
other large body of water).
*For a more detailed discussion of fuel and its use in reactors,
see Atomic Fuel, a companion booklet in this series.
6 7
The basic components of the power-generating portion
of a nuclear power plant a r e the s a m e r e g a r d l e s s of the
kind of r e a c t o r supplying the heat.
Boiling-Water Reactors
The name of this one tells the story. As shown in
Figure 3, water enters the r e a c t o r and is heated as it
p a s s e s up between the elements of nuclear fuel. Soon
steam collects in the upper portion of the r e a c t o r and
leaves through an outlet pipe. The pipes identified as
" s t e a m " and " w a t e r " would be connected to those similarly
labeled in Figure 2 to form a complete power plant.
Steam
Fuel
Figure 3 Nuclear steam-supply
components in a boiling-ivater • Water
reactor.
The water and steam in a typical boiling-water reactor
a r e kept at a p r e s s u r e of 1000 pounds per square inch
(psi); this is equivalent to tlie p r e s s u r e at a depth of about
one-half mile beneath the surface of tlie s e a . The p r e s -
s u r e r a i s e s the boiling point of the r e a c t o r water to a
high value, so that when steam is produced, its t e m p e r a -
ture and p r e s s u r e a r e great enough for efficient use in the
turbine.
As you know, the steam from a pot of boiling water on a
kitchen stove has a temperature of 212 °F. Steam at that
t e m p e r a t u r e has too low an energy value for use in a
turbine. In order to i n c r e a s e the energy, the steam tem-
p e r a t u r e must be raised. In a reactor, this is done by
operating it at high p r e s s u r e . The principle is s i m i l a r to
that of a p r e s s u r e cooker, which cooks food faster because
proved workable, and economically attractive r e a c t o r s
must now be developed so that b r e e d e r plants can be
built.*
In the descriptions that follow, we will note the relative
fuel consumption of each type. What we will see for each
IS actually the nuclear steam-supply system — that is, the
components used to produce steam for the power-generating
portion of the plant, shown in Figure 2. In this portion,
steam p a s s e s through the turbine and i m p a r t s energy in
the form of r o t a r y motion to the turbine shaft. The shaft
turns the generator rotor and produces electric power.
Figure 2 The power-generating portion of a nuclear power plant.
When the " s p e n t " steam leaves the turbine, it enters the
condenser, p a s s e s over cooling tubes, and is turned back
into water. This water is pumped back to the nuclear
steam-supply system, where the cycle s t a r t s all over again
with conversion of the water to h i g h - p r e s s u r e , high-
temperature steam. Figure 2 shows the most common
method of cooling: Pumping cool water through the con-
denser tubes and back to the source (river, lake, or some
other large body of water).
*For a more detailed discussion of fuel and its use in reactors,
see Atomic Fuel, a companion booklet in this series.
6 7
The basic components of the power-generating portion
of a nuclear power plant a r e the s a m e r e g a r d l e s s of the
kind of r e a c t o r supplying the heat.
Boiling-Water Reactors
The name of this one tells the story. As shown m
Figure 3, water enters the r e a c t o r and is heated as it
p a s s e s up between the elements of nuclear fuel. Soon
steam collects m the upper portion of the r e a c t o r and
leaves through an outlet pipe. The pipes identified as
" s t e a m " and " w a t e r " would be connected to those similarly
labeled in Figure 2 to form a complete power plant.
Steam
Figure 3 iVwc Zear steam-supply
components m a boihng-water Water
reactor.
The water and steam m a typical boiling-water r e a c t o r
a r e kept at a p r e s s u r e of 1000 pounds per square inch
(psi); this i s equivalent to the p r e s s u r e at a depth of about
one-half mile beneath the surface of the s e a . The p r e s -
s u r e r a i s e s the boiling point of the r e a c t o r water to a
high value, so that when steam is produced, its t e m p e r a -
ture and p r e s s u r e a r e great enough for efficient use in the
turbine.
As you know, the steam from a pot of boiling water on a
kitchen stove has a t e m p e r a t u r e of 212°F. Steam at that
temperature has too low an energy value for use in a
turbine. In order to i n c r e a s e the energy, the steam tem-
p e r a t u r e must be raised. In a reactor, this is done by
operating it at high p r e s s u r e . The principle is s i m i l a r to
that of a p r e s s u r e cooker, \yhich cooks food faster because
it gets hotter. At the typical boiling-water r e a c t o r p r e s s u r e
of 1000 psi, the t e m p e r a t u r e of the steam is about 545° F.
A nuclear steam-supply system based on a boiling-water
reactor may appear relatively simple compared with some
of the s y s t e m s discussed and illustrated on the following
p a g e s . While the boiling-water system has only a few
principal components, these a r e much l a r g e r than those in
a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r system, for example. A central s t a -
tion nuclear power plant with an electrical output of around
800,000 kilowatts r e q u i r e s a boilmg-water r e a c t o r vessel
(the container that holds the nuclear fuel) about 70 feet
high by 20 feet in diameter. A p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e -
actor vessel for a plant of the same capacity is only about
40 feet high by 16 feet in diameter. However, there a r e
some additional large components in the p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r
system, so things come out about even on an overall
component weight basis.
Boilmg-water r e a c t o r s have been built and improved
over the y e a r s , and today they a r e sold on a c o m m e r c i a l
basis in the United States. Their net nuclear fuel con-
sumption IS high, like that of p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s ,
which we will discuss now.
Pressurized-Water Reactors
A p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r operates at conditions
under which the water passing through the reactor does
not boil. P r e s s u r e in the r e a c t o r and the piping loop con-
nected to it (see Figure 4) is about 2250 psi, or more than
twice that in a boilmg-water reactor. This very high p r e s -
sure p e r m i t s the water to be heated to 600° F without
boiling. The heated water goes to a steam generator that,
as the name implies, makes the steam that drives the
turbine.
In the steam generator, tlie hot reactor water p a s s e s
through tubes that a r e surrounded by water from the
turbine portion of the plant; this water is at a p r e s s u r e
well below that of the r e a c t o r water system. The tubes
containing hot reactor water heat the surrounding water
and make steam, which goes to the turbine at a t e m p e r a -
ture of about 500°F. The r e a c t o r water leaving the steam
8 9
generator has been cooled by giving up some of its heat,
so it is pumped through the reactor to be heated again and
s t a r t another cycle.
Steam
Figure ^ Nuclear steam-supply
components in a pressurized-
ivater reactor.
Steam generator
Reactor
Water
As you can s e e , a nuclear steam supply that uses a
p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r reactor consists of two separate water
s y s t e m s that meet in the steam generator. The water in
one system does not mix with that in the otlier, but heat is
t r a n s f e r r e d from the reactor system to the steam system.
More information on p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s is given
in the next section.
Gas-Cooled Reactors
The schematic diagram for a gas-cooled reactor in
Figure 5 b e a r s a strong resemblance to the diagram for a
p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r reactor. The principle of operation is
the same for both types: A working fluid t r a n s p o r t s heat
from the reactor to the steam generator, where the heat
makes steam for the turbine.
In a gas-cooled reactor, tlie working fluid is a gas,
usually helium or carbon dioxide. The gas, at a p r e s s u r e
of a few hundred psi, is circulated through the reactor,
the piping, and the steam generator by a blower (fan).
The blower is an impressive piece of machinery, by the
way. The energy required to drive the blowers (there
would be several) for the r e a c t o r of an 800,000-kilowatt
power plant would operate 400,000 20-inch window fans
like those used in homes.
it gets hotter. At the typical boiling-water r e a c t o r p r e s s u r e
of 1000 psi, the t e m p e r a t u r e of the steam is about 545° F.
A nuclear steam-supply system based on a boilmg-water
reactor may appear relatively simple compared with some
of the s y s t e m s discussed and illustrated on the following
p a g e s . While the boiling-water system has only a few
principal components, these a r e much l a r g e r than those in
a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r system, for example. A central s t a -
tion nuclear power plant with an electrical output of around
800,000 kilowatts r e q u i r e s a boiling-water reactor vessel
(the container that holds the nuclear fuel) about 70 feet
high by 20 feet in diameter. A p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e -
actor vessel for a plant of the same capacity is only about
40 feet high by 16 feet in diameter. However, there are
some additional large components in the p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r
system, so things come out about even on an overall
component weight b a s i s .
Boiling-water r e a c t o r s have been built and improved
over the y e a r s , and today they a r e sold on a c o m m e r c i a l
basis in the United States. Their net nuclear fuel con-
sumption i s high, like that of p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s ,
which we will discuss now.
Pressurized-Water Reactors
A p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r operates at conditions
under which the water passing through the r e a c t o r does
not boil. P r e s s u r e in the r e a c t o r and the piping loop con-
nected to it (see Fig-ure 4) is about 2250 psi, or more than
twice that in a boiling-water reactor. This very high p r e s -
sure p e r m i t s the water to be heated to 600° F without
boiling. The heated water goes to a steam generator that,
as the name implies, makes the steam that drives the
turbine.
In the steam generator, the hot reactor water p a s s e s
through tubes that a r e surrounded by water from the
turbine portion of the plant; this water is at a p r e s s u r e
well below that of the r e a c t o r water system. The tubes
containing hot r e a c t o r water heat the surrounding water
and make steam, which goes to the turbine at a t e m p e r a -
t u r e of about 500°F. The r e a c t o r water leaving the steam
8 9
generator has been cooled by giving up some of its heat,
so it is pumped through the reactor to be heated again and
s t a r t another cycle.
Steam
Figure 4 N M C Z e a r steam-supply
components in a pressurized-
water reactor.
Steam generator
Reactor
Water
As you can see, a nuclear steam supply that uses a
p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r reactor consists of two separate water
s y s t e m s that meet in the steam generator. The water in
one system does not mix with that in the other, but heat is
t r a n s f e r r e d from the reactor system to the steam system.
More information on p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s is given
in the next section.
Gas-Cooled Reactors
The schematic diagram for a gas-cooled reactor in
Figure 5 b e a r s a strong resemblance to the diagram for a
p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r . The principle of operation is
the same for both types: A working fluid t r a n s p o r t s heat
from the reactor to the steam generator, where the heat
makes steam for the turbine.
In a gas-cooled reactor, tlie working fluid is a gas,
usually helium or carbon dioxide. The gas, at a p r e s s u r e
of a few hundred psi, is circulated through the reactor,
the piping, and the steam generator by a blower (fan).
The blower is an impressive piece of machinery, by the
way. The energy required to drive the blowers (there
would be several) for the r e a c t o r of an 800,000-kilowatt
power plant would operate 400,000 20-inch window fans
like those used in homes.
•'f'-
The material identified in Figure 5 as "moderator" has
not been discussed before. The moderator is a substance
put in a reactor to slow the neutrons and increase their
effectiveness in causing fissions. In water-cooled reactors
it is not necessary to add solid moderator components.
•Steam
Steam
generator
Figure 5 A'MC / e a r steam-
supply components in a
gas-cooled reactor.
• Water
because the cooling water serves this purpose. Gas isn't
a very good moderator, however, so in gas-cooled reactors
a special material, usually graphite, is built in.
Graphite is a natural choice because it can withstand the
very high temperatures that exist in gas-cooled reactors
(in some, the gas is heated to nearly 1400°F). The high
operating temperatures are put to good use. Steam as hot
as about 1000°F is produced; at this temperature and at
the high pressure that goes with it, the steam can drive a
very efficient turbine.
In addition to its high-temperature performance, a gas-
cooled reactor has the desirable characteristic of low net
fuel consumption; very advanced models, in fact, may be
able to produce more fuel than they consume. But, alas,
all is not good. There are disadvantages, too. Principal
among these is the relatively large-size reactor needed
for a given rate of heat generation. Gas, unfortunately,
just doesn't remove heat very well. Consequently, the rate
of heat generation per unit volume of reactor must be
fairly low to match the relatively poor heat-removal
capability of the gas.
10
Heavy-Water Reactors
In most respects, heavy water (DjO) is like ordinary
water (H2O). (In the formula D2O, the D stands for deu-
terium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen.) It's really not very
heavy (heavy water doesn't feel any heavier, if you hold a
bottle of it, than ordinary water), but the presence of
deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen in a reactor has
pronounced and desirable nuclear effects. There are also
some pretty strong effects on economics, since D2O costs
around $28.50 per pound.
Heavy water is usually used in tube type reactors, in
which the nuclear fuel is positioned inside process tubes
that penetrate a tank. The tank contains the heavy water,
which surrounds the fuel-containing tubes and acts as a
moderator, much as graphite does in gas-cooled reactors.
The fuel is in a form that does not occupy all the space in
the process tubes, so there is room for a cooling fluid to
flow along the fuel elements and remove the heat that is
generated. Figure 6 shows the general arrangement of a
heavy-water reactor.
Steam
Tank'
Steam generator
Figure 6 A'^Mc/ear steam-supply
components m a heavy-water re-
• Water
actor.
Any of several cooling fluids — organic compounds, gas,
water, or heavy water — can be used in heavy-water re-
actors, since the heavy-water moderator is separated
from the cooling fluid by the walls of the process tubes.
11
 The material identified in Figure 5 as "moderator" has
not been discussed before. The moderator is a substance
put in a reactor to slow the neutrons and increase their
effectiveness in causing fissions. In water-cooled reactors
it is not necessary to add solid moderator components.
, /T
•Steam
Steam
generator
Figure 5 Nuclear
supply cotnponents
gas-cooled reactor.
• Water
because the cooling water serves this purpose. Gas isn't
a very good moderator, however, so in gas-cooled reactors
a special material, usually graphite, is built in.
Graphite is a natural choice because it can withstand the
very high temperatures that exist in gas-cooled reactors
(in some, the gas is heated to nearly 1400°F). The high
operating temperatures are put to good tise. Steam as hot
as about 1000°F is produced; at this temperature and at
the high pressure that goes with it, the steam can drive a
very efficient turbine.
In addition to its high-temperature performance, a gas-
cooled reactor has the desirable characteristic of low net
fuel consumption; very advanced models, in fact, may be
able to produce more fuel than they consume. But, alas,
all is not good. There are disadvantages, too. Principal
among these is the relatively large-size reactor needed
for a given rate of heat generation. Gas, unfortunately,
just doesn't remove heat very well. Consequently, the rate
of heat generation per unit volume of reactor must be
fairly low to match the relatively poor heat-removal
capability of the gas.
10
Heavy-Water Reactors
In most respects, heavy water (D2O) is like ordinary
water (H2O). (In the formula D2O, the D stands for deu-
terium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen.) It's really not very
heavy (heavy water doesn't feel any heavier, if you hold a
bottle of it, than ordinary water), but the presence of
deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen in a reactor has
pronounced and desirable nuclear effects. There are also
some pretty strong effects on economics, since D2O costs
around $28.50 per pound.
Heavy water is usually used in tube type reactors, in
which the nuclear fuel is positioned inside process tubes
that penetrate a tank. The tank contains the heavy water,
which surrounds the fuel-containing tubes and acts as a
steam- moderator, much as graphite does in gas-cooled reactors.
in a The fuel is in a form that does not occupy all the space in
the process tubes, so there is room for a cooling fluid to
flow along the fuel elements and remove the heat that is
generated. Figure 6 shows the general arrangement of a
heavy-water reactor.
Steam
Tank
Heavy
water
Steanfi generator
Figure 6 N a c Z e a r steam-supply
components in a heavy-water re-
- Water
actor.
Any of several cooling fluids—organic compounds, gas,
water, or heavy water — can be used in heavy-water r e -
actors, since the heavy-water moderator is separated
from the cooling fluid by the walls of the process tubes.
11
T e m p e r a t u r e s in heavy-water r e a c t o r s depend upon the kind uranium-235. When uranium-238 absorbs neutrons it is
converted to fissionable plutonium-239. Another fertile
of cooling fluid used, among other things, but steam hotter
material is thorium-232, which can be converted to fis-
than 700° F can be produced.
sionable uranium-23 3.
In t e r m s of nuclear fuel utilization, the heavy-water
Some of the r e a c t o r s that a r e possible b r e e d e r s may not
reactor is an interim type: Its net fuel consumption is
prove capable of breeding in actual practice, but one type
quite low and it can operate on natural uranium, which
has already operated successfully in several plants. This
makes it attractive to use in some countries during the
period in which designs for economical b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s is the liquid-metal-cooled b r e e d e r reactor shown in Figure 7.
a r e being developed.
• Steam

Breeder Reactors Reactor

Several r e a c t o r s have a potential for b r e e d i n g — t h a t i s ,

for producing m o r e nuclear fuel than they c o n s u m e — b e -
cause of the m a t e r i a l s , or combinations of m a t e r i a l s , that
a r e used to build them. Steam generator
How does a b r e e d e r w o r k ? As you recall, a uranium-235
atom can fission when its nucleus absorbs a neutron. The
fission reaction r e l e a s e s free neutrons (see Figure 1) that
may, in turn, initiate other fissions. All the neutrons r e -
leased, however, are not absorbed by fissionable material; Pump
some a r e absorbed in the s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l of the V —^ Water
reactor, the control elements, or the coolant; some escape Figure 7 Nuclear steam-supply components m a liquid-metal-cooled
from the reactor and a r e absorbed by shielding; and some breeder reactor.
are absorbed by fertile material. When the nucleus of an
atom of fertile material absorbs a neutron, the fertile
Systems and components for the breeder differ from
atom can be transformed into an atom of 2i fissionable
those for other types of r e a c t o r s . One item we haven't seen
material — the substance that forms the basis for the
in the diagrams for other r e a c t o r s is an intermediate heat-
nuclear chain reaction. By careful selection and a r r a n g e -
transfer loop between the reactor coolant system and the
ment of m a t e r i a l s in the r e a c t o r — including, of course,
turbine w a t e r - s t e a m system. Both the p r i m a r y reactor
fissionable and fertile isotopes—the neutrons not needed
coolant system and the intermediate loop use liquid metal
to sustain the fission chain reaction can fairly effectively
because it has excellent heat-transfer and nuclear c h a r a c -
convert fertile material into fissionable material. The
t e r i s t i c s ; the metal is usually sodium. Incidentally, the
breeder reactor improves the efficiency of the neutron
idea of a liquid metal should not be startling, for mercury,
p r o c e s s both by increasing the number of free neutrons
a substance familiar to everyone, is a liquid metal.
released in fission and by decreasing the number of neu-
trons wasted, thereby making a l a r g e r number available The liquid metal in the reactor is heated to about
for absorption in fertile material. If, for each atom of 1000° F, and then goes to the heat exchanger, where it
fissionable material that is consumed, more than one atom transfers its heat to the liquid metal of the intermediate
of fertile material becomes fissionable m a t e r i a l , the r e a c - loop. The metal in the intermediate loop moves to the
tor is said to be breeding. One fertile material is uranium- steam generator, where it heats water to produce steam
238, which is always found in nature with fissionable at about 900° F,

13
12
 uranium-235. When uranium-238 a b s o r b s neutrons it is
T e m p e r a t u r e s in heavy-water r e a c t o r s depend upon the kind
converted to fissionable plutonium-239. Another fertile
of cooling fluid used, among other things, but steam hotter
material is thorium-232, which can be converted to fis-
than 700° F can be produced.
sionable uranium-233.
In t e r m s of nuclear fuel utilization, the heavy-water
Some of the r e a c t o r s that a r e possible b r e e d e r s may not
reactor is an interim type: Its net fuel consumption is
prove capable of breeding in actual practice, but one type
quite low and it can operate on natural uranium, which
has already operated successfully in several plants. This
makes it attractive to use in some countries during the
is the liquid-metal-cooled b r e e d e r reactor shown in Figure 7.
period in which designs for economical b r e e d e r r e a c t o r s
a r e being developed.
Steam

Breeder Reactors Reactor

Several r e a c t o r s have a potential for breeding — that i s ,

for producing m o r e nuclear fuel than they c o n s u m e — b e -
cause of the m a t e r i a l s , or combinations of m a t e r i a l s , that
a r e used to build them. Fuel Steam generator
How does a b r e e d e r work? As you recall, a uranium-235
atom can fission when its nucleus absorbs a neutron. The
fission reaction r e l e a s e s free neutrons (see Figure 1) that
may, in turn, initiate other fissions. All the neutrons r e -
leased, however, are not absorbed by fissionable material;
some a r e absorbed in the s t r u c t u r a l material of the
reactor, the control elements, or the coolant; some escape
Pump
\4=^ Water

Figure 7 Nuclear steam-supply components m a hquid-metal-cooled

from the reactor and a r e absorbed by shielding; and some breeder reactor.
are absorbed by fertile material. When the nucleus of an
atom of fertile m a t e r i a l absorbs a neutron, the fertile
Systems and components for the breeder differ from
atom can be transformed into an atom of a fissionable
those for other types of r e a c t o r s . One item we haven't seen
material — the substance that forms the basis for the
in the diagrams for other r e a c t o r s is an intermediate heat-
nuclear chain reaction. By careful selection and a r r a n g e -
t r a n s f e r loop between the r e a c t o r coolant system and the
ment of m a t e r i a l s in the reactor — including, of course,
turbine w a t e r - s t e a m system. Both the p r i m a r y reactor
fissionable and fertile isotopes—the neutrons not needed
coolant system and the intermediate loop use liquid metal
to sustain the fission chain reaction can fairly effectively
because it has excellent heat-transfer and nuclear c h a r a c -
convert fertile material into fissionable material. The
t e r i s t i c s ; the metal is usually sodium. Incidentally, the
b r e e d e r reactor improves the efficiency of the neutron
idea of a liquid metal should not be startling, for mercury,
p r o c e s s both by increasing the number of free neutrons
a substance familiar to everyone, is a liquid metal.
released in fission and by decreasing the number of neu-
trons wasted, thereby making a l a r g e r number available The liquid metal in the reactor is heated to about
for absorption in fertile material. If, for each atom of 1000° F, and then goes to the heat exchanger, where it
fissionable material that is consumed, more than one atom transfers its heat to the liquid metal of the intermediate
of fertile material becomes fissionable material, the r e a c - loop. The metal in the intermediate loop moves to the
tor is said to be breeding. One fertile material is uranium- steam generator, where it heats water to produce steam
238, which is always found in nature with fissionable at about 900° F.

13
12
 Like other coolants, liquid metal has some desirable and
some undesirable features. It is good because it does an
excellent job of neutron conservation and of removing heat
and does not have to be used at high p r e s s u r e to attain
high t e m p e r a t u r e s . The fuel in a liquid-metal-cooled
b r e e d e r reactor can be operated at very high-power
densities because the heat can be removed r a t h e r handily.
To put it another way, the heat for a power plant of a given
capacity can be supplied by a liquid-metal-cooled b r e e d e r
r e a c t o r that is much s m a l l e r than any other r e a c t o r that
could do the job.
One of the undesirable features about liquid metal is its
tendency to react chemically. For example, there is a
strong reaction whenever liquid metal comes in contact
with water or steam, and if a leak o c c u r s in a steam
generator that contains liquid metal an intense reaction
r e s u l t s . To isolate the r e a c t o r from any possible difficulty,
liquid-metal-cooled r e a c t o r s a r e provided with the inter-
mediate heat-transfer loop. This extra loop, of course,
adds to the cost of the plant.
We have now taken a quick tour through the common
r e a c t o r s y s t e m s and have noted a few c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
each. In the next section, we will explore one kind of
nuclear power plant in detail.
14
TYPICAL PLANT DESIGN FEATURES
If you want to know more about the s i z e s , shapes, fea-
t u r e s , and relationships of components m a nuclear power
plant, then this section is for you.
We will look closely at a plant typical of some being
bought and built by utility companies today. The choice of
a reactor for our "typical" plant is an a r b i t r a r y one: It
uses a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r reactor, but other reactor types,
equally successful, might have been chosen, as they have
by many utilities. Our plant will produce about 800,000 kilo-
watts of electric power and will have taken around 4 y e a r s
to construct,
A flow diagram for our installation is shown in Figure 8;
this diagram is basically a combination of Figures 2 and 4.
Although only one reactor coolant loop is shown for s i m -
plicity, numbers indicate where two other parallel loops
begin and end. A reactor of this size r e q u i r e s more than
one p r i m a r y loop principally because of limitations in the
capacities of pumps and steam generators.
The parallel steam pipes from the three steam gen-
e r a t o r s a r e joined into a single, l a r g e r pipe that is con-
nected to the h i g h - p r e s s u r e turbine. The steam flows into
the turbine and gives up some of its energy to turn a
shaft; it cools, drops in p r e s s u r e , and forms some m o i s -
ture. Leaving the high-pressure turbine, the steam passes
through a moisture s e p a r a t o r and enters the low-pressure
turbine. Here the steam p r e s s u r e drops still more, i m -
parting additional energy to the shaft. The shaft turns the
generator, which produces the electric power.
The s t e a m — i t s usable energy by now pretty well ex-
h a u s t e d — moves on to the condenser, where cooling pipes
15
 Like other coolants, liquid metal has some desirable and
some undesirable features. It is good because it does an
excellent job of neutron conservation and of removing heat
and does not have to be used at high p r e s s u r e to attain
high t e m p e r a t u r e s . The fuel in a liquid-metal-cooled
b r e e d e r reactor can be operated at very high-power
densities because the heat can be removed r a t h e r handily.
To put it another way, the heat for a power plant of a given
capacity can be supplied by a liquid-metal-cooled b r e e d e r
r e a c t o r that is much s m a l l e r than any other r e a c t o r that
could do the job.
One of the undesirable features about liquid metal is its
tendency to react chemically. For example, there is a
strong reaction whenever liquid metal comes in contact
with water or steam, and if a leak o c c u r s in a steam
generator that contains liquid metal an intense reaction
r e s u l t s . To isolate the r e a c t o r from any possible difficulty,
liquid-metal-cooled r e a c t o r s a r e provided with the inter-
mediate heat-transfer loop. This extra loop, of course,
adds to the cost of the plant.
We have now taken a quick tour through the common
reactor s y s t e m s and have noted a few c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
each. In the next section, we will explore one kind of
nuclear power plant in detail.
14
TYPICAL PLANT DESIGN FEATURES
If you want to know more about the s i z e s , shapes, fea-
t u r e s , and relationships of components in a nuclear power
plant, then this section is for you.
We will look closely at a plant typical of some being
bought and built by utility companies today. The choice of
a reactor for our "typical" plant is an a r b i t r a r y one: It
uses a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r reactor, but other reactor types,
equally successful, might have been chosen, as they have
by many utilities. Our plant will produce about 800,000 kilo-
watts of electric power and will have taken around 4 y e a r s
to construct.
A flow diagram for our installation is shown in Figure 8;
this diagram is basically a combination of Figures 2 and 4.
Although only one reactor coolant loop is shown for s i m -
plicity, numbers indicate where two other parallel loops
begin and end. A reactor of this size r e q u i r e s more than
one p r i m a r y loop principally because of limitations in the
capacities of pumps and steam generators.
The parallel steam pipes from the three steam gen-
e r a t o r s a r e joined into a single, l a r g e r pipe that is con-
nected to the high-pressure turbine. The steam flows into
the turbine and gives up some of its energy to turn a
shaft; it cools, drops in p r e s s u r e , and forms some m o i s -
ture. Leaving the high-pressure turbine, the steam passes
through a moisture s e p a r a t o r and enters tlie low-pressure
turbine. Here the steam p r e s s u r e drops still more, im-
parting additional energy to the shaft. The shaft turns the
generator, which produces the electric power.
The s t e a m — i t s usable energy by now pretty well ex-
h a u s t e d — moves on to the condenser, where cooling pipes
15
turn it mto water. In the p r o c e s s , the p r e s s u r e is lowered
to less than atmospheric p r e s s u r e . The water (called
condensate) formed in the condenser, is pumped through
a heater and partially preheated. By this time, the water
IS called feed water because it is used to "feed" the steam
generators; before entering the steam g e n e r a t o r s , how-
ever, it IS pumped through another heater. The preheating
improves the efficiency of the plant. Several heaters
usually a r e used, but, for simplicity, only two a r e shown
here.
To pump the water from the condenser through the
heaters and into the steam g e n e r a t o r s , its p r e s s u r e must
be raised from l e s s than 14,7 psi (atmospheric p r e s s u r e
at sea level) to about 800 psi. More than one pump is
needed for this, and two a r e shown h e r e . The pipe leaving
the last feed-water heater branches into parallel pipes so
that feed water is supplied to the steam generator in each
parallel reactor loop.
Thus, we can make a general statement that the parallel
loops of the nuclear steam-supply system furnish steam
to a single-loop, power-generating system, although there
a r e exceptions to this design in industry.
Considering the p r i m a r y , or r e a c t o r , coolant system
again, note that each loop has its own pipes from the r e -
actor, but that usually only one p r e s s u r i z e r and one water
purification system a r e provided. The p r e s s u r i z e r , as its
name indicates, keeps the reactor system at the proper
p r e s s u r e . The purification system continuously removes
impurities from the water.
Keep the flow paths in Figure 8 in mind as we turn now
to some individual components of a nuclear power plant.
The Reactor Vessel
The r e a c t o r is the furnace of the plant—-the concentrated
source of the tremendous amount of heat that is con-
verted to electric power. Figure 9 shows a vertical c r o s s -
section through a r e a c t o r p r e s s u r e vessel and the a r -
rangement of basic reactor components. The steel vessel,
its walls around a foot thick, is designed to contain water
at an operating p r e s s u r e of 2250 psi, with inlet and outlet
t e m p e r a t u r e s of about 550° F and 600° F, respectively.
17
turn it into water. In the p r o c e s s , the p r e s s u r e is lowered
to less than atmospheric p r e s s u r e . The water (called
condensate) formed in the condenser, is pumped tlirough
a heater and partially preheated. By this time, the water
is called feed water because it is used to "feed" the steam
generators; before entering the steam generators, how-
ever, it is pumped through another heater. The preheating
improves the efficiency of the plant. Several heaters
usually a r e used, but, for simplicity, only two a r e shown
here.
To pump the water from the condenser through the
heaters and into the steam generators, its p r e s s u r e must
be raised from l e s s than 14.7 psi (atmospheric p r e s s u r e
at sea level) to about 800 psi. More than one pump is
needed for this, and two a r e shown h e r e . The pipe leaving
the last feed-water heater branches into parallel pipes so
that feed water is supplied to the steam generator in each
parallel reactor loop.
Thus, we can make a general statement that the parallel
loops of the nuclear steam-supply system furnish steam
to a single-loop, power-generating system, although there
a r e exceptions to this design in industry.
Considering the p r i m a r y , or reactor, coolant system
again, note that each loop has its own pipes from the r e -
actor, but that usually only one p r e s s u r i z e r and one water
purification system a r e provided. The p r e s s u r i z e r , as its
name indicates, keeps the r e a c t o r system at the proper
p r e s s u r e . The purification system continuously removes
impurities from the water.
Keep the flow paths in Figure 8 in mind as we turn now
to some individual components of a nuclear power plant.

The Reactor Vessel

The r e a c t o r is the furnace of the p l a n t — t h e concentrated
source of the tremendous amount of heat that is con-
verted to electric power. Figure 9 shows a vertical c r o s s -
section through a reactor p r e s s u r e vessel and the a r -
rangement of basic reactor components. The steel vessel,
its walls around a foot thick, is designed to contain water
at an operating p r e s s u r e of 2250 psi, with inlet and outlet
t e m p e r a t u r e s of about 550° F and 600° F, respectively.

17
 The vessel weighs about 1 million pounds empty, and more
than half again as much when full of water and with the
mw
core installed.
The vessel, about 40 feet high with an outside diameter
of 16 feet, has the function of enclosing the reactor core.
Pressure
vessel head
Control rod drive
mechanism
Flange bolts
and n u t s - ^ '

Figure 10 Reactor vessel

Pressure " 2 ^ i I I I „ ^ . ; ^ — ^ Hot water out
vessel
H Mil "S^
Control rod
•Fuel assembly
-Cool water m
which is composed of fuel elements and control rods. The
cool-water connections of some vessels are at the same
level as the hot-water connections; this arrangement is a
design variation on the typical vessel shown here. Internal
baffles direct the cool water to the bottom of the vessel so
that it can then flow up through the reactor core.
When the reactor is not operating, the top, or head, may
be removed for access to the core. Figure 9 shows how the
head is bolted to the main part of the vessel, and Figure 10
shows a head being installed. The photograph shows the
holes for the bolts, the drive shafts for the control rods,
and, at the top of the vessel head, the control-rod drive
mechanisms.
The Core
The heart of our nuclear power plant is the nuclear
fuel—a ceramic material called uranium dioxide (UO2),
head being installed at a
nuclear power plant.
The UO2 is enclosed in sealed tubes a little less than a
half inch in diameter and about 12 feet long. These tubes
pig^.e g vertical cross are made of Zircaloy, which is an alloy of the metal
section view of a zirconium. About 200 of these tubes are arranged in a
pressurized-water re-
actor vessel.
square pattern to form a fuel assembly (see Figure 11),
The tubes in each assembly are close together but do not
touch. They are held apart by egg-crate-like spacer grids
so that the cooling water can flow along them and remove
their heat.
Each fuel assembly in our reactor example is 8 inches
square by 12 feet long and weighs 1300 pounds (UO2 is
almost as heavy as lead). Our reactor core contains about
200 fuel assemblies, and there are passages for control
rods in the assemblies. The core is nearly 12 feet across,
and the square assemblies are arranged so that from the
top the core looks circular.
The heat-gene ration rate of the core is determined by
movable control rod assemblies, which can be moved up or
down so that they leave or enter the region of the nuclear
fuel. The rods contain material that acts as a brake on the
chain reaction; that is, when a rod is in the core it absorbs
neutrons and prevents them from causing fissions. By
moving the rod assemblies—there may be as many as 90
of them — in or out of the core, the heat-generation rate

It 19
 The vessel weighs about 1 million pounds empty, and more
than half again as much when full of water and with the
mw
core installed.
The vessel, about 40 feet high with an outside diameter
of 16 feet, has the function of enclosing the reactor core.
Pressure
vessel head
Control rod drive
mechanism
Flange bolts
and n u t s - ^ '

Figure 10 Reactor vessel

Pressure " 2 ^ i I I I „ ^ . ; ^ — ^ Hot water out
vessel
H Mil "S^
Control rod
•Fuel assembly
-Cool water m
which is composed of fuel elements and control rods. The
cool-water connections of some vessels are at the same
level as the hot-water connections; this arrangement is a
design variation on the typical vessel shown here. Internal
baffles direct the cool water to the bottom of the vessel so
that it can then flow up through the reactor core.
When the reactor is not operating, the top, or head, may
be removed for access to the core. Figure 9 shows how the
head is bolted to the main part of the vessel, and Figure 10
shows a head being installed. The photograph shows the
holes for the bolts, the drive shafts for the control rods,
and, at the top of the vessel head, the control-rod drive
mechanisms.
The Core
The heart of our nuclear power plant is the nuclear
fuel—a ceramic material called uranium dioxide (UO2),
head being installed at a
nuclear power plant.
The UO2 is enclosed in sealed tubes a little less than a
half inch in diameter and about 12 feet long. These tubes
pig^.e g vertical cross are made of Zircaloy, which is an alloy of the metal
section view of a zirconium. About 200 of these tubes are arranged in a
pressurized-water re-
actor vessel.
square pattern to form a fuel assembly (see Figure 11),
The tubes in each assembly are close together but do not
touch. They are held apart by egg-crate-like spacer grids
so that the cooling water can flow along them and remove
their heat.
Each fuel assembly in our reactor example is 8 inches
square by 12 feet long and weighs 1300 pounds (UO2 is
almost as heavy as lead). Our reactor core contains about
200 fuel assemblies, and there are passages for control
rods in the assemblies. The core is nearly 12 feet across,
and the square assemblies are arranged so that from the
top the core looks circular.
The heat-gene ration rate of the core is determined by
movable control rod assemblies, which can be moved up or
down so that they leave or enter the region of the nuclear
fuel. The rods contain material that acts as a brake on the
chain reaction; that is, when a rod is in the core it absorbs
neutrons and prevents them from causing fissions. By
moving the rod assemblies—there may be as many as 90
of them — in or out of the core, the heat-generation rate

It 19
can be decreased or increased so that the plant produces
the d e s i r e d amount of electric power.

The Primary Coolant System

The p r i m a r y coolant system consists of stainless steel
piping and other components that contain the cooling water.
Remember that large r e a c t o r s use s e v e r a l p r i m a r y coolant
loops that operate m parallel. A lot of water flows through
the r e a c t o r — a r o u n d 2 million pounds (330,000 gallons) per
minute — equivalent to the flow from over 100,000 garden
hoses. (Reactor temperature and p r e s s u r e cause the water
to weigh approximately 6 pounds per gallon.) Each loop
c a r r i e s a portion of the total flow, and each has a steam
generator and a pump. Some r e a c t o r s have two pipes and
two pumps between the outlet of each steam generator and
the inlet to the reactor vessel.
The steam generators a r e 10 or 15 feet in diameter,
about 60 feet high, and weigh roughly half a million pounds.
Water flowing through tubes inside heats the surrounding
feed water, producing steam with a p r e s s u r e of 800 psi and
a temperature of 520° F. The steam generators deliver
around 10 million pounds {5% million cubic feet) of steam
per hour to the turbine.
A p r i m a r y coolant pump, driven by an electric motor
rated at s e v e r a l thousand horsepower, r a i s e s the coolant
p r e s s u r e about 100 psi for another trip through the r e a c -
tor, piping, and steam generator.
In an actual installation, tlie p r i m a r y coolant loops a r e
arranged around the reactor as in Figure 13, which shows
the "nuclear" pieces in a nuclear power plant. The r e s t of
the installation is identical with any other generating s t a -
tion and we needn't discuss its details.

The Overall Plant

Our plant's central control room, with appropriate
instruments, switches, indicators, and controllers for the
nuclear steam-supply system and the power-generating
system, looks about like the control room in any large
industrial plant, except for some instruments that indicate
or r e c o r d conditions in the r e a c t o r . This reactor instru-
mentation r e p l a c e s the boiler instrumentation of a con-

21
can be decreased or increased so that the plant produces
the desired amount of e l e c t r i c power.

The Primary Coolant System

The p r i m a r y coolant system consists of stainless steel
piping and other components that contain the cooling water.
Remember that large r e a c t o r s use s e v e r a l p r i m a r y coolant
loops that operate m parallel. A lot of water flows through
the r e a c t o r — a r o u n d 2 million pounds (330,000 gallons) per
minute — equivalent to the flow from over 100,000 garden
hoses. (Reactor temperature and p r e s s u r e cause the water
to weigh approximately 6 pounds per gallon.) Each loop
c a r r i e s a portion of the total flow, and each has a steam
generator and a pump. Some r e a c t o r s have two pipes and
two pumps between the outlet of each steam generator and
the inlet to the reactor vessel.
The steam generators a r e 10 or 15 feet in diameter,
about 60 feet high, and weigh roughly half a million pounds.
Water flowing through tubes inside heats the surrounding
feed water, producing steam with a p r e s s u r e of 800 psi and
a temperature of 520° F, The steam generators deliver
around 10 million pounds (5y2 million cubic feet) of steam
per hour to the turbine,
A p r i m a r y coolant pump, driven by an electric motor
rated at s e v e r a l thousand horsepower, r a i s e s the coolant
p r e s s u r e about 100 psi for another trip through the r e a c -
tor, piping, and steam generator.
In an actual installation, the p r i m a r y coolant loops a r e
arranged around the reactor as in Figure 13, which shows
the "nuclear" pieces m a nuclear power plant. The r e s t of
the installation is identical with any other generating s t a -
tion and we needn't discuss its details.

The Overall Plant

Our plant's central control room, witli appropriate
instruments, switches, indicators, and controllers for the
nuclear steam-supply system and the power-generating
system, looks about like the control room in any large
industrial plant, except for some mstrimients that indicate
or r e c o r d conditions in tlie r e a c t o r . Tins reactor instru-
mentation r e p l a c e s tlie boiler instrumentation of a con-

21
ventional power plant. Control-room personnel who operate
the plant are highly qualified, having received extensive
training and having passed comprehensive examinations to
obtain the required licenses.
When you see an exterior view of a nuclear plant, you
may wonder which pieces go in which building. Figure 15
shows the location of components in a pressurized-water
plant, with "nuclear" components inside a leaktight steel
or concrete containment building (the vertical cylinder with
a dome top in the figure). A containment building actually Figure 14 The control room in a nuclear power plant.
can have any one of several different shapes, and in some
plants no containment feature may be visible at all. In the a conventional plant, the stack discharges the products of
newer plants that use boiling-water reactors, for example, combustion from the boiler — it is a "smokestack". In a
containment is provided, but it doesn't show. nuclear plant, on the other hand, the stack discharges
The power-generating components are housed in a typi- ventilating air, which sometimes contains extremely small
cal industrial structure called a turbine building. One more amounts of highly diluted, filtered gaseous wastes, strictly
conventional structure is the plant "ventilation stack". In controlled to rigid standards.*
One final word about our typical plant: It is a very large
Figure 13 Cutaway view of a nuclear steam-supply system based on
industrial installation and is owned by a company whose
a pressurized-water reactor. Note size of man eritering door at purpose is to generate electric power reliably and eco-
right. . nomically for its customers.

Reactor-"
Figure 15 Location of principal componenti « a 7r€ss.>ar2is^~mattw .
plant.

• F o r more information, see H.ff^ioaCi:s^' '^~t;'r~ i.::,? A:. :<".:.

Power Safety, other boo-deis ic this serses-

23
ll •

ventional power plant Control-room personnel who operate

u the plant a r e highly qualified, having received extensive
i| training and having passed comprehensive examinations to
obtain the required licenses.
When you see an exterior view of a nuclear plant, you
may wonder which pieces go in which building Figure 15
shows the location of components in a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r
plant, with "nuclear" components inside a leaktight steel
or concrete containment building (the vertical cylinder with
r' a dome top m the figure). A containment building actually Figure 14 The control room m a nuclear poiier plant
can have any one of s e v e r a l different shapes, and m some
plants no containment feature may be visible at all. In the a conventional plant, the stack discharges the products of
newer plants that use boiling-water r e a c t o r s , for example, combustion from the b o i l e r — i t is a " s m o k e s t a c k " In a
containment is provided, but it doesn't show. nuclear plant, on the other hand, the stack discharges
J I The power-generating components a r e housed in a typi- ventilating air, which sometimes contains extremely small
cal industrial s t r u c t u r e called a turbine building. One more amounts of highly diluted, filtered gaseous wastes, strictly
conventional s t r u c t u r e is the plant "ventilation s t a c k " In controlled to rigid standards.*
One final word about our typical plant It is a very large
Figure 13 Cutaway view of a nuclear steam-supply system based on industrial installation and is owned by a company whose
a pressurized-water reactor Note size of man entering door at purpose IS to generate electric power reliably and eco-
right nomically for its c u s t o m e r s

Refueling equipment- -Ventilation stack

-Steam turbine
Bridge crane-
/-Generator

Ground
level-

Steam
generator-;

Reactor-
Figure 15 Location of principal components m a pressurized-water
plant

*For more information, see Radioactive Wastes and Atomic

Power Safety, other booklets in this series.

23

THE COST OF NUCLEAR POWER
Beginning about 1965, nuclear power plants became
economically competitive with conventional steam power
plants in many sections of the United States and the r e s t of
the world.
A utility company spends money on two principal i t e m s
in order to generate electricity for its c u s t o m e r s . The
first is the power plant itself, and the second is the fuel
that the plant consumes. At present, it costs more to
build a nuclear plant than it does to build a conventional
plant. This, however, is only half the story because the
fuel costs for the nuclear plant are lower. Consequently,
in locations where fossil-fuel costs a r e fairly high (gen-
erally a r e a s some distance from coal mines or gas and
oil fields), a utility may save money by "going nuclear"
when it expands. Companies buying nuclear power plants
today can expect their investment to be divided as shown
in Figure 16.
The competitive position that nuclear power holds today
has been attained in a remarkably short time. Only ten
y e a r s ago, it was very expensive to obtain usable electric
power from atomic energy. The rapid change in the eco-
nomic position of this important energy r e s o u r c e is a
r e s u l t of the combined efforts of government and industry.
In order to speed the development of nuclear technology,
and thus a s s u r e that the energy r e s o u r c e s of our country
can be used to meet our power requirements, the U. S.
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) for many y e a r s has
sponsored r e s e a r c h work and supported projects aimed at
demonstrating the performance and costs of different types
of nuclear power plants.
24
Probably the most significant program began m 1955,
when the AEC announced the Power Reactor Demonstration
Program, under which it invited utilities and the manu-
facturing industry to participate in nuclear power plant
Figure 16 Where the money goes in a nuclear pouer plant.
demonstration projects. The t e r m s of the program differ
from project to project but a r e based on a sharing of costs
by the AEC and the participating organizations. As a result
of the program, more than 15 projects have been under-
taken. The experience gained in designing, constructing
and operating plants under the Power Reactor Demonstra-
tion P r o g r a m has played an important part in the develop-
ment of today's commercial nuclear power plants.
Many factors affect the cost oi a nuclear power plant and
the electric power it produces. For example, the size of
the plant has an influence on the cost per unit of electricity:
the l a r g e r the plant, the cheaper the power. Wages and ma-
t e r i a l s costs differ substantially from region to region, as
do taxes, the p r i c e s of land, and other items. An important
factor is the length of time required to build the plant, for
during the construction period costs escalate. Let's talk
about escalation for a moment, assuming that the year is
1973. The typical nuclear plant described in the preceding
section would cost about $400 per kilowatt of capacity to
build, if the owner paid cash for the plant and it were pos-
sible to erect it overnight. That isn't the way things go,
however, for utilities finance their plants and around eight
25

THE COST OF NUCLEAR POWER
Beginning about 1965, nuclear power plants became
economically competitive with conventional steam power
plants in many sections of the United States and the r e s t of
the world.
A utility company spends money on two principal i t e m s
in order to generate electricity for its c u s t o m e r s . The
first is the power plant itself, and the second i s the fuel
that the plant consumes. At present, it c o s t s more to
build a nuclear plant than it does to build a conventional
plant. This, however, is only half the story because the
fuel costs for the nuclear plant are lower. Consequently,
in locations where fossil-fuel costs a r e fairly high (gen-
erally a r e a s some distance from coal mines or gas and
oil fields), a utility may save money by "going nuclear"
when it expands. Companies buying nuclear power plants
today can expect their investment to be divided as shown
in Figure 16.
The competitive position that nuclear power holds today
has been attained in a remarkably short time. Only ten
y e a r s ago, it was very expensive to obtain usable electric
power from atomic energy. The rapid change in the eco-
nomic position of this important energy r e s o u r c e is a
r e s u l t of the combined efforts of government and industry.
In order to speed the development of nuclear technology,
and thus a s s u r e tliat the energy r e s o u r c e s of our country
can be used to meet our power r e q u i r e m e n t s , the U. S.
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) for many y e a r s has
sponsored r e s e a r c h work and supported projects aimed at
demonstrating the performance and costs of different types
of nuclear power plants.
24
Probably the most significant program began m 1955,
when the AEC announced the Power Reactor Demonstration
Program, under which it invited utilities and the manu-
facturing industry to participate in nuclear power plant
Figure 16 Where the money goes in a nuclear power plant.
demonstration projects. The t e r m s of the program differ
from project to project but a r e based on a sharing of costs
by the AEC and the participating organizations. As a result
of the program, more than 15 projects have been under-
taken. The experience gained in designing, constructing
and operating plants under the Power Reactor Demonstra-
tion P r o g r a m has played an important part in the develop-
ment of today's commercial nuclear power plants.
Many factors affect the cost of a nuclear power plant and
the electric power it produces. For example, the size of
the plant has an influence on the cost per unit of electricity:
the l a r g e r the plant, the cheaper the power. Wages and ma-
t e r i a l s costs differ substantially from region to region, as
do taxes, the p r i c e s of land, and other items. An important
factor is the length of time required to build the plant, for
during the construction period costs escalate. Let's talk
about escalation for a moment, assuming that the year is
1973. The typical nuclear plant described in the preceding
section would cost about $400 per kilowatt of capacity to
build, if the owner paid cash for the plant and it were p o s -
sible to erect it overnight. That isn't the way things go,
however, for utilities finance their plants and around eight
25
y e a r s elapse between the time a nuclear plant is ordered
and the time it goes into operation. The time is required
for obtaining necessary p e r m i t s and licenses, for actual
construction, and for pre-operational testing. During those
eight years, wages of w o r k e r s increase, p r i c e s of equip-
ment go up, and the utility pays interest on the money it has
borrowed to build the plant. The effect of these factors is
an increase in cost, which is called escalation.
Significant escalation occurs with all long-term projects
such as conventional power plants, chemical plants, or
similar industrial installations. In our example, the nuclear
plant ordered in 1973 will go into operation around 1981 and
will have cost $500 per kilowatt to build; the total power-
generating cost in the 1980's will be slightly l e s s than two
cents per kilowatt-hour. Plants now in operation were built
in l e s s expensive t i m e s and produce cheaper power; the
costs a r e roughly half those given above for future plants.
26
PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES
The first full-scale nuclear power plant in the United
States began operating in December 1957, at Shippingport,
Pennsylvania. Since then, numerous other nuclear plants
have joined in providing electric power from the peaceful
atom. This section is devoted to descriptions of some of
these plants.
Note that the plants shown in the photographs use differ-
ent kinds of r e a c t o r s and that their power outputs differ by
substantial amounts. This is because some of the plants
were built a s demonstration units to determine relative
advantages of one reactor type compared with another, and
were built to the size requirements of a particular power
company or system.
The extent of the nuclear power program is indicated by
the fact that plants a r e located or planned for construction
in the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne-
sota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New J e r s e y , New York,
North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee,
Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. In addition, U. S. manu-
facturers have sold r e a c t o r plants in several foreign
countries.
A rather special kind of nuclear power plant, the Han-
ford " N " Reactor (sometimes called the New Production
Reactor), is at Hanford, Washington, about 150 miles
southeast of Seattle. The r e a c t o r is owned and operated
by the AEC and produces special nuclear m a t e r i a l for
government stockpile purposes; its original design, how-
27
y e a r s elapse between the time a nuclear plant is ordered
and the time it goes into operation. The time is required
for obtaining necessary p e r m i t s and licenses, for actual
construction, and for pre-operational testing. During those
eight years, wages of w o r k e r s increase, p r i c e s of equip-
ment go up, and the utility pays interest on the money it has
borrowed to build the plant. The effect of these factors is
an increase in cost, which is called escalation.
Significant escalation occurs with all long-term projects
such as conventional power plants, chemical plants, or
similar industrial installations. In our example, the nuclear
plant ordered in 1973 will go into operation around 1981 and
will have cost $500 per kilowatt to build; the total power-
generating cost in the 1980's will be slightly l e s s than two
cents per kilowatt-hour. Plants now in operation were built
in l e s s expensive times and produce cheaper power; the
costs a r e roughly half those given above for future plants.
26
PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES
The first full-scale nuclear power plant in the United
States began operating in December 1957, at Shippingport,
Pennsylvania. Since then, numerous other nuclear plants
have joined in providing electric power from the peaceful
atom. This section is devoted to descriptions of some of
these plants.
Note that the plants shown in the photographs use differ-
ent kinds of r e a c t o r s and that their power outputs differ by
substantial amounts. This is because some of the plants
were built as demonstration units to determine relative
advantages of one reactor type compared with another, and
were built to the size requirements of a particular power
company or system.
The extent of the nuclear power program is indicated by
the fact that plants are located or planned for construction
in the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,
Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne-
sota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New J e r s e y , New York,
North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee,
Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. In addition, U. S. manu-
f a c t u r e r s have sold r e a c t o r plants in several foreign
countries.
A rather special kind of nuclear power plant, the Han-
ford " N " Reactor (sometimes called the New Production
Reactor), is at Hanford, Washington, about 150 miles
southeast of Seattle. The r e a c t o r is owned and operated
by the AEC and produces special nuclear m a t e r i a l for
government stockpile purposes; its original design, how-
27
^ •

ever, provided for the r e c o v e r y of the waste heat The Figure 18 DRESDEN Nuclear Pouer
Washington Public Power Supply System later received Station Unit #1 Located at Morris
Illinois about 50 miles southwest
approval to build a nearby s t e a m power plant in which the of Chicago Boilmg-water reactor
hot water from the r e a c t o r i s used to generate s t e a m . The 200 OOO-net-electrical-kilowatt capac-
plant has a generating capacity of 790,000 kilowatts of ity, designed by General Electric Com-
pany Started commercial operation in
electric power, equivalent to that of two Bonneville D a m s .
1960 Owned and operated by Common-
This plant began serving the Pacific Northwest in April wealth Cdison Company Dresden Unit
1966. #i was the second large nuclear power
plant to be built m the U S Dresden
Unit #2 and Unit #3 adjoin Unit #1 (See
frontispiece )
Figure 17 SHIPPINGPORT Atomic Pouer Station Located at Ship-
pingport Pennsylvania, about 25 miles northwest of Pittsburgh
Pressurized-water reactor, 90,000-net-electrical-kiloiiatt capac-
ity, designed by Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory oj Westmghouse
Electric Corporation Started commercial operation m 1957, began
operation at present power m 1965 Jointly owned by AEC and Du-
quesne Light Company Operated by Duquesne Light Company
Shippingport nas the Jirst large nucleat power electric generating
plant m the U S The reactor is in the large building m the center

28 29
4|:i

ever, provided for the r e c o v e r y of the waste heat. The Figure 18 DRESDEN Nuclear Power
Washington Public Power Supply System l a t e r received Station, Unit #1 Located at Morris
Illinois about 50 miles southwest
approval to build a nearby s t e a m power plant in which the of Chicago Boiling-water reactor,
hot water from the r e a c t o r i s used to generate s t e a m . The 200,000-net-electrical-kilouatt capac-
plant has a generating capacity of 790,000 kilowatts of ity, designed by General Elect) ic Com-
pany Started commercial operation m
electric power, equivalent to that of two Bonneville D a m s .
\ 19b0 Owned and operated by Common-
This plant began serving the Pacific Northwest in April wealth Edison Company Dresden Unit
1966. #1 was tlie second large nuclear power
plant to be built m the U S Dresden
Unit #2 and Unit #3 adjoin Unit #1 (See
Jrontispiece )
Figure 17 SHIPPINGPORT Atomic Power Station Located at Ship-
pingport, Pennsylvania, about 25 miles northwest of Pittsburgh.
Pressur ized-water reactor, 90,000-net-electrical-kilowalt capac-
ity, designed by Bettis Atomic Pouey Laboratory oj Westmghouse
Electric Corporation Started commercial operation m 1957, began
operation at present power m 1965 Jointly owned by AEC and Du-
quesne Light Company Operated by Duquesne Light Company
Shippingport was the first large nuclear poiver electric generating
plant m the U S The reactor is m the large building in the center
'^^

WlMfrjlllLX

28 29
 Figure 20 INDIAN POINT Station of
Consolidated Edison Company of New
York Located on the Hudson River,
about 35 miles north of New York City
The first unit of the station, located m
jront oj the stack m the illustration has
a capacity oj 265,000 kilouatts and uas
the fourth large nuclear power plant to
be built m the United States It uses a
pressurized-water reactor, as do the
other two units of the complex Total
projected capacity, with all three units
operating, is more than tuo million
kilowatts

— •«.•%#«'•f

Figure 19 YANKEE Nuclear Power Sta-

tion Located at Rowe, Massachusetts,
about 45 miles east of Albany, New
York Pressurized-water reactor,
175,000-net-electrical-kiloiiatt capac-
ity, designed by Westmghouse Electric
Corporation Started commercial op-
eration m 1961 Owned and operated by
Yankee Atomic Electric Company
Yankee was the third large nuclear power
plant to be built m the U S

30
 Figure 20 INDIAN POINT Station of
Consolidated Edison Company of New
York Located on the Hudson River,
about 35 miles north of Neu York City
The first unit of the station, located m
front oj the stack m the illustration has
a capacity of 265,000 kilowatts and was
the jourth large nuclear pouet plant to
be built m the United States It uses a
pressiirized-iiater reactor, as do the
other two units oj the complex Total
projected capacity, utth all three units
operating, is more than livo million
kilowatts

^9-

,.4<.!*«W*t"^
Figure 19 YANKEE Nuclear Power Sta-
tion Located at Roue, Massachusetts,
about 45 miles east oj Albany, Neiv
Yolk Pressurized-water reactor,
175,000-net-electrical-kilowatt capac-
ity, designed by Westmghouse Electric
Corporation Started commercial op-
eration in 1961 Owned and operated by
Yankee Atomic Electric Company
Yankee was the third large nuclear power
plant to be built m the U S

30 31
 Figure 22 OYSTER CREEK Nuclear
Pouer Plant, Unit #1 This 515,000-
kilowatt plant oj Jersey Central Power &
Light Company is at Toms River, New
Jersey Boilmg-water reactor, designed
by the General Electric Company Some
of the canals and equipment which pro-
vide cooling water for the condenser
can be seen m the photograph

Figure 21 ENRICO FERMI Atomic Power

Planti Located at Lagoona Beach on
Lake Erie, near Monroe, Michigan, about
35 miles southwest of Detroit. Breeder
reactor, cooled mth liquid sodium,
b 0,900-net-electrical-kilowatt capacity,
designed by Atomic Power Development
Associates, Inc. Started pouer opera-
tion in 1965. Jointly owned and operated
by Detroit Edison Company and Power
Reactor Development Company. Enrico
Fermi was the world's first large
breeder nuclear power plant.

32 33
 Figure 22 O YS TER CREEK Nuclear
Pouer Plant, Unit #1 This 515,000-
kilowatt plant of Jersey Central Power &
Light Company is at Toms River, New
Jersey Boilmg-water reactor, designed
by the General Electric Company Some
of the canals and equipment which pro-
vide cooling water for the condenser
can be seen m the photograph

Figure 21 ENRICO FERMI Atomic Power

Planti Located at Lagoona Beach on
Lake Erie, near Monroe, Michigan, about
35 miles southwest of Detroit Breeder
reactor, cooled with liquid sodium,
b0,900-net-electrical-kilouatt capacity,
designed by Atomic Pouer Development
Associates, Inc Started pouer opera-
tion m 1965 Jomtly owned and operated
by Detroit Edison Company and Power
Reactor Development Company Enrico
termi was the uorld's first large
breeder nuclear power plant.

32 33
 Figure 24 BROWNS FERRY Nuclear
Power Plant under construction. This
view shows two of the three boiling-
ivater reactors. Total generating capac-
ity, all units operating, over three million
kilowatts. Located about 10miles north-
west of Decatur, Alabama, the Browns
Ferry station is part of the Tennessee
Valley Authority system.
H

Figure 23 PEACH BOTTOM Alomlc

Power Station Unit #1. Located on the
Susquehanna River near Peach Bottom,
Pennsylvania, about 65 miles southwest
of Philadelphia. Helium-cooled reactor,
40,000-net-electrical-kilowatt capacity,
designed by Gulf General Atomic. Started
commercial operation in 1967. Op-
erated by Philadelphia Electric Com-
pany, Peach Bottom is a demonstration
reactor featuring high temperatures and
a gaseous coolant. Units #2 and #3 are
located at the same site.
m^
34 35
 Figure 24 BROWNS FERRY Nuclear
Pouer Plant under construction This
vieu shous tuo oj the three boilmg-
uatcr reactors Iotal generating capac-
ity, all units operating, over three million
kilowatts Located about 10 miles north-
west of Decatur, Alabama, the Browns
Ferry station is part oj the Tennessee
Valley Authority system

Figure 23 PEACH B O 2 I O M Atomic

Power Station Unit #1 Located on the
Susquehanna River near Peach Bottom,
Pennsyhania, about 65 miles southwest
of Philadelphia Helium-cooled reactor,
40,000-net-electrical-kilowatt capacity,
designed by Gulf General Atomic Started
commercial operation m 1967 Op-
erated by Philadelphia Electric Com-
pany, Peach Bottom is a demonstration
reactor jealunng high temperatures and
a gaseous coolant Units #2 and #J are
located at the same site

34 35
IT

Figure 26 HUMBOLDT BAY Power

Plant Located on Humboldt Bay near
Eureka, Calijornia, about 200 miles
north oj San Francisco Boilmg-waler
reactor, 66,500-net-electrical-kilouatt
capacity, designed by General Electric
Company. Started cotnmer cial opeiatwn
m 1963 Owned and operated by Pacijic
Gas and Electric Company. The picture
shows the reactor building on the r ight,
to the lejt are two oil-fired generating
units

Figure 25 C ONNE CTICUT YANKEE

Atomic Pouer Plant Located at Haddam
Neck on the east bank oj the Connecticut
River, about 20 miles southeast of
Hartjord Pressurized-water reactor,
462,000-kilouatt capacity, designed by
Westmghouse Electric Corporation Op-
eration of the plant, oivned by Connecticut
Yankee Atomic Power Company, began
m 196 7

36
 Figure 26 HUM BOLD! BAY Power
Plant Located on Humboldt Bay near
Eureka, California, about 200 miles
north of San Francisco Boilmg-water
reactor, bS ,500-net-electrical-kilowatt
capacity designed by General Electric
Company Started comnier aal operation
m 1963 Oivned and operated by Pacific
Gas and Electric Company The picttn e
shows the r eactor building on the right,
to the lejt are two oil-jired generating
units

Figure 25 C0NNECTICU7 YANKEE

Atomic Power Plant Located at Haddam
Neck on the east bank of the Connecticut
River, about 20 miles southeast of
Hartjord Pressurized-water reactor,
4b2,000-kilowatt capacity designed by
\\ estmghouse Electric Corporation Op-
eration oj the plant owned by Connecticut
Yankee Atomic Power Company began
in 19b 7

37
 Figure 28 BIG ROCK POINT Nuclear
Plant Located on Lake Michigan at
Big Rock Point near Charlevoix, Michi-
gan, about 200 miles northwest of
Detroit Boilmg-water reactor, 70,400-
net-electncal-kilowatt capacity, de-
signed by General Electric Company.
Started commercial operation m 1963.
Owned and operated by Consumers
Power Company.

Figure 27 ROBERT EMMETT GINNA

Nuclear Pouer Plant Located on the
south shore oj Lake Ontario, about 15
miles east of Rochester, New York
Pressurized-water reactor, net elec-
trical capacity 420,000 kilowatts, de-
signed by Westmghouse Electric Corpo-
ration The Gmna plant uas jormerly
known as Brookwood and is owned by
Rochester Gas and Electric Corporation

39
 Figure 28 BIG ROCK POINT Nuclear
Plant Located on Lake Michigan at
Big Rock Point near Charlevoix, Michi-
gan, about 200 miles northwest of
Detroit. Boilmg-water reactor, 70,400-
net-electncal-kilowatt capacity, de-
signed by General Elect) ic Company.
Started commercial operation in 1963.
Owned and operated by Consumers
Power Company.

-fV"

"*-',
Figure 27 ROBERT EMMETT GINNA
Nuclear Pouer Plant Located on the
south shore of Lake Ontario, about 15
miles east oj Rochester, New York
Pressurized-water reactor, net elec-
trical capacity 420,000 kilowatts, de-
signed by Westmghouse Electric Corpo-
ration The Gmna plant was jormerly
known as Brookwood and is owned by
Rochester Gas and Electric Corporation

38
39
 -.-•^HH^W!^,.

Figure 30 PALISADES Nuclear Pouer

Station. Located at South Haven, Michi-
gan, about 35 miles west of Kalamazoo
Pressurized-water reactor, net capacity
700,000 kilowatts, designed by Combus-
tion Engineering, Inc Owned by Con-
•
sumers Power Company, whose Big Rock
Point plant is shown m Figure 28

A
p

Figure 29 SAN ONOFRE Nuclear Gen-

erating Station Located on the Pacific
Ocean near San Clemente, California
Pressurized-water reactor, 430,000-
kilowalt capacity, commenced operation
m 1967 Owned jointly by Southern Cali-
fornia Edison Company and San Diego
Gas & Electric Company

40 41
 1, a •.~'«»-^s«

Figure 30 PALISADES Nuclear Power

Station Located at South Haven, Michi-
gan, about 3o miles uest oj Kalamazoo
Pressurized-water reactor, net capacity
700,000 kilowatts, designed by Combus-
tion Engineering Inc Owned by Con-
sumers Power Company, whose Big Rock
Point plant is shown in Figure 2h

Figure 29 SAN ONOFRE Nuclear Gen-

erating Station Located on the Pacific
Ocean near San Clemente, California
Pressurized-ivater reactor, 430,000-
kiloivatt capacity, commenced operation
m 1967 Owned jointly by Southern Cali-
fornia Edison Company and San Diego
Gas & Electric Company

40 41
 t - 7 /fi5'\"

4'i +

Figure 32 NINE MILE POINT Nuclear

Station. Located on Lake Ontario near
Oswego, New York, about 35 miles
north of Syracuse. Boilmg-water reac-
tor, 500,000-net-electrical-kiloivatt ca-
pacity, designed by General Electric
Company. Owned and operated by Niag-
ara Mohaivk Power Corporation.
Figure 31 NINE MILE POINT Nuclear
Station, under construction It takes
several years time, a lot of material,
and many hours of labor to erect a
large power plant In taking this pic-
ture, the photographer stood inside a
large pipe that carries cooling water
jrom Lake Ontario into the steam con-
denser. The huge, light-bulb-shaped
steel shell in the foreground houses
the reactor. A view of the finished plant
is shown m Figure 32.

42 43
 Figure 32 NINE MILE POINT Nuclear
Station Located on Lake Ontario near
Oswego, Neiv York, about 35 miles
north oj Syracuse Boilmg-water reac-
tor, 500,000-net-electrical-kiloivatt ca-
pacity, designed by General Electric
Company Owned and operated by Niag-
ara Mohauk Pouer Corporation
Figure 31 NINE MILE POINT Nuclear
Station, under construction It takes
several years time, a lot of material,
and many hours of labor to erect a
large power plant In taking this pic-
ture, the photographer stood inside a
large pipe that carries cooling water
jrom Lake Ontario into the steam con-
denser. The huge, light-bulb-shaped
steel shell m the foreground houses
the reactor. A view of the finished plant
IS shown m Figure 32.

42 43

DEVELOPMENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Many countries use nuclear energy to produce electric
power. Some of these countries have large reactor d e -
velopment p r o g r a m s of their own, like the one in the
United States, while others undertake little development,
preferring to buy their nuclear power plants from a
country that s e l l s them for export. Among the countries
whose p r o g r a m s we will discuss, our neighbor to the
north comes first.
Canada
With large r e s e r v e s of uranium, with a pool of scientists
who participated in the early atomic energy work, and with
inconveniently located fossil-fuel r e s o u r c e s , Canada is " a
n a t u r a l " for the utilization of nuclear energy. The Cana-
dians, in fact, for years have had a vigorous nuclear d e -
velopment p r o g r a m , oriented strongly toward heavy-water
reactors.
In 1962, the Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD) Station
at Rolphton, Ontario, became Canada's first operating
Figure 33 The DOUGLAS
POINT Nuclear Pouer Sta-
tion located on the eastern
shore of Lake Huron near
Kincardine, Ontario.
44
nuclear power plant and the first in the world to use a
heavy-water reactor. The station, with a power output of
22,500 kilowatts, was designed as a prototype foi l a r g e r
plants. The first full-scale nuclear electric generating
plant, the Douglas Point Nuclear Power Station, has a
capacity of 203,000 kilowatts. It was built by Atomic
Energy of Canada, Ltd (which corresponds to our Atomic
Energy Commission) in partnership with the Hydro Electric
Power Commission of Ontario
The dominance of the heavy-water reactor in Canadian
efforts IS illustrated by several additional large plants in
Canada, and by the export sale of power plants of this type
to India and Pakistan.
Great Britain
The British have been m the nuclear energy business for
a long time, and they have the nuclear power plants to
prove it. In 1956, when the British began operating their
first nuclear plant at Calder Hall, shown in Figure 34, they
chose a gas-cooled r e a c t o r . More than two dozen plants
later, the English still prefer gas-cooled r e a c t o r s . Many
technical improvements have been incorporated in the
newer plants. The outside appearance has changed, too,
as can be seen by comparing a photo of a newer plant
(Figure 35) with that of the original station.
Figure 34 England's CAL-
DER HALL Nuclear Power
Station The tall structures
are cooling towers, which
arc employed m locations
where a large body of
water is not accessible
These towers cool the con-
denser cooling water so
that it can be used again,
and they onit steam, not
smoke Four reactors sup-
ply steam lo two turbines
Total capacity oj the sta-
tion IS 198,000 electrical
kilouatts
Great Britain offers plants for export and competes for
contracts m other countries. British-designed gas-cooled
r e a c t o r s have been built in Italy and Japaii.
45

DEVELOPMENTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Many countries use nuclear energy to produce electric
power. Some of these countries have large reactor d e -
velopment p r o g r a m s of their own, like the one in the
United States, while others undertake little development,
preferring to buy their nuclear power plants from a
country that sells them for export. Among the countries
whose p r o g r a m s we will discuss, our neighbor to the
north comes first.
Canada
With large r e s e r v e s of uranium, with a pool of scientists
who participated in the early atomic energy work, and with
inconveniently located fossil-fuel r e s o u r c e s , Canada is " a
nuclear power plant and the first m the world to use a
heavy-water r e a c t o r . The station, with a power output of
22,500 kilowatts, was designed as a prototype for larger
plants. The first full-scale nuclear electric generating
plant, the Douglas Point Nuclear Power Station, has a
capacity of 203,000 kilowatts. It was built by Atomic
Energy of Canada, Ltd. (which corresponds to our Atomic
Energy Commission) in partnership with the Hydro Electric
Power Commission of Ontario.
The dominance of the heavy-water r e a c t o r m Canadian
efforts IS illustrated by several additional large plants in
Canada, and by the export sale of power plants of this type
to India and Pakistan.
Great Britain
The British have been in the nuclear energy business for
a long time, and they have the nuclear power plants to
prove it. In 1956, when the British began operating their
first nuclear plant at Calder Hall, shown in Figure 34, they
chose a gas-cooled reactor. More than two dozen plants
later, the English still prefer gas-cooled reactors. Many
technical improvements have been incorporated in the
newer plants. The outside appearance has changed, too,
as can be seen by comparing a photo of a newer plant
(Figure 35) with that of the original station.

•
n a t u r a l " for the utilization of nuclear energy. The Cana-
dians, m fact, for years have had a vigorous nuclear d e -
Figure 34 England's CAL-
velopment p r o g r a m , oriented strongly toward heavy-water F*!e*^j^^,J DER HALL Nuclear Power
reactors. Station. The tall structures
In 1962, the Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD) Station ^ ^ are cooling towers, which
are employed m locations
at Rolphton, Ontario, became Canada's first operating ^Kliil^B ^•USHiiiiMihi^ *>• - ^HBR where a large body of
\*>. "^H

H^^B
1
\^m
1^^U
®g^^^j^fejiy
water is not accessible.
These tower s cool the con-
denser cooling water so
that it can be used again,
and they emit steam, not
smoke Four reactorssup-
ply steam lo two turbines.
Figure 33 The DOUGLAS H Jf^^j jB^iiS^itv^ Total capacity of the sta-
POINT Nuclea) Poiver Sta-
tion located on the eastern
shore of Lake Huron near
l^g i39^ta^ tion is 198,000
kilowatts.
electrical

Kincardine, Ontario. Great Britain offers plants for export and competes for
contracts in other countries, British-designed gas-cooled
r e a c t o r s have been built m Italy and Japan.

44
45
Figure 35 The OLDBURY
Nuclear Poiver Station went
into operation in Great
Britain in 1967. Generating
capacity of the two plants
at the station is 600,000
electrical kilowatts.

Figure 37 Aerial view of the

735,000-kilowatt nuclear
power station at Chinon,
France. CHINON 1 is at
Ihe bottom, and the newer-
plants, CHINON 2 and 3,
Figure 36 The DOUNREAY are above.
Fast Reactor located in
Scotland.

The nuclear research and development work in France

In addition to their work on gas-cooled reactors, the
British are investigating other systems, including steam-
generating heavy-water and liquid-metal-cooled breeder
reactors. The Dounreay Fast Reactor, shown in Figure 36,
is a 12,700-kilowatt experimental plant that has been in use
since 1959, A new, 250,000-kilowatt prototype breeder
reactor is located at the same site.
France
The emphasis in the French program, as in the British,
has been on gas-cooled reactors. Although the two coun-
tries have developed nuclear plants that are very similar
in principle and in major features, the development pro-
grams have been independent.
The first French plant went into operation at Marcoule
in 1956, and since that time a new unit has come "on the
line" about every 2 years with progressive improvements
in the later designs. This should not be taken as an indica-
tion that progress has been slow, however, for the latest
French plants show important improvements over the early
designs.
is considered to be good, and the French scientists are
respected by their counterparts in other countries. In
addition to contemporary gas-cooled reactors, the French
have an active fast breeder program underway, including a
250,000-kilowatt prototype at Marcoule.
Japan
The Japanese have undertaken an ambitious nuclear
power construction program, and the supporting industries
necessary for such a program are developing rapidly.
Although most of the current nuclear power plants are
based on American designs, the Japanese have been op-
erating reactors for over a decade.
The large nuclear plants that are becoming operational
use boiling-water or pressurized-water reactors, but the
Japanese are also looking well into the future as they
develop a native capability. In addition to work on the kinds
of reactors that are currently operating or under con-
struction, research centers and industrial organizations
are involved in the development of heavy-water and breeder
reactors.

46 47
Figure 35 The OLDBUR Y
Nuclear Power Station went
into operation in Great
Britain in 1967. Generating
capacity of the two plants
at the station is 600,000
electrical kilowatts.

Figure 37 Aerial view of the

735,000-kiloivatt nuclear
power station at Chinon,
France. CHINON 1 is at
the bottom, and the newer
plants, CHINON 2 and 3,
Figure 36 The DOUNREAY are above.
Fast Reactor located in
Scotland.

The nuclear r e s e a r c h and development work in France

In addition to their work on gas-cooled r e a c t o r s , the
British a r e investigating other systems, including steam-
generating heavy-water and liquid-metal-cooled breeder
r e a c t o r s . The Dounreay Fast Reactor, shown in Figure 36,
is a 12,700-kilowatt experimental plant that has been in use
since 1959. A new, 250,000-kilowatt prototype breeder
reactor is located at the same site.
France
The emphasis in the French program, as in tlie British,
has been on gas-cooled r e a c t o r s . Although the two coun-
t r i e s have developed nuclear plants that a r e very s i m i l a r
in principle and in major features, the development p r o -
g r a m s have been independent.
The first French plant went into operation at Marcoule
in 1956, and since that time a new unit has come "on the
line" about every 2 y e a r s with progressive improvements
in the later designs. This should not be taken as an indica-
tion that p r o g r e s s has been slow, however, for the latest
French plants show important improvements over the early
designs.
is considered to be good, and the French scientists are
respected by their counterparts in other countries. In
addition to contemporary gas-cooled r e a c t o r s , the French
have an active fast breeder program underway, including a
250,000-kilowatt prototype at Marcoule.
Japan
The Japanese have undertaken an ambitious nuclear
power construction p r o g r a m , and the supporting industries
n e c e s s a r y for such a p r o g r a m are developing rapidly.
Although most of the current nuclear power plants a r e
based on American designs, the Japanese have been op-
erating r e a c t o r s for over a decade.
The large nuclear plants that are becoming operational
use boiling-water or p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r r e a c t o r s , but the
Japanese are also looking well into the future as they
develop a native capability. In addition to work on the kinds
of r e a c t o r s that are currently operating or under con-
struction, r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s and industrial organizations
are involved in the development of heavy-water and breeder
reactors.

46 47

Figure 38 Japan's TSU-
RUGA Nuclear Power
Plant This 322,000-kilo-
watt plant is located near
Kyoto
Figure 38 shows one of J a p a n ' s nuclear power plants,
which uses a boiling-water reactor.
Soviet Union
The Russians have been operating nuclear r e a c t o r s for
over 25 y e a r s — n e a r l y as long as scientists in the United
States have Their earliest r e a c t o r s , like ours, were d e -
signed to produce m a t e r i a l s for nuclear weapons. The
Soviet program on peaceful u s e s of atomic energy also is
like ours It is diversified and, in the nuclear power plant
area, it is not concentrated strongly on any particular
type of plant.
A nuclear power plant called AM-1 went into operation
near Moscow in 1954, preceding the first operation of our
Shippingport station. We do not consider AM-1 to be a true
nuclear power plant, however, because of its small size
(5000 kilowatts) and experimental use. (A U. S. facility,
the Experimental Breeder Reactor in Idaho, was producing
electric power in 1951.)
Russia has built s e v e r a l types of nuclear power plants,
but not many of any one type. Figure 39 shows an interior
view of one of their l a r g e r plants, a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r
type. The level of their technology is about equal to ours
for the kinds of plants being constructed in fairly large
numbers here. The U.S.S.R. is also pushing ahead with a
large b r e e d e r - r e a c t o r construction program.
48
Figure 39 The reactor pit m
the NOVOVORONEZH Nu-
clear Power Station located
on the Don River m the
Sonet Union The dome at
the bottom is a cover for
the reactor vessel. This
plant produces 196,000
kilowatts, a second, larger
plant is at the same site
West Germany
A vigorous development program promises to place West
Germany among the foremost builders of nuclear power
plants. Since their 15,000-kilowatt Kahl station began power
operation in 1961, the Germans have proceeded with r e -
search and construction plans encompassing a variety of
nuclear plants and facilities.
Some of the German plants are experimental in nature
and serve as steps in a large, b r e e d e r - r e a c t o r program,
but others have been built to furnish electric power to meet
today's requirements. One such plant is shown in Figure 40,
while Figure 41 shows the reactor vessel of another.
Although the two photos illustrate boiling-water reactors,
other German plants use pressurized-water, heavy-water,
and gas-cooled r e a c t o r s .
The German program is not limited to the development
and construction of nuclear power plants for domestic use
only. German industry is active in the competition for
contracts to build plants in other countries, and a 317,000-
kilowatt heavy-water r e a c t o r was sold to Argentina in 1968.
49

Figure 38 Japan's TSU-
RUGA Nuclear Power
Plant Ihis 322,000-kilo-
watt plant is located near
Kyoto
Figure 38 shows one of J a p a n ' s nuclear power plants,
which uses a boilmg-water reactor.
Soviet Union
The Russians have been operating nuclear r e a c t o r s for
over 25 y e a r s — n e a r l y as long as scientists in the United
States have Their earliest r e a c t o r s , like ours, were d e -
signed to produce materials for nuclear weapons. The
Soviet program on peaceful u s e s of atomic energy also is
like ours. It is diversified and, m the nuclear power plant
a r e a , it is not concentrated strongly on any particular
type of plant.
A nuclear power plant called AM-1 went into operation
near Moscow in 1954, preceding the first operation of our
Shippingport station. We do not consider AM-1 to be a true
nuclear power plant, however, because of its small size
(5000 kilowatts) and experimental use (A U. S. facility,
the Experimental Breeder Reactor in Idaho, was producing
electric power in 1951.)
Russia has built several types of nuclear power plants,
but not many of any one type. Figure 39 shows an interior
view of one of their l a r g e r plants, a p r e s s u r i z e d - w a t e r
type. The level of their technology is about equal to ours
for the kinds of plants being constructed in fairly large
numbers here. The U.S.S.R. is also pushing ahead with a
large b r e e d e r - r e a c t o r construction program.
48
Figure 39 The reactor pit m
the NOVOVORONEZH Nu-
clear Pouer Station located
on the Don River m the
Soviet Union The dome at
the bottom is a cover for
the reactor vessel. This
plant produces 196,000
kiloivatts, a second, larger
plant IS at the same site
West Germany
A vigorous development program promises to place West
Germany among the foremost builders of nuclear power
plants. Since their 15,000-kilowatt Kahl station began power
operation in 1961, the Germans have proceeded with r e -
search and construction plans encompassing a variety of
nuclear plants and facilities.
Some of the Geiman plants are experimental in nature
and s e r v e a s steps m a large, b r e e d e r - r e a c t o r program,
but others have been built to furnish electric power to meet
today's requirements. One such plant is shown in Figure 40,
while Figure 41 shows the reactor vessel of another.
Although the two photos illustrate boiling-water r e a c t o r s ,
other German plants use pressurized-water, heavy-water,
and gas-cooled r e a c t o r s .
The German program is not limited to the development
and construction of nuclear power plants for domestic use
only. German industry is active in the competition for
contracts to build plants in other countries, and a 317,000-
kilowatt heavy-water r e a c t o r was sold to Argentina in 1968,
49

other Countries
Practically every country has a government agency and
r e s e a r c h centers devoted to nuclear energy. Even some of
the nations that a r e small m size have substantial p r o -
g r a m s under way and have actually built a nuclear power
plant or two. Others have p r e f e r r e d — at least at first — to
buy their plants from another country. In addition to the
countries mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, the fol-
lowing have built or bought nuclear power plants: Belgium,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, the Netherlands, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, and, reportedly, Bulgaria and Hungary.
50
J, v^ywjT*
THE LAST WORD
In the near future, a substantial amount of e i r : t n :
power may come from a kind of nuclear plant that t^ hiTS
not mentioned yet. This is called a f7Ma/-/);n-/)05f pla:::". r e -
cause it has two products: Electricity and fresh -rs-ter.
The reactor in a dual-purpose plant s e r v e s ibe --s-iil
p u r p o s e — i t produces heat. However, it produces er;Tji:-
heat to make more steam than the power-generating s-rc-
tion of the plant needs. The extra steam is iisei in a
desalting plant, or p r o c e s s , that makes fresh ^jrater i r : —
salt water. Thus, tlie dual-purpose plant is much L i r a
regular nuclear power plant except that it has ar: exvrx
section—and a big one, at that — which produces l a r r e
amounts of fresh water.*
We have discussed some aspects of nuclear power plants,
how r e a c t o r s work, and why atomic energy is important in
meeting the demand for electric power today ani m t i e
future. For those who want more information, the foIlGTEls:
pages give lists of suggested books, r e p o r t s , a r t i c l e s , an-i
motion p i c t u r e s .
•See Nuclear Energy Jor Desalting, a. companion booklet in thi
series.
51

Figure 40 West Ger-
many's GUNDREMMINGEN
Nuclear Power Station
This 237.OOO-kdowatl plant
was Germany's first large-
scale nuclear power sta-
tion It uses a boilmg-water
reactor and has been m
operation since 1966.
Figure 41 The interior of
the reactor vessel of the
LINGEN Nuclear Power
Station m West Germany
The mside diameter of the
vessel IS about 12 ft This
boilmg-water reactor has
been in operation since
1968.
Other Countries
Practically every country has a government agency and
research centers devoted to nuclear energy. Even some of
the nations that are small in size have substantial pro-
grams under way and have actually built a nuclear power
plant or two. Others have preferred—at least at first—to
buy their plants from another country. In addition to the
countries mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, the fol-
lowing have built or bought nuclear power plants: Belgium,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, the Netherlands, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, and, reportedly, Bulgaria and Hungary.
50
THE LAST WORD
In the near future, a substantial amount of electric
power may come from a kind of nuclear plant that we have
not mentioned yet. This is cdilled 2, dual-purpose plant be-
cause it has two products: Electricity and fresh water.
The reactor in a dual-purpose plant serves the usual
purpose—it produces heat. However, it produces enough
heat to make more steam than the power-generating sec-
tion of the plant needs. The extra steam is used in a
desalting plant, or process, that makes fresh water from
salt water. Thus, the dual-purpose plant is much like a
regular nuclear power plant except that it has an extra
section—and a big one, at that—which produces large
amounts of fresh water.*
We have discussed some aspects of nuclear power plants,
how reactors work, and why atomic energy is important m
meeting the demand for electric power today and in the
future. For those who want more information, the following
pages give lists of suggested books, reports, articles, and
motion pictures.
*See Nuclear Energy for Desalting, a. companion booklet in this
series.
51

SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Books
Nuclear Power Plants: Design, Operating Experience, and Eco-
nomics, Robert L. Loftness, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Princeton, New Jersey 08541, 1964, 548 pp., $12.50.
Sourcebook on Atomic Energy, (third edition), Samuel Glasstone,
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New J e r s e y 08541,
1967, 883 pp., $9.25.
Directory oj Nuclear Reactors, Volume IV — Power Reactors, In-
ternational Atomic Energy Agency, National Agency for Interna-
tional Publications, Inc., 317 East 34th Street, New York 10016,
1962, 324 pp., $5.00.
Directory of Nuclear Reactors, Volume VII — Power Reactors, In-
ternational Atomic Energy Agency, National Agency for Interna-
tional Publications, Inc., 317 East 34th Street, New York 10016,
1968, 341 pp., $9.00.
Fact Book on U. S. Nuclear Power Projects, revised periodically.
Electric Companies Public Information Program, 230 Park
Avenue, New York 10017, price varies with each edition.
Reports
Nuclear Reactors Built, Being Built, or Planned in the United
States (TID-8200), revised semiannually, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical
Information, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151,
$3.00.
The following reports a r e available from the Superintendent of
Documents, U. S. Government Pri-nting Office, VVashmeton, D. C.
20402:
Major Aclivilies m the Atomic Energy Programs, January-
December, issued annually, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
about 400 pp., $1.75.
7"he Nuclear Industry, revised annually, Division of Industrial P a r -
ticipation, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, price varies with
each issue.
Forecast of Growth oj Nuclear Poifer (WASH-1084), Division of
Operations Analysis and Forecasting, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, December 1967, 50 pp., $0.35.
Civilian Nuclear Power-The 1967 Supplement to the 1962 Report
to the President, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, February
1967, 56 pp., $0.40.
Articles
Annual Report on Nuclear Power, Electrical World. Reprints a r e
$1.00 a copy from Reprint Editor, Electrical World, 330 West
42nd Street, New York 10036.
52
The Arrival of Nuclear Power, John F. Hogerton, Scientijic
American, 218: 21 (February 1968).
Numerous articles on nuclear power plants appear in the regular
monthly issues of the following periodicals: Power, Electrical
World, Power Engineering, Nuclear News, and Nuclear Engi-
neering International.
Motion Pictures
Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters
Film Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film
libraries.
Atomic Power Today: Service with Sajety, 28V2 minutes, color,
1966. Produced for the Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. This film
tells the story of central station nuclear power plants and how
they serve the country now and will continue to do so in the
future. Starting with basic information on how electricity is
produced from water power and fossil fuels, the film introduces
nuclear fuel as a new energy resource that helps keep down the
cost of electricity. Nuclear fuel is shown being fabricated, and
its use in a reactor is illustrated through animation. The film
shows the components and construction of a nuclear power plant,
and deals with the safety of the plant. The film concludes by
showing several of the nuclear power plants across the
country, which serve our needs for electric power.
Tomorrow's Power—Today, 5V2 minutes, color, 1964. Produced
for the AEC by the Argonne National Laboratory. This film
explains why energy from the atom is needed to supplement that
of conventional fossil fuels. It shows how heat from nuclear
fission is converted to electrical power and gives a brief survey
of representative atomic power plants in the U.S.
The New Power, 45 minutes, color, 1965. Produced for the AEC's
Idaho Operations Office by the Lookout Mountain Air Force
Station. This film tells how the National Reactor Testing Station
in Idaho is furthering the AEC's quest for economic nuclear
power. Most of the many experimental nuclear r e a c t o r s located
at the Testing Station are described. The film also explains the
basic principles of power reactor construction and operation.
Atomic Power Production, 14 minutes, color or black and white,
1964. This film in the Magic of the Atom Series was produced by
the Handel Film Corporation. An explanation is given of how the
heat created by the controlled chain reaction of atomic fuel in a
r e a c t o r is converted to electrical power. The basic differences
in these power r e a c t o r s a r e discussed: the boiling-water r e a c -
tor, the pressurized-water reactor, the liquid-metal-cooled
reactor, and the organic-cooled reactor. The principle of the
breeder reactor is explained and its importance s t r e s s e d .
Atomic Venture, 23^2 minutes, color, 1961. Produced by the Gen-
e r a l Electric Company. This film covers the design and develop-
ment of a large dual-cycle boiling-water reactor — the 180,000-
kilowatt Dresden Nuclear Power Station—built by the General
53

SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Books
Nuclear Power Plants: Design, Operating Experience, and Eco-
nomics, Robert L. Loftness, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
Princeton, New J e r s e y 08541, 1964, 548 pp., $12.50.
Sourcebook on Atomic Energy, (third edition), Samuel Glasstone,
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New J e r s e y 08541,
1967, 883 pp., $9.25.
Directory oj Nuclear Reactors, Volume IV — Power Reactors, In-
ternational Atomic Energy Agency, National Agency for Interna-
tional Publications, Inc., 317 East 34th Street, New York 10016,
1962, 324 pp., $5.00.
Directory of Nuclear Reactors, Volume VII — Power Reactors, In-
ternational Atomic Energy Agency, National Agency for Interna-
tional Publications, Inc., 317 East 34th Street, New York 10016,
1968, 341 pp., $9.00.
Fact Book on U. S. Nuclear Poiver Projects, revised periodically.
Electric Companies Public Information Program, 230 P a r k
Avenue, New York 10017, price varies with each edition.
Reports
Nuclear Reactors Built, Being Built, or Planned in the United
Slates (TID-8200), revised semiannually, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical
Information, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151,
$3.00.
The following reports a r e available from the Superintendent of
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
20402:
Major Activities m the Atomic Energy Programs, January-
December, issued annually, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
about 400 pp., $1.75.
The Nuclear Industry, revised annually. Division of Industrial P a r -
ticipation, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, price varies with
each issue.
Forecast oj Growth oj Nuclear Poiwer (WASH-1084), Division of
Operations Analysis and Forecasting, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, December 1967, 50 pp., $0.35.
Civilian Nuclear Power-The 1967 Supplement to the 1962 Report
to the President, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, February
1967, 56 pp., $0.40.
Articles
Annual Report on Nuclear Power, Electrical World. Reprints a r e
$1.00 a copy from Reprint Editor, Electrical World, 330 West
42nd Street, New York 10036.
52
The Arrival of Nuclear Power, John F . Hogerton, Scientific
American, 218: 21 (February 1968).
Numerous articles on nuclear power plants appear in the regular
monthly issues of the following periodicals: Power, Electrical
World, Power Engineering, Nuclear News, and Nuclear Engi-
neering International.
Motion Pictures
Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters
Film Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film
libraries.
Atomic Power Today: Service with Safety, 28V2 minutes, color,
1966. Produced for the Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. This film
tells the story of central station nuclear power plants and how
they serve the country now and will continue to do so in the
future. Starting with basic information on liow electricity is
produced from water power and fossil fuels, the film introduces
nuclear fuel as a new energy resource that helps keep down the
cost of electricity. Nuclear fuel is shown being fabricated, and
its use in a reactor is illustrated tlirough animation. The film
shows the components and construction of a nuclear power plant,
and deals with the safety of the plant. The film concludes by
showing several of the nuclear power plants across the
country, which serve our needs for electric power.
Tomorrow's Power—Today, 5V2 minutes, color, 1964. Produced
for the AEC by the Argonne National Laboratory. This film
explains why energy from the atom is needed to supplement that
of conventional fossil fuels. It shows how heat from nuclear
fission is converted to electrical power and gives a brief survey
of representative atomic power plants in the U.S.
The New Power, 45 minutes, color, 1965. Produced for the AEC's
Idaho Operations Office by the Lookout Mountain Air Force
Station. This film tells how the National Reactor Testing Station
in Idaho is furthering the AEC's quest for economic nuclear
power. Most of the many experimental nuclear r e a c t o r s located
at the Testing Station are described. The film also explains the
basic principles of power reactor construction and operation.
Atomic Poiver Production, 14 minutes, color or black and white,
1964. This film in the Magic of the Atom Series was produced by
the Handel Film Corporation. An explanation is given of how the
heat created by the controlled chain reaction of atomic fuel in a
reactor is converted to electrical power. The basic differences
in these power reactors a r e discussed: the boiling-water r e a c -
tor, the pressurized-water reactor, the liquid-metal-cooled
reactor, and the organic-cooled reactor. The principle of the
breeder reactor is explained and its importance s t r e s s e d .
Atomic Venture, 2'^'^/^ minutes, color, 1961. Produced by the Gen-
e r a l Electric Company. This film covers the design and develop-
ment of a large dual-cycle boiling-water reactor — the 180,000-
kilowatt Dresden Nuclear Power Station—built by the General
53
 Electric Company for the Commonwealth Edison Company in
Chicago and the Nuclear Power Group, Inc., from its beginning
in 1955 to its completion m 1959.
Power and Promise, 29 minutes, color, 1959. Produced by the
AEC. This film describes the Sluppingport Atomic Power Station
in Pennsylvania, which was built to advance power reactor
technology and demonstrate the practicability of operating a
central station nuclear power plant in a utility network.
The Day Tomorrow Began, 30 minutes, color, 1967. Produced by
Argonne National Laboratory for the AEC. This film tells the
story of the building and testing of the world's first r e a c t o r . By
interview, historical film footage, and paintings, the motion
THE AUTHORS
picture re-enacts the historic events that led to the dramatic
moment when the first sustained chain reaction was achieved. RAY L. LYERLY is a consulting engi-
This milestone in man's quest for knowledge occurred under the neer who works with electric utility
stands of Stagg Field, Chicago, on December 2, 1942, firms. He received a B.S. degree in
mechanical engineering from North
PHOTO C R F o n S Carolina btate University and an M.S.
degree from Columbia University. A
Cover courtLs> Southern CaJifornia Fdison Company
registered professional engineer, Mr.
Lyerly has broad experience in the power
I igurc 10 ConnectiLLit Lii^ht & Powtr Conipan>
generation field, both with fossil-fuel
I iguie 11 Babcock li. Wilco> Company
.ind nuclear power plants. In recent
figure 12 Rural CooperatiVL Power Association
years, his work has been heavily oriented
Figure 13 Coirbustion fngincenng, Inc.
toward the investigation and resolution
of power plant air and water environ-
Figure 14 Power Rcactoi De\ elopment Compan)
mental concerns. He is the principal
Figure lb General J l e c t n c i, oinpan)
member of Ray L. Lyerly and Associ-
Finnic 11 Yankee Atomic Liectrie k_ompan>
ates of Dunedin, Florida, consultants in
Figure 20 Consolidated Fdison Cojnpanv ot New ^oik, Inc.
power plant engineering.
Figure 21 Power Rtactoi Dcvekpment Co npan>
Figure .-w G e n c n ! Flectiic Coinpan> - \Ptf) m d j . A. Jont';
Con'flruction Company
Figurt 2J Philadelphia I Uctrn- Compam
Figure 24 'I enncjsee V alley Authority
Fig irc «5 Connecticut Light <1 Power Company WALTER MITCHELL, III. is a nuclear
Figuie 2t Pacific i^as and Fleciiic Compiny engineer. Mr. Mitchell, a graduate ol
Figuie 27 Rochester Cas and E l t c t n c Coiporation the Georgia Institute of Technology, b e -
Figure 2P Consumers Po\\er Company gan his c a r e e r in the nuclear industry
Figuic .: ' Southern Cab/ornia Fdison Con pany In the 1950s with design work on proto-
Figure 30 Consumers Pouei Company type ship-propulsion r e a c t o r s . During
Figuic 31 Niagaia Mohawk Power Corporation the period since that early work, he has
Figure 3^ Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation been active in the design, analysis, and
Figure -fi Atomic Fnergy of Canada, l t d . evaluation of essentially all types of nu-
Figure J4 United Kingdom Atomic [ neigy ^uth•^uty (UKAf A) clear plants. lie has written scores of
Figure 35 UKAtA technical reports and articles, many of
figure 30 UKAFA which have appeared in national and in-
1 igure J7 FKctricitt de Fianci, (hotography by iM. Brigaud ternational journals, and is coauthor of
Figuic 38 General 1 lectnc company Nuclear Pou er Plants and Breeder Re-
figure 31 Soviet Delegation to the '1 lurd International Conference actors, other booklets in this s e r i e s . A
on the Peaceful Uses ol Atomic Lneif,y founder and Vice President of Southern
Figuic 10 Deutschcs Atomforum e.V . Nuclear Engineering, Inc., Mr. Mitchell
I i a u c 11 Deutsches Atomlorum e.V. is now a Senior Staff Consultant for NUS
Corporation.

54
55
G OFFICE 1974 747-552/5
 Electric Company for the Commonwealth Edison Company in
Chicago and the Nuclear Power Group, Inc , from its beginning
in 1955 to its completion in 1959
Power and Promise, 29 minutes, color, 1959. Produced by the
AEC This film describes the Shippingport Atomic Power Station
in Pennsylvania, which was built to advance power reactor
technology and demonstrate the practicability of operating a
central station nuclear power plant in a utility network.
The Day Tomorrow Began, 30 minutes, color, 1967 Produced by
Argonne National Laboratory for the AEC. This film tells the
story of the building and testing of the world's first reactor By
interview, historical film footage, and paintings, the motion THE AUTHORS
picture re-enacts the historic events that led to the dramatic
moment when the first sustained chain reaction was achieved. RAY L LYERLY is a consulting engi-
This milestone in man's quest for knowledge occurred under the neer who works with electric utility
stands of Stagg Field, Chicago, on December 2, 1942. firms. He received a B.S. degree in
mechanical engineering from North
Carolina State University and an M S.
degree from Columbia University. A
registered professioml engineer, Mr.
Lyerly lias broad experience m the power
generation field, both with fossil-fuel
and nuclear power plants In recent
years, Ins work has been heavily oriented
toward the investigation and resolution
of power plant air and water environ-
mental concerns. He is the principal
member of Ray L. Lyerly and Associ-
ates of Dunedin, Florida, consultants m
power plant engineering.

WALTER i m C H E L L , III, is a nuclear

engineer. Mr. Mitchell, a graduate of
the Georgia Institute of Technology, b e -
gan his c a r e e r in the nucleai industry
in the 1950s with design work on proto-
type ship-propulsion r e a c t o r s . During
the period since that early work, he has
been active in the design, analysis, and
evaluation of essentially all types of nu-
clear plants. He has written scores of
technical reports and articles, many of
which have appeared in national and in-
ternational journals, and is coauthor of
Nuclear Power Plants and By eeder Re-
actors, other booklets m this s e r i e s . A
founder and Vice President of Southern
Nuclear Engineering, Inc., Mr. Mitchell
is now a Senior Staff Consultant for NUS
Corporation.

54
55
^ U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1974 747 5 5 2 / 5
 The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission publishes this series of information
booklets for the general public. The booklets are hsted below by subject
category.
I If you would hke to have copies of these booklets, please write to the
following address for a booklet price list
USAEC—Technical Information Center
P. 0 Box 62
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
School and public libraries may obtain a complete set of the booklets
without charge. These requests must be made on school or library stationery.

Chemistry 18-008 Electricity and Man

IB-303 The A t o m i c Fingerprint Neu- IB-005 Index to AEC Information
tron Activation Analysis Booklets
IB 310 Lost Worlds Nuclear Science
IB-301 The Chemistry of the Noble
Gases and Archeology
IB-302 Cryoaenics The Uncommon 18-309 The Mysterious Box Nuclear
Cold Science and A r t
IB-304 Nuclear Clocks IB-006 Nuclear Terms A Glossary
18-306 Radioisotopes in Industry IB-013 Secrets of the Past Nuclear
IB-307 Rare Earths The Fraternal Fif Energy Applications in A r t and
teen Archaeology
IB-308 Synthetic Transuraniurn Ele 18-017 Teleoperators Man's Machine
ments Partners
IB-014, Worlds Within Worlds The
Biology 015, & Story of Nuclear Energy Vol-
IB-101 Animals in A t o m i c Research 016 umes1,2, and3
18-102 Atoms in Agriculture
IB-105 The Genetic Effects of Radia Physics
tion IB-401 Accelerators
IB-110 Preserving Food w i t h A t o m i c IB-402 A t o m i c Particle Detection
Energy 18-403 Controlled Nuclear Fusion
IB-106 Radioisotopes and Life Pro- IB-404 Direct Conversion of Energy
cesses IB-410 The Electron
IB-107 Radioisotopes in Medicine 18-405 The Elusive Neutrino
IB-109 Your Body and Radiation IB-416 Inner Space The Structure of
the A t o m
The Environment
IB-406 Lasers
lB-201 The A t o m and the Ocean 18-407 Microstructure of Matter
IB-202 Atoms, Nature, and Man 18-415 The Mystery of Matter
18-414 Nature's Invisible Rays IB-411 Power f r o m Radioisotopes
18-413 Spectroscopy
General Interest 18-412 Space Radiation
18-009 A t o m i c Energy and Your World
18-010 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 1 From Nuclear Reactors
Ancient Greece to the 19th 18 501 A t o m i c Fuel
Century 18 502 A t o m i c Power Safety
IB-011 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 2 From IB-513 Breeder Reactors
the Mid-19th to the Early 20th IB-503 The First Reactor
Century IB-505 Nuclear Power Plants
IB-012 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 3 From 18-507 Nuclear Reactors
the Late 19th to the Mid-20th 16-510 Nuclear Reactors for Space
Century Power
IB-002 A Bibliography of Basic Books IB-508 Radioactive Wastes
on A t o m i c Energy 18-511 Sources of Nuclear Fuel
IB-004 Computers IB-512 T h o r i u m and the Third Fuel
 The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission publishes this series of information
booklets for the general public. The booklets are hsted below by subject
category.
I If you would hke to have copies of these booklets, please write to the
following address for a booklet price list
USAEC—Technical Information Center
P. 0 Box 62
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
School and public libraries may obtain a complete set of the booklets
without charge. These requests must be made on school or library stationery.

Chemistry 18-008 Electricity and Man

IB-303 The A t o m i c Fingerprint Neu- IB-005 Index to AEC Information
tron Activation Analysis Booklets
IB 310 Lost Worlds Nuclear Science
IB-301 The Chemistry of the Noble
Gases and Archeology
IB-302 Cryoaenics The Uncommon 18-309 The Mysterious Box Nuclear
Cold Science and A r t
IB-304 Nuclear Clocks IB-006 Nuclear Terms A Glossary
18-306 Radioisotopes in Industry IB-013 Secrets of the Past Nuclear
IB-307 Rare Earths The Fraternal Fif Energy Applications in A r t and
teen Archaeology
IB-308 Synthetic Transuraniurn Ele 18-017 Teleoperators Man's Machine
ments Partners
IB-014, Worlds Within Worlds The
Biology 015, & Story of Nuclear Energy Vol-
IB-101 Animals in A t o m i c Research 016 umes1,2, and3
18-102 Atoms in Agriculture
IB-105 The Genetic Effects of Radia Physics
tion IB-401 Accelerators
IB-110 Preserving Food w i t h A t o m i c IB-402 A t o m i c Particle Detection
Energy 18-403 Controlled Nuclear Fusion
IB-106 Radioisotopes and Life Pro- IB-404 Direct Conversion of Energy
cesses IB-410 The Electron
IB-107 Radioisotopes in Medicine 18-405 The Elusive Neutrino
IB-109 Your Body and Radiation IB-416 Inner Space The Structure of
the A t o m
The Environment
IB-406 Lasers
lB-201 The A t o m and the Ocean 18-407 Microstructure of Matter
IB-202 Atoms, Nature, and Man 18-415 The Mystery of Matter
18-414 Nature's Invisible Rays IB-411 Power f r o m Radioisotopes
18-413 Spectroscopy
General Interest 18-412 Space Radiation
18-009 A t o m i c Energy and Your World
18-010 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 1 From Nuclear Reactors
Ancient Greece to the 19th 18 501 A t o m i c Fuel
Century 18 502 A t o m i c Power Safety
IB-011 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 2 From IB-513 Breeder Reactors
the Mid-19th to the Early 20th IB-503 The First Reactor
Century IB-505 Nuclear Power Plants
IB-012 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 3 From 18-507 Nuclear Reactors
the Late 19th to the Mid-20th 16-510 Nuclear Reactors for Space
Century Power
IB-002 A Bibliography of Basic Books IB-508 Radioactive Wastes
on A t o m i c Energy 18-511 Sources of Nuclear Fuel
IB-004 Computers IB-512 T h o r i u m and the Third Fuel
 The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission publishes this series of information
booklets for the general public. The booklets are hsted below by subject
category.
I If you would hke to have copies of these booklets, please write to the
following address for a booklet price list
USAEC—Technical Information Center
P. 0 Box 62
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
School and public libraries may obtain a complete set of the booklets
without charge. These requests must be made on school or library stationery.

Chemistry 18-008 Electricity and Man

IB-303 The A t o m i c Fingerprint Neu- IB-005 Index to AEC Information
tron Activation Analysis Booklets
IB 310 Lost Worlds Nuclear Science
IB-301 The Chemistry of the Noble
Gases and Archeology
IB-302 Cryoaenics The Uncommon 18-309 The Mysterious Box Nuclear
Cold Science and A r t
IB-304 Nuclear Clocks IB-006 Nuclear Terms A Glossary
18-306 Radioisotopes in Industry IB-013 Secrets of the Past Nuclear
IB-307 Rare Earths The Fraternal Fif Energy Applications in A r t and
teen Archaeology
IB-308 Synthetic Transuraniurn Ele 18-017 Teleoperators Man's Machine
ments Partners
IB-014, Worlds Within Worlds The
Biology 015, & Story of Nuclear Energy Vol-
IB-101 Animals in A t o m i c Research 016 umes1,2, and3
18-102 Atoms in Agriculture
IB-105 The Genetic Effects of Radia Physics
tion IB-401 Accelerators
IB-110 Preserving Food w i t h A t o m i c IB-402 A t o m i c Particle Detection
Energy 18-403 Controlled Nuclear Fusion
IB-106 Radioisotopes and Life Pro- IB-404 Direct Conversion of Energy
cesses IB-410 The Electron
IB-107 Radioisotopes in Medicine 18-405 The Elusive Neutrino
IB-109 Your Body and Radiation IB-416 Inner Space The Structure of
the A t o m
The Environment
IB-406 Lasers
lB-201 The A t o m and the Ocean 18-407 Microstructure of Matter
IB-202 Atoms, Nature, and Man 18-415 The Mystery of Matter
18-414 Nature's Invisible Rays IB-411 Power f r o m Radioisotopes
18-413 Spectroscopy
General Interest 18-412 Space Radiation
18-009 A t o m i c Energy and Your World
18-010 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 1 From Nuclear Reactors
Ancient Greece to the 19th 18 501 A t o m i c Fuel
Century 18 502 A t o m i c Power Safety
IB-011 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 2 From IB-513 Breeder Reactors
the Mid-19th to the Early 20th IB-503 The First Reactor
Century IB-505 Nuclear Power Plants
IB-012 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 3 From 18-507 Nuclear Reactors
the Late 19th to the Mid-20th 16-510 Nuclear Reactors for Space
Century Power
IB-002 A Bibliography of Basic Books IB-508 Radioactive Wastes
on A t o m i c Energy 18-511 Sources of Nuclear Fuel
IB-004 Computers IB-512 T h o r i u m and the Third Fuel
 The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission publishes this series of information
booklets for the general public. The booklets are hsted below by subject
category.
I If you would hke to have copies of these booklets, please write to the
following address for a booklet price list
USAEC—Technical Information Center
P. 0 Box 62
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
School and public libraries may obtain a complete set of the booklets
without charge. These requests must be made on school or library stationery.

Chemistry 18-008 Electricity and Man

IB-303 The A t o m i c Fingerprint Neu- IB-005 Index to AEC Information
tron Activation Analysis Booklets
IB 310 Lost Worlds Nuclear Science
IB-301 The Chemistry of the Noble
Gases and Archeology
IB-302 Cryoaenics The Uncommon 18-309 The Mysterious Box Nuclear
Cold Science and A r t
IB-304 Nuclear Clocks IB-006 Nuclear Terms A Glossary
18-306 Radioisotopes in Industry IB-013 Secrets of the Past Nuclear
IB-307 Rare Earths The Fraternal Fif Energy Applications in A r t and
teen Archaeology
IB-308 Synthetic Transuraniurn Ele 18-017 Teleoperators Man's Machine
ments Partners
IB-014, Worlds Within Worlds The
Biology 015, & Story of Nuclear Energy Vol-
IB-101 Animals in A t o m i c Research 016 umes1,2, and3
18-102 Atoms in Agriculture
IB-105 The Genetic Effects of Radia Physics
tion IB-401 Accelerators
IB-110 Preserving Food w i t h A t o m i c IB-402 A t o m i c Particle Detection
Energy 18-403 Controlled Nuclear Fusion
IB-106 Radioisotopes and Life Pro- IB-404 Direct Conversion of Energy
cesses IB-410 The Electron
IB-107 Radioisotopes in Medicine 18-405 The Elusive Neutrino
IB-109 Your Body and Radiation IB-416 Inner Space The Structure of
the A t o m
The Environment
IB-406 Lasers
lB-201 The A t o m and the Ocean 18-407 Microstructure of Matter
IB-202 Atoms, Nature, and Man 18-415 The Mystery of Matter
18-414 Nature's Invisible Rays IB-411 Power f r o m Radioisotopes
18-413 Spectroscopy
General Interest 18-412 Space Radiation
18-009 A t o m i c Energy and Your World
18-010 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 1 From Nuclear Reactors
Ancient Greece to the 19th 18 501 A t o m i c Fuel
Century 18 502 A t o m i c Power Safety
IB-011 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 2 From IB-513 Breeder Reactors
the Mid-19th to the Early 20th IB-503 The First Reactor
Century IB-505 Nuclear Power Plants
IB-012 A t o m i c Pioneers-Book 3 From 18-507 Nuclear Reactors
the Late 19th to the Mid-20th 16-510 Nuclear Reactors for Space
Century Power
IB-002 A Bibliography of Basic Books IB-508 Radioactive Wastes
on A t o m i c Energy 18-511 Sources of Nuclear Fuel
IB-004 Computers IB-512 T h o r i u m and the Third Fuel
p