BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

M ATERIALS OF C ONSTRUCTION
D IVISION 8 –D OORS AND W INDOWS
1. GLASS
Glass is a hard, brittle, chemically inert substance produced by fusing
silica together with a flux and a stabilizer into a mass that cools to a rigid
condition without crystallization. It is used in building construction in
various forms. Foamed or cellular glass is used as rigid, vapor proof
thermal insulation. Glass fibers are used in textiles and for material
reinforcement. In spun form, glass fibers form glass wool, which is used
for acoustical and thermal insulation. Glass block is used to control light
transmission, glare, and solar radiation. Glass, however, is used most
commonly to glaze the window, sash and skylight openings of buildings.
The three major types of flat glass are the following:
 Sheet glass is fabricated by drawing the molten glass from a furnace (drawn glass), or by
forming a cylinder, dividing it lengthwise, and flattening it (cylinder glass). The fire-polished
surfaces are not perfectly parallel, resulting in some distortion of vision. To minimize this
distortion, glass should be glazed with the wave distortion running horizontally.
 Plate glass is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is subsequently ground and
polished after cooling. Plate glass provides virtually clear, undistorted vision.
 Float glass is manufactured by pouring molten glass onto a surface of molten tin and allowing
it to cool slowly. The resulting flat, parallel surfaces minimize distortion and eliminate the
need for grinding and polishing. Float glass is the successor to plate glass and accounts for
the majority of flat-glass production.
Other types of glass include the following:
 Annealed glass is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
 Heat-strengthened glass is annealed glass that is partially tempered by a process of
reheating and sudden cooling. Heat-strengthened glass has about twice the strength of
annealed glass of the same thickness.
 Tempered glass is annealed glass that is reheated to just below the softening point and then
rapidly cooled to induce compressive stresses in the surfaces and edges of the glass and
tensile stresses in the interior. Tempered glass has three to five times the resistance of
annealed glass to impact and thermal stresses but cannot be altered after fabrication. When
fractured, it breaks into relatively harmless pebble-sized particles.
 Laminated or safety glass consists of two or more plies of flat glass bonded under heat and
pressure to interlayers of polyvinyl butyral resin that retains the fragments if the glass is
broken. Security glass is laminated glass that has exceptional tensile and impact strength.
 Wired glass is flat or patterned glass having a square or diamond wire mesh embedded within
it to prevent shattering in the event of breakage or excessive heat. Wired glass is considered
a safety glazing material and may be used to glaze fire doors and windows.
 Patterned glass has a linear or geometric surface pattern formed in the rolling process to
obscure vision or to diffuse light.
 Obscure glass has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision.
Either process weakens the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
 Spandrel glass is an opaque glass for concealing the structural elements in curtain
wall construction, produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface of tempered
or heat-strengthened glass.
 Insulating glass is a glass unit consisting of two or more sheets of glass separated by
a hermetically sealed air space to provide thermal insulation and restrict condensation;
glass edge units have a 3/16” (5) air space; metal edge units have a ¼” or ½” (6 or 13)
air space.

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 Tinted or heat-absorbing glass has a chemical admixture to absorb a

portion of the radiant heat and visible light that strike it. Iron oxide
gives the glass a pale blue-green tint; cobalt oxide and nickel impart a
grayish tint; selenium infuses a bronze tint.

 Reflective glass has a thin, translucent metallic coating to reflect a

portion of the light and radiant heat that strike it. The coating may be
applied to one surface of single glazing, in between the plies of
laminated glass, or to the exterior or interior surfaces of insulating
glass.

 Low-emissivity (low-e) glass transmits visible light while selectively

reflecting the lo9nger wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by
depositing a low-e coating either on the glass itself or over a
transparent plastic film suspended in the sealed air space of
insulating glass.

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Glass Product Type Nominal Thickness Maximum Area Weight

inch (mm) inches (mm) psf*
Sheet Glass AA, A, B SS 3/32 (2.4) 60 x 60 (1525 x 1525) 1.22 * Verify maximum sizes with
glass manufacturer
DS 1/8 (3.2) 60 x 80 (1525 x 2030) 1.63
Float or Plate Mirror ¼ (6.4) 75 sf (7 m2) 3.28 *Any glass 1/8” or thicker can be
Glazing 1/8 (3.2) 74 x 120 (1880 x 3050) 1.64 tempered, except for patterned
¼ (6.4) 128 x 204 (3250 x 5180) 3.28 or wired glass; tempered glass
5 can also be incorporated into
Heavy Float or Plate Glazing /16 (7.9) 124 x 200 (3150 x 5080) 4.10 insulating or laminated glass
3/8 (9.5) 124 x 200 (3150 x 5080) 4.92 units
½ (12.7) 120 x 200 (3050 x 5080) 6.54 * Reflective coatings may be
5/8 (15.9) 120 x 200 (3050 x 5080) 8.17 applied to float, plate, tempered,
laminated or insulating glass
¾ (19.1) 115 x 200 (2920 x 5080) 9.18
7/8 (22.2) 115 x 200 (2920 x 5080) 11.45
Patterned Glass Various patterns 1/8 (3.2) 60 x 132 (1525 x 3355) 1.60
7/32 (5.6) 60 x 132 (1525 x 3355) 2.40
Wired Glass Polished-mesh ¼ (6.4) 60 x 144 (1525 x 3660) 3.50
Patterned-mesh ¼ (6.4) 60 x 144 (1525 x 3660) 3.50
Parallel wires 7/32 (5.6) 54 x 120 (1370 x 3050) 2.82
¼ (6.4) 60 x 144 (1525 x 3660) 3.50
3/8 (9.5) 60 x 144 (1525 x 3660) 4.45
Laminated Glass (2) 1/8” float ¼ (6.4) 72 x 120 (1830 x 3050) 3.30
Heavy float 3/8 (9.5) 72 x 120 (1830 x 3050) 4.80
½ (12.7) 72 x 120 (1830 x 3050) 6.35
5/8 (15.9) 72 x 120 (1830 x 3050) 8.00
Tinted Glass Bronze 1/8 (3.2) 35 sf (3 m2) 1.64
* Solar energy transmission
3/16 (4.8) 120 x 144 (3050 x 3660) 2.45 reduced 35% to 75%
¼ (6.4) 128 x 204 (3250 x 5180) 3.27 * Visible light transmission
3/8 (9.5) 124 x 200 (3150 x 5080) 4.90 reduced 32% to 72%
½ (12.7) 120 x 200 (3050 x 5080) 6.54
Gray 1/8 (3.2) 35 sf (3 m2) 1.64
3/16 (4.8) 120 x 144 (3050 x 3660) 2.45
¼ (6.4) 128 x 204 (3250 x 5180) 3.27
3/8 (9.5) 124 x 200 (3150 x 5080) 4.90
1/2 (12.7) 120 x 200 (3050 x 5080) 6.54
Insulating Glass Glass edge units
(2) 3/32” sheets 3/16” air space 3/8 (9.5) 10 sf (0.9 m2) 2.40 * R-value = 1.61
(2) 1/8” sheets 3/16” air space 7/16 (11.1) 24 sf (2.2 m2) 3.20 * R-value = 1.61
Metal edge units
(2) 1/8” ¼” air space ½ (12.7) 22 sf (2.0 m2) 3.27 * R-value = 1.72
Sheet, plate or float ½” air space ¾ (19.1) 22 sf (2.0 m2) 3.27 * R-value = 2.04
(2) 3/16” ¼” air space 5/8 (15.9) 34 sf (3.2 m2) 4.90 * R-values for units w/ ½”
Plate or float ½” air space 7/8 (22.2) 42 sf (3.8 m2) 4.90 air space and low-e
(2) ¼” ¼” air space ¾ (19.1) 50 sf (4.6 m2) 6.54 coating:
Plate or float ½” air space 1 (25.4) 70 sf (6.5 m2) 6.54 e = 0.20, R = 3.13
e = 0.40, R = 2.63
e = 0.60, R = 2.33
*1 psf = 47.88 Pa

2. HARDWARE

2.1. NAILS
Nails are straight, slender pieces of metal having one end pointed and the other enlarged and
flattened for hammering into wood or other building materials as a fastener.
Material
 Nails are usually of mild steel, but may also be of aluminum, copper, bras, zinc or stainless
less.
 Tempered, high-carbon steel nails are used for greater strength in masonry applications.
 The type of metal used should be compatible with the materials being secured to avoid loss of
holding power and prevent staining of the materials.

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Length and Diameter of the Shank

 Nail lengths are designated by the term penny (d).
 Nails range in length from 2d, about 1” (25) long, to 60d about 6” (150) long
 Nail length should be about 3 x thickness of the material being secured
 Large diameter nails are used for heavy work while lighter nails are used for finish work;
thinner nails are used for hardwood rather than for softwood.
Form of the Shank
 For greater gripping strength, nail shafts may be serrated, barbed, threaded, fluted or twisted.
 Nail shafts may be cement-coated fro greater resistance to withdrawal, or be zinc-coated for
corrosion resistance.
Nail Heads
 Flat heads provide the
largest amount of
contact area and are
used when exposure of
the heads is acceptable.
 The heads of finish nails
are only slightly larger
than the shaft and may
be tapered or cupped.
 Double-headed nails
are used for easy
removal in temporary
construction and
concrete formwork.
Nail Points
 Most nails have
diamond-shaped points.
 Sharp-pointed nails
have greater holding
strength but may tend
split some woods; blunt
points should be used
for easily split woods.
Power-Driven Fasteners
 Pneumatic nailers and
staplers, driven by a
compressor, are
capable of fastening
materials to wood, steel
or concrete.
 Powder-driven
fasteners use
gunpowder charges to
drive a variety of studs
into concrete or steel.

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2.2. SCREWS
Screws are metal fasteners having
tapered, helically threaded shanks
and slotted heads, designed to be
driven into wood or the like by
turning, as with a screwdriver.
Because of their threaded shafts,
screws have greater holding power
than nails, and are more easily
removable. The more threads they
have per inch, the greater their
gripping strength. Screws are
classified by use, type of head,
material, length and diameter.
 Material: steel, brass,
aluminum, bronze,
stainless steel
 Lengths: ½” to 6” (13 to
150)
 Diameters: up to 24 gauge
The length of a wood screw should
be about 1/8” (3) less than the
combined thickness of the boards
being joined, with ½ to 2/3 of the
screw’s length penetrating the base
material. Fine-threaded screws are
generally used for hardwoods while
coarse-threaded ones are used for
softwoods.
Holes for screws should be
predrilled and be equal to the base
diameter of the threads. Some
screws, such as self-tapping and
drywall screws, are designed to tap
corresponding female threads as
they are driven.

2.3. BOLTS
Bolts are threaded metal pins or
rods, usually having a head at one
end, designed to be inserted
through holes in assembled parts
and secured by a mating nut.
Carriage bolts are used where the
head may be inaccessible to the
placement of a nut or where an
exceptionally long bolt would be
needed to penetrate a joint fully.
 Lengths: ¾” to 30” (75 to
760)
 Diameters: ¼” to 1-¼” (6 to 32)
 Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic used under the head of a nut or bolt
or at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate incompatible
materials.
 Lock washers are specially constructed to prevent a nut from shaking loose
 Load-indicating washers have small projections that are progressively flattened as a bolt is
tightened, the gap between the head or nut and the washer indicating the tension in the bolt.
 Expansion bolts are anchor bolts having a split casing that expands mechanically to engage
the sides of a hole drilled in masonry or concrete.

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 Molly is a trademark for a brand of
expansion bolt having a split, sleevelike
sheath threaded so that turning the bolt
draws the ends of the sheath together and
spreads the sides to engage a hole drilled
in masonry or the inner surface of a hollow
wall.
 Expansions shields are lead or plastic
sleeves inserted into a predrilled hole and
expanded by driving a bolt or screw into it.
 Toggle bolts are used to fasten materials to
plaster, gypsum board and other thin wall
materials. They have two hinged wings that
close against a spring when passing
through a predrilled hole and open as they
emerge to engage the inner surface of a
hollow wall.
 Rivets are metal pins that are used for
permanently joining two or more structural
steel members by passing a headed shank
through a hole in each piece and
hammering down the plain end to form a
second head. Their use has been largely
superseded by the less labor-intensive
techniques of bolting or welding.
 Explosive rivets, used when a joint is
accessible from one side only, have an
explosive-filled shank that is detonated by
striking the head with a hammer to expand
the shank on the far side of the hole.

2.4. ADHESIVES
Adhesives are sued to secure the surfaces of two materials together. Numerous types of adhesives
are available, many of them being tailor-made for use with specific materials and under specified
conditions. They may be supplied in the form of a solid, liquid, powder or film; some require a catalyst
to activate their adhesive properties. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations in the use of
an adhesive. Important considerations in the selection of an adhesive include:
 Strength: Adhesives are usually strongest in resisting tensile and shear stresses and weakest
in resisting cleavage or splitting stresses.
 Curing or setting time: This ranges from immediate bonding to curing times of up to several
days.
 Setting temperature range: Some adhesives will set at room temperature while others require
baking at elevated temperatures.
 Method of bonding: Some adhesives bond on contact while others require clamping or higher
pressures.
 Characteristics: Adhesives vary in their resistance to water, heat, sunlight and chemicals as
well as their aging properties.

Common types of adhesives:

 Animal or fish glues are primarily for indoor use where temperature and humidity do not vary
greatly; they may be weakened by exposure to heat or moisture.
 White or polyvinyl glue sets quickly, does not stain and is slightly resilient.
 Epoxy resins are extremely strong, waterproof and may be used to secure both porous and
nonporous materials; they may dissolve some plastics. Unlike other adhesives, epoxy glues
will set at low temperatures and under wet conditions.
 Resorcin resins are strong, waterproof and durable for outdoor use, but they are flammable
and their dark color may show through paint.
 Contact cement forms a bond on contact and therefore does not require clamping. It is
generally used to secure large sheet materials such as plastic laminate.

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