13

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The introduction of FACTS controllers/devices in transmission

and distribution lines opens up new challenges in line protection as they
change the voltage and current signals at the relay point in both study and
transient conditions. Consequently, distance relays, in the associated
transmission system, have an over reaching or under reaching effect.
Similarly, the settings of the over current relay in the distribution line also
changes. Hence, determining the boundaries of operation of a protection
relay, adaptively in the presence of FACTS controllers, is a challenge. The
main objective of the research is to analyze the impact of various types of
FACTS devices on the power system protection relays and also find effective
protection methods to operate the protective relays properly by mitigating the
problems raised by the FACTS controllers.

This chapter provides a detailed literature review on History and

Development of FACTS devices, Role of FACTS Devices in Power Systems,
Role of Protective Relays in Power Systems, Impact of FACTS Devices on
Protection Relays, and Mitigation of the Impact of FACTS Devices, required to
fulfill the objective of the research work.

2.1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FACTS DEVICES

FACTS controllers have been in use in utilities around the world

since 1970s, when the first utility demonstration of first family of FACTS
named as Static Var Compensator (SVC) was accomplished. Since then the
large effort was put in research and development of FACTS controllers. SVC
 14

is the most primitive and first generation of FACTS controllers. Electric

Power Research Institute (EPRI) brings this technology to the market three
decade ago. This compensator consists of a fast thyristor switch controlling a
reactor and/or shunt capacitor bank, to provide dynamic shunt compensation.
ABB remains the pioneer in deployment of SVC and has supplied 55% of the
total installation of which 13% were being installed in Asian countries. The
world‘s first demonstration of SVC for utility application was installed in
1974, which was commercialized by General Electric (GE) (Hingorani 1993).

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) is a later member of

the first generation of FACTS devices, that uses silicon controlled rectifiers to
manage a capacitor bank connected in series with a line. TCSC allows utility
to transfer more power further on a particular line. The world‘s first three
phase TCSC was developed by ABB and installed at Kayenta substation,
Arizona in 1992, that raises the capacity of a transmission line by almost
30%. By the end of year 2004, seven TCSCs have been installed worldwide.
In Asia, three TCSC came into operation; two in China and one in India,
bringing Asia into the forefront of the advanced FACTS technology
(Grunbaum et al. 1999).

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is the second

generation of FACTS controllers that has a very promising future application.
STATCOM has several advantages of being small/compact, high response
speed and no harmonic pollution ( Edris 2000).The world‘s first commercial
STATCOM (± 80 MVA, 154 kV) was developed by Mitsubishi Electric
Power Products, Inc and was installed at Inuyama substation in Japan in 1991.
(Grunbaum et al. 1999).

Static Series Synchronous Compensator (SSSC) is a

complementary second-generation FACTS controller, which is simply a series
version of STATCOM. Combining the STATCOM and the SSSC into a
 15

single device with a common control system represents the third generation of
FACTS known as Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). It has the unique
ability to control real and reactive power flow independently. (Renz et al.
1999). The first utility demonstration of a UPFC is being constructed at the
Inez substation of American Electric East Claydon 400 kV Substation
VELCO Essex substation conditions SDG & E Talega substation Power in
1998 .

The most recent development in the field of FACTS controllers is

the Convertible Static Compensators (CSC). The CSC offers the full
flexibility by allowing its converters to be connected in shunt (STATCOM),
in series (SSSC), in shunt/series (UPFC) or in series/series. Interline Power
Flow Controller (IPFC) with two lines. The world‘s first CSC is installed at
New York Power Authority‘s Marcy 345 kV substation, which is capable of
operating in eleven different control modes (Grunbaum et al. 1999).

2.2 ROLE OF FACTS DEVICES IN POWER SYSTEMS

‗FACTS‘ is a group of solid state electronic devices that provide

control of one or more AC transmission system parameters (series impedance,
shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle). At present scenario it
enhance the static performance by increased loading, congestion management,
reduced system loss, economic operation etc., and dynamic performance by
increased stability limits, damping of power system oscillations, etc. (Edris et
al. 1997).

The FACTS controllers are mainly used for the following

applications: Power flow control, Increase of transmission capacity, Voltage
control, Reactive power compensation, Stability improvement, Power quality
improvement, Power conditioning, Flicker mitigation, Interconnection of
renewable and distributed generation and storage (Paserba 2004). Various
 16

research works analyzed the performance enhancement of the power system

using FACTS are given below.

Hingorani (1993) introduced different FACTS controllers such as

phase angle regulator, static VAR compensator, sub synchronous resonance
damper and static condenser to improve all round performance of power
system. It has also been stated that the improvement of power semiconductors
is held up as a major factor to the increased importance in the future power
system. Using power electronic circuits, the line parameters such as the phase
angle, the line end voltages and the impedance can be controlled at a faster
rate.

Hingorani (1995) introduced the concept of Custom Power (CP)

devices. Like Flexible AC Transmission systems for transmission systems,
the Custom Power pertains to the use of power electronic controllers for
distribution systems. It enhances the quality and reliability of the power that is
delivered to the customers. These devices are either connected in shunt or in
series or a combination of both. Some of the Custom Power devices used
nowadays to improve the distribution system quality includes Distribution
STSTCOM (D-STATCOM), Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) and Unified
Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC).

Divan et al. (2007a) introduced the concept of Distributed FACTS

as an alternative approach to realizing cost effective power flow control. Such
devices can operate with or without communication link and use small rated
low cost power devices that sustain the operation of the system even during
contingency conditions, improving the reliability of the overall network.
 17

2.3 ROLE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS IN POWER SYSTEMS

Power system networks are usually protected by means of two main

components, relays that sense the abnormal current or voltage and a circuit
breaker that put a piece of plant out of tension. Power system protection is the
art and science of the application of devices that monitor the power line
currents and voltages and generate signals to de-energize faulted sections of
the power network by circuit breakers. The main objective is to minimize
damage to equipment and property during fault conditions and maintain the
delivery of electrical energy to the consumers. Many types of protective
relays are used to protect power system equipments, they are classified
according to their operating principles; over current relay senses the extra
(more than set) current considered dangerous to a given equipment,
differential relays compare in and out currents of a protected equipment,
while impedance relays measure the impedance of the protected line (Hamid
Sherwali et al. 2010).

Traditionally, power systems problems and applications have been

solved by means of purely analog circuits, However the scenario have
changed due to the development of digital and signal processing. Numerical
relays are the result of the application of microprocessor technology in relay
industry; they convert the measured voltages and currents from analog to
digital values. (Ziegler 2011). Numerical relay models are divided into two
categories, the models of the first category consider only the fundamental
frequency components of voltages and currents. The models of the second
category take into consideration the high frequency and decaying DC
components of voltages and currents in addition to the fundamental frequency
components. These models are called transient models of relays. (McLaren et
al. 2001).
 18

The increasing improvement of the semiconductor industry

produced enormous number of digital signal processing and control
algorithms for protection relays. The latest generations of protective relays are
provided with a large capacity of processing capabilities to perform a
numerous number of functions such as fault locators, integrated monitoring
and control functions. Nowadays computer-based relay models are used to
confirm how the relay performs during systems disturbances and normal
operating conditions and to make the necessary corrective adjustment on the
relay settings. The software models are used for training inexperienced
engineers and researchers use relay model to investigate and improve
protection design and algorithms. However, simulating numerical relays to
choose appropriate settings for the steady state operation of over current
relays and distance relays is presently the most familiar use of relay models
(McLaren et al. 2001).

As modern numerical relays are widely employed in protection

systems nowadays and modeling of these types of relays is important to adjust
and settle protection equipment in electrical facilities and to train protection
personnel, the simulation of protective relays using MATLAB offers a good
opportunity to perform these activities efficiently and with minimum cost.
Another advantage is that, as MATLAB is a powerful tool rich with
component models, any shape of relay characteristic can be employed.

The authors, Abdlmnam A. Abdlrahem et al. (2009) explained the

procedure for simulating the numerical distance relay using
MATLAB/SIMULINK in details and also the developed model was tested
under different onerous conditions. The results are presented in graphical
form using an R-X diagram. Li-Cheng Wu et al. (2005) presented a digital
distance model for transmission line protection using MATLAB/SIMULINK.
A 345 kV, 100 km transmission line and a mho type distance relay are
 19

selected as examples for fault simulation and relay testing. Muhd Hafizi Idris
et al. (2012) described a distance relay model using MATLAB/SIMULINK
package. Sim Power System toolbox is used for detailed modeling of distance
relay, transmission line and fault simulation. Inside the modeling, single line
to ground (SLG) fault is selected as a fault type and Mho type distance
characteristic is selected as the protection scheme. A Graphical User Interface
(GUI) is created using GUI package inside MATLAB for the developed
model. The author Kezunovic (2003) developed a simulation model to teach
protective relaying application and design concepts. He introduced new
libraries of signal sources and relay elements for the SIMULINK environment
of MATLAB.

2.4 IMPACT OF FACTS DEVICES ON PROTECTION RELAYS

Wang et al. (1998) investigated the impact of Thyristor Controlled

Series Capacitor (TCSC) on distance relay protection. They proved through
simulation results that the TCSC has a big influence on the mho
characteristic, reactance and direction and makes protection region unstable.

Dash et al. (2001) presented the apparent impedance calculation

procedure for a double-circuit transmission line connected with series
connected FACTS devices. They presented detailed simulation results for
a line-to-ground fault for distance relaying schemes. They proved through
simulation results that the presence of a FACTS device like Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) on a
transmission line can substantially influence the apparent impedance seen
by a distance relay and trip boundaries to a great extent.

The authors, EI-Arroudi et al. (2002) presented the analytical

results based on the steady - state model of Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) controller like the Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
 20

and outlined the impact on impedance based distance relay for normal
operating conditions as well as for different fault conditions under various
load levels.

Khederzadeh et al. (2002) investigated the impact of different

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices on the apparent
impedance seen by a distance relay. They indicated that the parameters of
FACTS controllers and their location in the line (middle or line ends) impact
the trip boundary of a distance relay. Through simulations, they discussed the
impact of overreaching but did not present any equations.

Khederzadeh (2003) investigated the power quality impact of

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM) as a sample of FACTS devices on protective relay
behavior. They derived the current and voltage signals before and after the
fault transferring it to a distance relay simulator designed in a MATLAB
environment. It is proved that for TCSC in normal operation, the content of
harmonics is not high and the relay operated as expected. The distortion
increased rapidly with an increase in the compensation level, and hence the
operation of the relay is affected.

The authors, Sidhu et al. (2005b) presented detailed test results of

systems with Static Var Compensators (SVC) and Static Synchronous
Compensators (STATCOM) and compared the performances between the
two; however, they did not discuss the strategies to reduce the impact of these
devices on the performance of the distance relay. First, they studied the
problem analytically and then modeled the response of FACTS devices for
different fault conditions using EMTDC simulation software. Finally, they
confirmed the results by testing a commercial distance relay using a Real
Time Digital Simulator (RTDS).
 21

Khederzadeh et al. (2006) presented a comprehensive analysis of

the impact of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) on the protection
of transmission lines. They considered TCSC, a dynamical device and
modeled its transient process to respond to disturbances based on its own
control strategy. First, they analytically analyzed using simple models and
then simulated the power system and the protective relays in detail using Real
Time Digital Simulator (RTDS). Finally, they validated the simulation results
using a commercial relay and concluded that the TCSC not only affects the
protection of its line, but also that of adjacent lines.

Jamali et al. (2006) discussed the distance relay over-reaching

problems in the case of Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC)
installed at the near end of the next line. With the help of simulation, they
proved that the presence of TCSC on the near end of the next line greatly
influenced the distance relay tripping characteristic. They found that many
factors, including power system structural conditions, pre-fault loading,
ground fault resistance and TCSC compensation degree affected the distance
relay tripping characteristic.

Zhou et al. (2006) presented, analytical and simulation results of

the application of distance relays for the protection of transmission systems
using the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). First, they modeled the
UPFC with its control and then integrated it into a transmission system to
accurately simulate the fault transients. They also proposed an apparent
impedance calculation procedure for a transmission line with UPFC based on
the power frequency sequence component. Through simulation results, they
highlighted the fundamental problems created by the UPFC on the
performance of a distance protection relay for different fault conditions.

Albasri et al. (2007a) presented a comparative study of the adverse

effect of the midpoint shunt-FACTS controllers, Static Var Compensators
 22

(SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM), on the distance

relay performance for various fault types, fault locations and system
conditions. They modeled the power system elements and the shunt-FACTS
devices with their associated controllers using RTDS software. From the
simulation results, it is observed that the impact of the midpoint shunt-FACTS
compensation on the performance of the distance relay results in errors in the
impedance measurement (under/overreaching), delayed response and
incorrect phase selection.

Jamali et al. (2008) presented the measured impedance at the

relaying point in the presence of Superconductor Magnetic Energy Storage
equipped Static Synchronous Compensators (SMES-STATCOM) on the
transmission line, in the three cases of SMES-STATCOM at near end and its
exclusion and inclusion in the fault loop. In addition, the measured impedance
is evaluated and the ideal tripping characteristic investigated for three
installation points, i.e. near end, mid-point, and far end. It is concluded from
the simulation results that the degree of deviation in the measured impedance
depends on the structural and controlling parameters of SMES-STATCOM as
well as its installation location on the power system.

Kazemi et al. (2008b) evaluated the distance relay mal-operation

in the presence of Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), at the near
end of the line behind; in inter phase, phase to phase and three phase, faults.
The measured impedance is greatly influenced by the presence of SSSC on
the line or even in the case of SSSC installation on the adjacent lines, near
behind end of the line. Simulation results show that the measured impedance
at the relaying point depends on many factors, including the power system
structural conditions, pre-fault loading, fault resistance, and SSSC structural
and controlling parameters.
 23

Kazemi et al. (2008c) presented the measured impedance at the

relaying point in the presence of Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC),
equipped with a Superconductor Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) system,
for inter, phase to phase and three phase, faults. The variation of the tripping
characteristic due to the changes in SMES-UPFC controlling parameters and
installation location were investigated. The simulation results show that, in
addition to the structural and controlling parameters of SMES-UPFC, the
measured impedance depends on its installation location. The ideal tripping
characteristic is presented in the case of the presence of SMES-UPFC at the
line ends or mid-point.

Khederzadeh (2009a) presented an analysis of the impact of

waveform distortion of Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
operating as a Fault Current Limiter (FCL) on transmission line distance
protection. Fault current distortion caused by TCSC in FCL mode is simulated
and analyzed. Simulation results indicated the significant harmonic content of
voltage and current signals measured at the relaying point. To validate the
impact of such waveform distortion on a conventional distance relay a real
commercial distance relay widely used in power systems is tested by injecting
distorted signals based on the results from the simulations. The test results
show the poor behavior of the relay when TCSC operates as a FCL.

Abedi et al. (2009) investigated the effects of Static Var

Compensators (SVC) on distance relay operation through excessive
simulations during fault conditions. The simulation results proved that the
location of SVC in the grid as well as grid configuration and fault location
affect the accuracy of distance relays performance. It was shown that, as the
SVC is closer to distance relays the impedance measured by the relay is
highly erroneous. Also, when the distance between the fault location and the
relay is greater, the impedance measured by the relay is more error prone.
 24

Finally, it was demonstrated that when the number of lines connected to the
SVC bus are smaller the error of impedance measurement is also smaller.

Pouyann et al. (2009) presented an analytical and simulation results

of the application of distance relay for the protection of transmission lines
incorporating Inter-line Power Flow Controller (IPFC). First, a detailed model
of the IPFC and its control is proposed and then integrated into the 150 KV,
8-bus transmission system for the purposes of accurately simulating the fault
transients using PSCAD software. The simulation results show that when the
IPFC injects reactive power into the transmission line, it reduces the apparent
impedance seen by the distance relay and cause the distance relay to over-
reach. In contrast, when the IPFC consumes reactive power from the
transmission line, it increases the apparent impedance seen by the distance
relay and causes the distance relay to under-reach.

Khederzadeh (2009b) proposed a detailed 48-pulse GTO based

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) model with its control circuit
to analyze the impact of SSSC on digital distance relay operation for various
fault conditions. The performance of the relay is analyzed with the help of
mho characteristics and simulation is performed using the MATLAB/
SIMULINK software. The results show that during ‗A‘ phase to ground fault,
the SSSC compensates all the three phases, which change the apparent
impedance measured by the distance relay for the remaining other phases.

Kazemi et al. (2009) presented a comparison of the measured

impedance at the relaying point in the presence of series and shunt FACTS
devices for single phase to ground faults. The effect of the reactive power
compensation via SSSC and STATCOM on the measured impedance at the
relaying point when connected at line ends or mid - point is compared. They
concluded that providing the required or scheduled, reactive power by means
of SSSC or STATCOM is not the same from the distance relaying point of
 25

view. It is also observed that providing an equal amount of reactive power via
SSSC or STATCOM affects the measured impedance with different patterns.

Jamali et al. (2009a) studied the effects of the installation of SSSC

on a transmission line in the case of inter phase, phase to phase and three
phase faults by evaluating the measured impedance at the relaying point. The
measured impedance is presented for two cases of SSSC exclusion and
inclusion in the fault loop. The ideal tripping characteristic is investigated for
three installation points of SSSC, i.e. at near end, mid-point, and far end of
the transmission line. It is concluded that the tripping characteristics, in case
of three phase faults is more sensitive to SSSC controlling parameters.

Elsamahy et al. (2010) explored the impacts of midpoint

STATCOM and SVC on the coordination between the generator distance
phase backup protection relay and the generator capability curve. The results
of these investigations showed that both the midpoint STATCOM and the
SVC have an adverse effect on generator distance phase backup protection
relay. The dynamic simulations of a test benchmark were conducted using the
PSCAD/EMTDC software. The simulation results proved that the impact
varies based on the fault type, fault location, and generator loading.

Jamali et al. (2011) presented the distance relay measured

impedance in the presence of SSSC in the form of locus of apparent
impedance for different fault types using Electro-Magnetic Transient Program
(EMTP). The locus of apparent impedance is investigated for two cases of
SSSC exclusion and inclusion in the fault loop with the three installation
points of SSSC, at near end, mid-point, and far end of the line. The results
show that the structural and controlling parameters of SSSC, as well as the
location of the installation, affects the measured impedance and so the locus
of the apparent impedance changes.
 26

Ghorbani (2011) investigated the impact of a SSSC and a

STATCOM on the impedance calculated by a distance relay using analytical
analysis and simulations. The simulations were carried out in MATLAB/
SIMULINK with detailed models of the SSSC and 48-pulse cascaded
multilevel converters based STATCOM. Several scenarios were considered in
the simulations including the impact of the fault conditions, compensator
settings, and power system conditions. The impact of SSSC on the apparent
impedance is significant for single phase faults due to the zero sequence
component of the injected voltage of a SSSC.

Khederzadeh et al. (2012) analyzed and investigated the impact of

different multiline VSC-based FACTS controllers on the performance of
impedance-based protection relays under normal operation and fault
conditions at different load power flows. Different configurations of multiline
VSC-based FACTS controllers like, GUPFC, IPFC, and UPFC were
analyzed. The controllers were modeled with detailed and sophisticated
transient characteristics; the power system was designed with traveling-wave
transmission-line models and advanced models were used for protective
relays.

Zellagui et al. (2012a) developed a simplified model of Static

Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) and distance relay to study the
effect of SSSC on the measured impedance at the relaying point for protected
220 kV single circuit transmission line. The measured impedance at the
relaying point in the presence of SSSC for variation in the fault conditions
and with high and low fault resistance values are examined.

Ghorbani et al. (2012) investigated the impact of Static Var

Compensator (SVC) on the apparent impedance seen by the transmission line
conventional distance relay. Analytical results are presented and verified by
detailed simulations, including different power system operating conditions,
 27

SVC control system settings and different fault conditions. Six different
phase to phase and phase to ground measuring units of the distance relay are
simulated to resemble the behavior of the relay. The impact of SVC is more
pronounced on the apparent impedance seen by the phase to ground fault
measuring units than the phase to phase units.

Zellagui et al. (2013) analyzed the effect of apparent reactance

injected by the series FACTS devices Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensator (TCSR) on the impedance measured by the distance protection
relay in presence of earth fault with fault resistance. The results are presented
for typical transmission line having different TCSR.

Yusuf et al. (2015) investigated the impact of Unified Power Flow

Controller (UPFC) on distance relay tripping characteristics in Nigerian 300
kV network. The Nigerian 300 kV network incorporated with UPFC was
modeled using Power System Computer Aided Design (PSCAD) and kept
within the protected zone of the relay to increase the apparent impedance
causing the relay to malfunction. Through the simulation results it is found
that the presence of UPFC in the fault line, greatly affects the trip boundaries
of the distance relay by setting it to either an over reaching or an under
reaching state.

2.5 MITIGATION OF THE IMPACT OF FACTS DEVICES

Dash et al. (2000a) presented the apparent impedance calculations

for a transmission line operating with a Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) device like Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). Computer
simulation clearly shows that the UPFC control parameters and its location
influences the trip boundaries significantly in addition to fault resistance. The
study also demonstrates the importance of an Artificial Neural Network
 28

(ANN) approach for on-line calculation of the boundaries of the distance

relay.

Bapiraju et al. (2004) investigated the effect of mid-point

compensation of STATCOM on the performance of impedance based
distance relay under normal load and fault conditions using PSCAD/EMTDC
software. They also proposed an adaptive distance relay scheme to mitigate
the impact of STATCOM. The adaptive distance relaying scheme was
implemented on Texas Instruments TMS320C50 Digital Signal Processor
(DSP) based hardware.

Samantaray et al. (2005) presented a novel approach to protect

transmission lines including Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
using Fuzzy Neural Network (FNN). The fault location from the relaying
point is calculated using FNN for different system conditions and fault
situations. Its parameters are updated by the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF)
algorithm. The simulation results indicate that the proposed method is very
accurate and fast in operation.

Sidhu et al. (2005a) analyzed the impact of the Thyristor-

Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) on the performance of conventional
communication-aided distance-protection schemes and proposed a new
scheme for its mitigation. The impact is observed not only on the relays of the
compensated line with TCSC, but also on the relays of adjacent lines. The
proposed schemes use the information available at the substation to mitigate
the problem with the help of new communication-aided schemes. Real-time
digital simulation and commercial relays are used to perform the analysis. The
results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed methods.

Rastegar et al. (2006) investigated the impact of Static Synchronous

Series Compensator (SSSC) on the performance of a distance relay and
 29

suggested a new method to set the distance relays in presence of SSSC for
first zone protection. The boundaries of the relay operation characteristic are
modified according to the control parameters of SSSC to avoid incorrect
operations of the distance relay. The distance relay settings are modified with
the help of an Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) approach.

Dash et al. (2007) presented an approach using Support Vector

Machine (SVM) for fault classification and section identification for TCSC
compensated transmission line. This method uses post fault current samples
for a half cycle duration. SVM is trained with 500 fault cases. On testing 200
fault cases with varying fault resistance, fault inception angle, source
capacities and various locations with different firing angles the overall
accuracy obtained by this method was 95.09% and over all accuracy obtained
with this method is 97.84%.

Albasri et al. (2007b) presented practical solutions to mitigate the

adverse effects imposed on distance protection relays to protect transmission
lines, compensated by two types of shunt-FACTS devices, Static Var
Compensator (SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM). The
proposed methods of mitigation were implemented in commercial relays and
tested using Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) for different fault
conditions and varying operating conditions. The test results validate the
effectiveness of the mitigation methods.

Jung-Uk Lim et al. (2008) proposed a refined Differential Current

Protection Method (DCPM) to mitigate the error in relay performance due to
the operation of FACTS devices. The concept of DCPM is presented with the
help of Kirchhoff‘s Current Law. A practical method and algorithm
considering various FACTS operating conditions, different fault types,
 30

different fault resistances, and various fault locations were presented.

Simulation results evaluated the operation of the proposed method.

Jamil et al. (2009b) presented an evaluation report about the

measured impedance at the relaying point in the presence of mid-point
connected Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). The results
proved that in addition to the power system conditions, structural conditions,
controlling parameters of SSSC and connecting point of SSSC affect the
measured impedance of the distance relay. To solve this problem, they
proposed a modified approach for distance protection, where the reach-point
of the distance relay is adopted due to the power system conditions and SSSC
structural and controlling parameters.

Samantaray (2009a) presented a new technique for fault zone

identification and fault classification for the TCSC and UPFC-based
transmission lines using Decision Tree (DT). The proposed technique was
tested on variations in operating parameters including the noisy environment
and was found to be accurate and robust to classify and identify the fault zone
for the TCSC and UPFC-based line.

Samantaray et al. (2009b) presented a new fault location algorithm

based on a differential equation-based approach for a transmission line using
a Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) using Synchronized Phasor
Measurements (SPM). The method first, identifies the fault section using a
wavelet-fuzzy discriminator and then estimates the fault location using
differential equation-based approach.

Seethalekshmi et al. (2009) proposed a new adaptive relaying

technique to mitigate the impact of UPFC on the performance of conventional
distance relays. The proposed method operates, on computing online control
 31

parameters of the UPFC received from the Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)
installed at the line terminals, fault resistance and system loading conditions.
The trip boundary of the relay is identified using a generalized regression
neural network.

Zhang et al. (2010) presented analytical and simulation results of

the application of distance relay for the protection of a transmission line
compensated with Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM). Based on
these analytical and simulation results, a new setting principles of the distance
relay is proposed for the transmission line with STATCOM to trip the faults
correctly.

Kazemi et al. (2010) presented an evaluation report about the

measured impedance at the relaying point in the presence of mid-point
connected Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM). From the results, it
is evident that the presence of STATCOM at the mid-point of the
transmission line deviates the reach point of the distance relay from its actual
value. To solve this, they proposed an adaptive approach for distance
protection, where the reach-point of the distance relay is adopted due to the
power system conditions and STATCOM structural and controlling
parameters.

Sadeh et al. (2010) introduced a new and accurate fault location

algorithm based on distributed time domain line model for a transmission line
compensated with series connected FACTS device. The proposed algorithm
does not use the model of the compensator device and there is no need for any
knowledge of the operating mode of the compensator. Also the presented
algorithm is independent of the location and parameters of compensator
device. The algorithm has been tested for a wide variety of simulated fault
conditions such as different fault locations, different fault resistances and
 32

different fault inception angles and different fault types. The results proved
the accuracy of the proposed algorithm.

Seethalekshmi et al. (2011) presented an adaptive scheme based on

Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRNN) to predict the trip
boundaries of a conventional distance relay in the presence of UPFC through
the knowledge of the UPFC control parameters. It computes the series
voltage and reactive current injection by the UPFC on-line with the help
of Synchronized Phasor Measurement (SPM) and these parameters are
utilized in the adaptive trip boundary prediction.

Elsamahy et al. (2011) investigated the problem raised by the mid-

point connected STATCOM on the coordination between the generator
distance phase back up protection and generator capability curves. They
concluded from the results the midpoint STATCOM adversely affected on
such coordination. They proposed a new scheme using Support Vector
Machine (SVM) to enhance the coordination between such protection and the
generator capability curves. The results of the SVM technique are fast and
reliable.

EI-Zonkoly et al. (2011) proposed a new algorithm to detect and

classify the fault and identify the fault position in a transmission line with
respect to a midpoint connected FACTS device. Discrete wavelet
transformation and wavelet entropy calculations are used to analyze during
fault current and voltage signals of the compensated transmission line. The
proposed algorithm is very simple and accurate in fault detection and
classification. A test results for variety of fault cases shows the effectiveness
of the proposed algorithm.
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Ghazizadeh - Ahsaee et al. (2012) proposed a new fault location

algorithm for the transmission lines compensated by the shunt FACTS
devices. In this technique an optimization problem is achieved and then the
exact location of fault is determined by solving this optimization problem.
Synchronized data from the two ends of the transmission line are utilized for
this technique. This technique avoids iterative calculations and does not
require the details of the FACTS device models. The accuracy of the
proposed scheme is evaluated using PSCAD/EMTDC software.

Zellagui et al. (2012b) presented a study on the performances of

distance relays setting in 400 kV in Eastern Algerian transmission networks
compensated by shunt Flexible AC Transmission System. The direct impacts
of Static Var Compensator (SVC) devices i.e. Thyristor Controlled Reactor
(TCR) and the Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) insertion, on the total
impedance of a transmission line protected by MHO distance relay are
investigated. The impact is investigated for different values of the Thyristors
firing angle. The modified setting zones protections have been calculated in
order to improve the performances of distance relay protection and prevent
circuit breaker nuisance tripping.

2.6 SUMMARY

The inference of the literature to achieve the objective of the

research work is given below:

Various research works which analyzed the performance of

protection relays in the presence of various types of FACTS controllers are
outlined in the above literature survey. It is evident that till date no works
have been undertaken to investigate the performance of the protective relay in
the presence of Distributed Flexible AC Transmission Systems (D-FACTS)
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devices and Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator (D-STATCOM)

devices. Hence in this research, the impact of these devices on the protective
relays is analyzed, as it is essential to develop an effective protection system.

It is also observed that the impact of the FACTS devices can be

mitigated by many methods, like, modifying the logic in the existing schemes,
modifying the input voltage and current at the relays, and detecting remote
end breaker operation. The above methods/schemes, models suffer from
complexity and dependency on different calculations based on a large set of
information. This research, describes a new distance protection methods to
overcome the problems raised by the FACTS devices on the performance of
the distance relay with simple calculations.