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2- South-Asian diaspora literature: the marginal voices.

South Asia; a culturally and communally rich continent, with folklores, sorcerers , snake
charmers, multiple religion, languages and ethnic groups, comprises of – India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Myanmar. All the
countries (except Bhutan, Nepal and Maldives) shared a common history of colonial
invasion under Dutch, Portuguese and British colonial powers. South Asia, at once
becomes a confluence of various cultures, traditions, rituals and practices. Major
religions of the area include- Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
respectively. South Asia owes its rich cultural heritage to the invasions of the foreigners.
The description of South Asian diaspora and South Asian Diaspora literature becomes
inevitable as both the writers chosen in for research work eminently belong to the South
Asian continent, Rohinton Mistry belonging to India and Bapsi Sidhwa a denizen of
Pakistan, often and essentially writes about their community, the social, political and
cultural history of turmoil in their respective homelands.
The writers proposed for the research work repeatedly choose Parsee characters,
culture, and history of survival and the concept of homeland as the subject matter, content
and themes of their writings. After the end of British rule, the prestigious position of
Parsees observed a severe downfall, and they became the laughing stock of the majority;
a minority with a glorious past and bleak future. The rigid rules of conversion, marriage
and culture of Parsee community added insult to injury and Parsees suffered a severe
danger of complete extinction. At this juncture, the Parsee writers found it essential and
suitable to write about their own community so that their writings could keep a record of
their fast depleting community. This aspect of Parsee writings make it a marginal text;
writing from minority perspective against the majority humiliations and injustices.
Secondly, the respective homelands of the writers become the locale of their writings,
echoing the crushed voices of the subalterns, the girmitiyas, the galley slaves, the have
not and the marginal.
The South Asian diaspora literature echoes the voices of the marginal, the
subalterns, the have-not, the Girmitiyas, the colonized who were once driven out of their
homeland forcefully to work in the foreign plantations on a bond. The so called marginal
on account of forceful or voluntary displacement are in a state of dilemma of not
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belonging. The term marginality was introduced for the first time by Robert.E.Park who
defined marginal as “the marginal man is a mixed blood… one who lives in two worlds,
in both of which he is more or less of a stranger.”(Park893). Everett Stonequist further
enhances the concept and adds that marginality develops “a feeling of isolation, of not
quite belonging (Stonequest201). Theoretically marginality stands close to diaspora in its
similarity of isolation, not belonging, identity crisis etc. Psychologically and mentally
too, one experiences marginality on account of self- deprivation, inferiority, withdrawal
and humiliation. One can also be marginalised on racial, gender and the experiences of
humiliation. The colonizers invaded most of the South Asian countries and named it a
civilising program and marginality came into existence as a result of the changes in
demographic, caste hierarchy, religious and regional structure. One experienced an acute
alienation “To be in the margin is to be part of the whole, but outside of the main body”
("Feminist theory"ix). Rohinton Mistry as well as Bapsi Sidhwa is the honourable
members of the Parsee ethnic community and their literary canvas portrays mostly
Parsee, Hindu and Muslim characters with their unique eccentricities, and thought.
Parsees once the King of Banking are now marginal; the end of British rule has brought
them on the peripheries of extinction. Hindus and Muslims are marginal in India and
Pakistan respectively. South Asian Diaspora literature echoes marginal voices and is a
hegemonic discourse against the centre, to warn the centre or to assert their own
individual identity.
South Asia is the umbrella term used collectively for countries- India, Sri Lanka,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar and Afghanistan. The saga of the
movement of the local denizens (South Asians) across the border is a tale of development
from the forced exile, vanquishment and enslavement to voluntary migration to
developed countries for better job and living conditions. The colonial period witnessed
mass exodus of labourers from this continent to British plantations to compensate the
shortage of labour in the tea plantations, mills and other sectors. A completely new trend
of migration developed during the post-colonial period when the English speaking
professionals (elite) migrated to the developed countries in search of better job prospects,
healthy living conditions and to overcome the discrimination and alienation at home
(especially in case of ethnic minority community like Parsees).
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South Asian Diaspora writings delineate various themes ranging from the idea of
Empire , the colonial history, the struggle for independence, the agony of partition and its
aftermath are recurring themes in India and Pakistan diaspora literature. Sri Lankan
literature, in particular echoes with the ethnic tension between the Sinhala and Tamil
Tigers, violence and bloodshed it caused and the consequential displacement of 1.5
million people from their homes. The Brutal civil war that took place for independence
from Pakistan figures in Bangladesh diaspora literature. Nepali diaspora literature depicts
immigrant problems as well as the poverty-ridden life of the natives. Bhutan Diaspora
literature least concerned about immigration, deals with the locales, the advent of
modernization and the visible changes in the geography and because of the change in
politics, economy and society. Afghanistan literature owes much towards the exilic
writers for its existence and well being. Afghan literary tradition is one of oral
storytelling and the main themes are historical events their causes and effects, political
turmoil and the resulting social chaos etc. As a whole, the south asian diaspora literature
assumes a marginal character because of the marginal voices, marginal communities and
the homeland orientation.
Marginal literature becomes diaspora literature on account of its thematic
similarity of alienation, identity crisis and the nostalgic longing and a sincere anxiety and
concern for the particular community. Diaspora literature is pregnant with the
experiences resulting from the displacement. It is never created in a vacuum, but when
the writer feels the urge to write, he is in a situation of dilemma between belonging and
non-belonging, fixed between two cultures, places and languages which to accept and
which to neglect. He is in a temptation on the one hand the lull of the west attracts him
and on the other the discrimination and the inhuman treatment distracts him. He creates a
new space through the medium of writing i.e. “imaginary homelands” (Rushdie10) to
satisfy his nostalgia.
Rushdie says “--- ones physical alienation from India almost inevitably means
that we will not be capable of redeeming precisely the thing that was lost, that will, in
short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary
homelands India's of mind” ("Imaginary Homelands"10) The immigrant writer develops
a mental state where he/she loses the contact with ultimate reality, he only remembers his
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homeland through food, culture, cuisine and language. He She writes on account of
his/her knowledge of the socio-cultural, economic, political realities around them and
those of the realities back home. Diaspora writing is an effort on the part of the writer to
create a cultural identity and to achieve a difference, an isolation to discard the attacks of
discrimination. It is a type of retort against the negative experiences of the diaspora
writer. Diaspora literature also deals with the conflict in the mind of the immigrant where
he feels on the peripheries of inevitable non-belonging and existing nowhere. The
immigrant finds himself on the verge of dilemma (the differences in the adopted and
native culture ) they try to adapt the foreign culture but not at the cost of native culture
and in this attempt their culture becomes a sandwich culture, and he experiences a
cultural dilemma and attains a hyphenated identity. All the attempts of the immigrant
towards assimilation in the host society are tinged with a sincere concern to nurture their
innate culture and identity. It is a universally accepted and natural phenomenon that the
immigrants are marginal in diaspora and so they also need to protect themselves from the
interest of dominant group. The maintenance of the homeland culture and practices is
also an attempt on the part of the immigrant to frame an ethnic identity, identify the
members of the same ethnicity in the host land, all are an attempt to design an unique
identity other than the majority group and maintain an apparent isolation from the so
called host land culture and practices. Homeland and host land both expect and demand
loyalty and cultural behaviour from the diaspora and in this attempt to satisfy the urge of
the homeland and the need of the host land he/she experiences a dilemma; blindness
(confusion) i.e. “Tiresias blind and, throbbing between two lives” (Mistry217 TFFB)
Another interesting aspect associated with the diaspora literature is that diaspora
literature mostly disseminates from the pen of the learned and sophisticated professionals
who have left their homeland as a way to fulfil their aspirations (better jobs, economic
and political prospects) or to assume an objective or artistic distance to view the
homeland objectively and give words to the agony, the aggression and the reality. The
creation of diaspora literature thus depends upon the conditions of migration, the time of
settlement in host land and the experiences in the host land and homeland. In the case of
the first generation diaspora, the diaspora sticks to their innate (homeland) cultural
markers of difference (food, culture and language) and it leads to the arousal of diaspora
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consciousness which results in the formation of ethnic identity, ethnic groups, celebration
of homeland, homeland orientation, creation of diaspora literature. The dilemma in case
of the second generation proves fatal, poignant, humiliating and complex. He/she is born
in a totally different environment, cultural and geographical scenario which he assumes
to be his homeland and is rewarded with the citizenship of that country, but the colour of
the skin thrusts racial discrimination, injustices and indignation, he is addressed with an
ethnic term in the Swimming Lessons as- “Paki” (Mistry"TFFB"286) as in Mistry’s short
story collection- “pretty soon the water’s going to taste of curry.”(Mistry"TFFB"286) He
is astonished at the mystery of racial discrimination and experiences a fractured identity
with parched skin, expert in language and culture. This enigma makes his assimilation
almost impossible and finally he too develops a “hyphenated identity” (Heba.M2003)
The diaspora literature created by the second generation diaspora either revolves around
the place of settlement or is coloured with a native hue as heard from their parents or
read, the homeland description in case of the second generation diaspora might be twice
removed from reality, but the second generation diaspora writers are cautious of the two
culture as they are poised in an inevitable and eternal dilemma of belonging. German
Jewish philosopher Theodor Aderno remarks-
“Every intellectual in emigration is, without exception, mutilated and does well to
acknowledge it to himself. His language is expropriated and the historical dimension
sapped” (Aderno12)
Memory plays an evident role in diaspora literature. The memory evoked in
diaspora literature is of past time and homeland and are often tinged with the familiar
colours of imagination and nostalgia. Language, culture and history hold the key to
diaspora memory. Memory establishes an emotional link or bond with the homeland, by
evocation of familiar domestic scenes and people in the diaspora literature.
Diaspora writing in the present scenario observes the motto “think globally act
locally” ("Think globally act locally" wikipedia) Diaspora literature has become
universal. Great art transcends the mere local or limited and rises to the level of universal
and permanent. It emerges as a counter discourse which fictionalizes otherness and
differences in the context of self and environment. Diaspora writings present dual
perspectives that of insider and outsider. Diaspora writers have come out of closed
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mentality and addressed the world that lies outside their respective communities and
geographical boundaries. This aspect of diaspora literature makes it enduring and
worthwhile. Its multicultural and pluralistic outlook makes it truly universal and
appealing. As in the case Kiran Desai, Chronologically, the South Asian Diaspora
includes the descendants of the Girmitiyas (a term derived from the agreement made by
the indentured labourers), traders, post-second world war labour, migrants, professionals
and more recently, petty bourgeois and small business migrants. Partition migrants were
mostly invisible or merely listed. The first phase of migration contoured by imperialism
covers mostly indentured labourers, followed by traders and administrators. Second phase
started early twentieth century includes people of South Asian descent who travelled
freely and in increasing numbers to western countries and Middle East to undertake a
wide range of occupation.

The prime difference between the subject matter of the first and second generation
is that the canvas of literature written by first generation diaspora is always coloured in
native hue and colour, apart from this nostalgia of the lost homeland, alienation and slow
assimilation become the hall mark of first generation diaspora literature. On the other
hand, the second generation diaspora writers are either born or brought at a very early age
in a land which they “willingly and expectedly adapt” and are always unsatisfied with
their parents and so there occurs a generation gap and conflict...”(Werbner901)
The first generation diaspora finds it difficult to adapt the host culture and
assimilate shedding the innate culture. Sometimes the experiences of discrimination,
whereas most of the time the problem for assimilation is internal like isolation, alienation
and loneliness. The reaction of the first generation in case of racial discrimination is
stereo typed whereas the second generation is astonished and the mystery develops a
psychological anxiety. The first generation women diaspora writers develop an attitude of
liberty and approaches westernization, but the hold of homeland, the traditional approach
towards the institution of marriages, the role of women etc make them docile. The second
generation women writers on the other hand, have never visited their ancestor’s
homeland so they cannot evaluate the exact value and importance of the culture and
reason for the nostalgia of their parents, and as a result of it, they consider their values as
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stereo typed, backward and old, thus the healthy relations between generations
degenerates into generation gap resulting in conflict, alienation and isolation.
Discovering the lost identity and identity crisis become one of the common
themes in diaspora literature. The first generation diaspora experiences an identity crisis,
a fractured identity as they never feel completely assimilated, the second generation
diaspora, exposes a dual identity as they are confused in the midst of two different
culture, one assumed to be their homeland, the other their expected homeland. Homeland
is the backdrop as well as the inspiration behind the diaspora literature. The expatriate
writer remains in a condition of “animated suspension” (Madhukar46) with anxiety over
his new surroundings, he is not sure about his affiliation and roots” (Madhukar46). In the
expatriate situation “there is a loss of geographical markers and de-territorialisation
results in the change of individual sensitivity” (Madhukar46) and this arouses diasporic
consciousness. Uma Parmeswaran uses the symbol of ‘Trishanku’(Madhukar46) and
aptly posits the critical situation of a diaspora, accepted nowhere on account of his initial
absence from the original homeland.
South Asian diaspora are people of South Asian descent who are not living in their
original homeland. Some of them may never have set foot in their original homeland.
Twenty million members of the South Asian diaspora are all over scattered in the world.
In the 19th and 20th century British Empire was the main force for spreading south Asians
abroad. They went as indentured labourers for the expanding plantations in Fiji,
Malaysia, South Africa, the Caribbean and South America, or worked on the railways of
the East and Central Africa. The 1947 violent partition of India resulted in the movement
of hundreds of thousands of people both within south Asia and beyond. Later the need for
professional and manual workers in post-war Britain, and then in the United States,
resulted in the period of mass immigration in the 1950s and 60s. In the early 1970s the
expulsion of Asians from East Africa brought many entrepreneurs and professionals to
the west. Since then, south Asians have continued to move around the globe. The
disapora have made increasingly significant contribution to the centuries they now live
in.
. During the colonial British regime, Indian indentured labourers were taken to the

tea plantations at Trinidad. The Srilankan Tamil moved to work in British rubber
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plantations under British colonial rule. Apart from these, Srilankan labourers were

also supplied to Middle East to work for OPEC. Economic depravity, conflict and

violence, problem of personal and familial security, education and job opportunity

were the factors responsible for Srilankan migration. Workers from Pakistan were

sent to British textile mills, Professionals went to Britain for education, Political

leaders to evade terror and to save their life during the time of turmoil.

Bangladeshi diaspora was the outcome of the urge to live a better life, to escape

poverty, to earn and send money to families back at home. Afghanistan witnessed

the mass exodus of Afghanis in 1979, after the invasion of Afghanistan by

Soviet Union. Nepali Diaspora is a result of push and pull. Nepalese migrated to

Northern India in search of work. During the 19 and 20 century mass permanent

migration occurred as a result of the recruitment of Gorkha soldiers in British

Army and the granting of Darjeeling to the British by the Maharaja of Sikkim in

1835. Bhutan, Maldives and Myanmar experienced forceful expulsion of the

immigrants. As a whole, the South-Asian diaspora was the result of forceful

expulsion in the older times, but we perceive a major shift in the nature of migration

concerning the South-Asian diaspora in recent times, brain drain was the main

reason and the migration was voluntary.

South Asian diaspora literature is written by the writers who are members of South-Asia,
have left their respective homelands, settled abroad, and writes frequently about their
concerned homeland, the culture, the people, the politics and their community. The
galaxy of the South-Asian diaspora writers consist of stars such as- Jhumpa Lahiri, Chitra
Banerjee Divakurni, Kiran Desai, Bharti Mukherjee, Monica Ali, Rohinton Mistry, Anita
Rau Badami, Attia Hosain, SunitiNamjoshi, Vikram Chandra, Farrukh Dhondy,
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RomeshGunasekera, Hanif Kureshi, Gita Mehta, V.S. Naipaul, R.K.Narayan, Raja Rao,
Salman Rushdie, BapsiSidhwa, Khaled Hosseini, Michale Ondaatje, Kamila Shamsie,
Mohsin Hamid, Samrat Upadhyay, Manushree Thapa, Nadim Aslam, TahminaAnam, Nu
Nu Yi, Khet Mar, Aug San Suu Kyi and andVikram Seth. I have deliberately chosen the
term ‘Galley Slave’ for South-Asian diaspora, because the early displacement from this
continent was mostly forceful. All the south asian countries witnessed the mass exodus of
labourers and slaves in the early phases. After the abolishment of slavery in 1835 by
British government, there occurred a scarcity of labour in Britain. As a remedial measure
to compensate the scarcity of labour, the British, during the British regime, started to
transport Indians to the tea plantations at Trinidad.
Srilankan Diaspora- Srilankan Diaspora chiefly comprises of Tamil. Burgher, Moor and
Sinhala Diaspora. Srilanka was Ceylon before independence, and was a multi cultural
society. The arrival of Sinhala brought Buddhism and Sinhala language. Tamil language
arrived because of the proximity of the Sinhala to the South Indian Hindu state. The
arrival of the Arab traders and their intermarriage to the native women resulted in
development of Moor diaspora. The arrival of Dutch and Portuguese, the conversion, the
illicit relationship and the interfaith marriage of the Dutch and Portuguese with the local
women lead to the development of Burgher Diaspora. British colonization and the spread
of English resulted in the first migration of English educated Srilankan to Malaya and
Singapore. After independence, Srilanka observed a different trend of migration, the
English speaking teachers, students, doctors etc migrated in search of better
opportunities. After 1948, Sinhala dominated and the minorities- Moors and Burghers
migrated from Srilanka. Tamils and Sinhala rivalry lead to a civil war between 1983-
2009 and ended with the defeat of Tamil and their migration. The decade 2000-2010
witnessed a new trend of migration with women migrants as unskilled labourers.
English gained force and importance first as a medium of instruction and then as a
literary language after independence in 1948. Both the native as well as diaspora writings
in English kept the foreign audience in mind and presented a distorted image of an
exaggerated reality of culture, society and values. Srilankan indigenous literature is filled
with the effect of colonialism, Srilankan middle class values, corruption and hypocritical
attitude of colonial powers, the harsh reality of village and city life, the social mobility,
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frustration of secure future among the youth, the caste system and exploitation of the
poor masses.
Srilankan Diaspora literature involves the literature written by writers of
Srilankan origin and the content of the literature too makes it a diaspora text. The chief
writers of the Srilankan Diaspora are-
01- Michael Ondaatje 02- ShehanKarunatilaka 03- Nihal desilva
02- Yasmine Gooneratne 03- ShyamSelvadurai 04-
RomeshGunesekara.
Michael Ondaatje; a Srilankan born Canadian novelist is well imbued in the home as
well as host culture. His writings therefore, are a mixed account of Sirlankan and
foreign locale. All his works concentrates on the problems of migrants and marginal.
As writer of diaspora, deals with the familiar Srilankan scenes and political and social
scenario. His main works include-
In the Skin of a Lion (1987) is an attempt to raise the voices of the marginalised
immigrant labourers who played a leading role in making the present day Toronto,
who were actually ignored in history.
The English Patient (1992) won a Booker Prize and is set during the World War II.
the story has multiple interpretations and ramifications and it reveals the internal
conflicts of the marginal characters which they experience on account of their
encounters with incidents of death, discrimination, domination and seclusion. The
disguised identity of the English Patient, his non-white appearance on account of
being burnt, makes him a marginal.
Anil’s Ghost (2000) is also an attempt to give voices to those marginal who became
victims of government atrocities and Anil come to Srilanka as a Western trained
forensic expert from UN human rights commission to investigate the truths and
evidences about the tortures and murders.
Running in the Family (1982) is also a memoir of Ondaatje’s typical homeland and
it is also an attempt on his part to give voices to the marginal. Ondaatje writes, “A
literary work is a communal act” ("Running in the family (memoir)" Wikipedia)
Nihal Desilva; a Srilankan novelist also deploys his novels to give voice to the
marginal in the Srilankan society. Hi novel The Far Spent Day (2004) deals with the
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political corruption in the society, the implications of it on the middle and lower class
and the misuse of power by politicians. The Road from Elephant Pass (2003)again
foregrounds the ethnic conflict between the Sinhala government and the Tamils. The
Giniralla Conspiracy: Five Journals of Sujatha Malika(2005) is all about ragging
and the involvement of university and college students in politics. All his writings
echo with the marginal problems and present a faithful delineation of the same.
Shyam Selvadurai is a Srilankan born Canadian novelist. His Funny Boy (1994) is a
story of Arjie (Aryan) chalvaratnam youngest son of a prosperous Tamil businessman
in Colombo and is equally a victim of the Sinhala- Tamil hostility. Arjie and his
family are forced to flee their home which is burnt and his grandparents murdered.
His works echoes with the heinous ethnic conflict and he as a child of Sinhalese
mother and Tamil father maintains balance and gives voice to the marginal on
account of being devoid of human rights and opportunities.
RomeshGunesekara; a Srilankan born British author, in his novel Reef (1994) is a
tale of loss personal and political Mr. Salgado, a marine biologist loses Miss Nili, his
beloved, the coral reefs as a result of the development and pollution and Triton loses
his home as he has to fly with Mr. Salgado to London. The reef “which was once too
beautiful and had a uniqueness of its own, but is slowly losing its charm owing to
neglect and less awareness regarding preservation” (Mukherejee2012). Srilanka itself
becomes a marginal on account of natural and political disasters awaiting the country
finding expression in Terrorism and civil war. In The Prisoner of Paradise (2012)
the selection of locale pronounces the mindset of the author, he chooses an island of
Mauritius in 1825, “a tropical hotbed of injustice and discontent” (Evaristo 2012).
Lucy challanges the status quo of this island, she wants equality in treatment, but “her
dreams of an edenic paradise are shattered and are crushed by malfeasance, which she
cannot accept.”(Evaristo2012)
Yasmine Gooneratne; a Srilankan born poet, novelist and critic now a resident of
Australia, in the very first novel A Change of Skies (1991), gives voice to the
immigrant dilemma, experienced on account of migration away from the homeland. It
is the story of a Srilankan family moved to Australia. The Pleasures of Conquest
(1995) has its core the historical and contemporary relationship between Europe and
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Asia. It delineates the impact of British colonisation on the island. Gooneratne

becomes a spokesperson to the voices of the natives. She adamantly confess- “if I
were to ask myself whether there has been a single idea I (must have) wanted to
convey to an audience through these different works, I would say that it is a belief in
the worth of human being as individuals, irrespective of all attempts to stereotype or
categorise them in terms of class, race, caste, colour, intellectual ability, gender, or
religious belief” (Kaushal1998).
An impetus to articulate the suppressed voices of the marginal (people, ethnic
group or locale) runs through Srilankan English literature (native and Diaspora).
Nepali Diaspora-
Historically, migration from Nepal was the result of push and pull. The dominating
factors were- Eastward movement, dominant Brahmins, agricultural practices, the
cultivation of maize, etc. The conquest and unification of Nepal by the Shah Kings
Gorkha during the latter half of 18th century represented a continuation of this process
which had began about 800 years earlier with the establishment of a kingdom in the
Karnali Basin by a love of Khasa kings who probably spoke in archaic form of Nepali.
Eastward migration from Eastern Nepal probably began on a comparatively small scale
as a response to the Gorkhali conquest of districts inhabited mainly by Kranti (Rai and
Limbu) population. More recently Nepalese have travelled in large numbers to North
Indian cities to work. During the 19th and early 20th century the initiatives for permanent
migration was the granting of Darjeeling to the British by the Maharajas of Sikkim in
1835. Near about, 19000 workers were appointed from the hills of Eastern Nepal. The
second major pull factor was the recruitment of Gorkha soldiers to British Indian Army
after Anglo-Nepalese war in 1814-1816. The late 1980s witnessed the mass forced
exodus of 100,000 ethnic Nepalese known as Lhotshampa on the charge of being illegal
aliens by the government. The history of migration can be explained in terms of both
push and pull factors the late 18th, 19th and early 20th century witnessed eastward
movement, and resulted in permanent settlement outside the border. Shah kings of
Gorkha conquered and unified Nepal during the latter half of 18th century continued the
process begun about 800 years earlier with the establishment of a kingdom in the Karnali
basin by a line of Khasa kings who spoke an archaic form of Nepali.
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The Khasa doubtfully intermarried with Rajput immigrants and with local people
to form an ever expanding cheti caste and their descendants spread from East to West and
they impressed their Tibeto-Burman language and Parbatiya culture. Recently, Nepalese
travelled in large numbers to North Indian cities to seek work. It has become something
of a common plot in media and government circle in Kathmandu to assert that sixty lakh
of Nepalese are working in India. Bangalore Bajhangi people are working as night
watchman. During the 19th and early 20th century permanent emigration from Nepal was
encouraged by the major pull factors.
Nepal Literature
Since independence, literature has flourished in Nepal in all colours and hues of diversity.
The oral tradition of tales continued and many native tales became oral legends,
translation in English brought scope and readers for Nepali literature.
Samrat Upadhyay: He is not a diaspora writer. He attempts to deal with the locale
culture, the political scenario, and the conflicts of the local inhabitants, the caste system
and the delineation of rebellious females. Born and brought up in Nepal, Upadhyay is the
first author to write in English.
His Arresting Gods in Kathmandu (2001) is a collection of nine short stories, revolving
round the domestic life of Nepal encompassing the construction of Identity through desire
and spirituality, religion etc. The locale is one “where there are more gods than people
and more temples than homes.” (Charley 2016). The Guru of Love (2003) is the story
of the love affair of Ramchandra; a teacher and her student Malati which ruins his
married life. Apart from it, the changes in the political scenario (Nepal becoming
democratic), the local culture and religious practices find place in the pages.
The Royal Ghosts(2006) is a collection of short stories portray modern day Kathmandu,
the political turmoil, the Maoist revolt and the characters striving hard to cope up with the
opposite forces- the brutal caste system, the problems of arranged marriage and
generation gap.
Buddha’s Orphan (2010) is an artistic and rebellious portrayal of Nilu and Raja’s affair
against the backdrop of political, cultural and social turmoil when gender roles are
broken, the angst of the middle class to overturn the government, but instead affecting the
vital harmony of daily life. Altogether, it is all about Nepal from 1960 to the present.
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The City Son (2014) - it is the story of the development of an illicit sexual affair between
Didi and Tarun. It is the tale of female obsession for a male, the inevitable and
everlasting hunt. It soon becomes a complex tale where relations shape and develop the
character. It is also rebellious in nature as it places the traditional female in a completely
different role, which is a matter of surprise for us.
Manjushree Thapa
Born in Kathmandu, is a Canadian fiction writer. Her fiction has its roots deep in the
social issues pertaining to caste, class, the abuses of power, the rule of patriarchy etc. She
approaches all the social realities with a journalistic eye along with empathy for the weak
and the poor. Her The Tutor of History (2001) is the first major novel in English from
Nepal. It is the picture of a society experiencing mobility on account of the changing
political scenario; the novel is set in 1990s Nepal observing an election campaign. The
two worlds are contrasted “the warmly alive gossipy town in the midst of election”
(Kolambe87) “the violent Maoist insurgency that has altered the life in the country.”
(Kolambe87) All the characters Girdhari Adhikari; the chairman of People’s party, Rishi
Parajuli; the tutor of history, Om Gurujg; a former British Gurkha,andBinitaDahal; a
young widow are pessimistic about the future. As the election campaign reaches on the
top, so is the unrest among the life of these characters, and rigging of election becomes a
symbol of imperfect choices that one have to make resulting in the creation of a world
beyond control.
Mustang Bhot in Fragments (1992) it is an account of the reports, she developed during
her trips to Mustag; a remote region ethnically, culturally and religiously akin to Tibet
than Nepal. It is an account of the women enmeshed in schisms in the patriarchal society,
the community she visits and in her identity too.
Tilled Earth (2007) is a short story collection with rural Nepal as its locale
encompassing the day to day struggles of the working class Nepalese, the characters are
all caught between tradition and modernity, in a tiresias like dilemma either to develop
them as individuals or to develop their country. Thapa presents three sets of characters-
the first type of characters are progressively modern, the second type of characters
changes moderately and the third type are exemplary characters serving as a model.
 Patwa 15

Thapa thus presents a variegated image of Nepali women and delineates it from multiple
perspectives. A Boy from Siklis: The Life and Times of Chandra Gurang (2009)
It is a biography of Chandra Gurang; charismatic environmentalist who was killed in a
helicopter crash in 2006.
Seasons of Flight (2010)
it is the story of Prema; a young woman, an immigrant of US, through the selection in a
DV lottery. The change in time and place changes her life and she experiences
transformation on account of the novel experiences, she had in the alien land. All her
expectations prove futile, dissatisfied she returns home only to show her hatred towards
that land and reappear again in America. Her inevitable feeling of dissatisfaction and up
rootedness is never fully resolved.
The Lives We have Lost (2011)
It dramatises the dramatic and turbulent history of Nepal from 1990-2009. it is a
collection of Thapa’s journalistic writing from 2002 to 2010. It covers the events ranging
from discussion of corruption in Maoist insurgency to the brutal counter insurgency, the
controversial and unresolved episode of king Gyanendra’s shahs military coup and its
subsequent overthrow. Thapa writes it accessibly and emotively and give voice to the
atrocities with an impartial comment as an outsider. She in this work uses her talent as a
journalist to report every victim of the human right abuses.
Mountains Painted With Turmeric (1950) is basically a Nepali work written by Lila
Bahadur Chetri, translated by Michael J.Hutt delineates the life story of a peasant farmer
called Dhane who annoyed by the struggles and financial problems of life is forced into
exile.

Myanmar Diaspora-
Myanmar; formerly Burma; Republic of the Union of Myanmar is a country in South
East Asian nation. The Myanmar diaspora is the product of conflict, dire economic
conditions and socio religious strife. Myanmar’s post-colonial decade was of military
rule, inter ethnic violence and under development, it certainly looks depressing to be a
Burmese at home and abroad. Diaspora- the motivated dispersal of people away from
 Patwa 16

their homeland, are often the product of conflict, dire economic conditions, and socio-
religious strife, according to the literature. People are driven out of their home into exile
because of desperation, persecution and aspire to better lives abroad. This is surely the
case with the two to three million people of Burmese origin living outside their home
country today. Most of them have migrated and settled throughout Asia and to a lesser
extent in the West and the Persian Gulf over the past two decades.
The literature of Burama(Myanmar) covers over a millennium. Burmese literature
as the part of the history was influenced by Indian and Thai cultures. Burmese language
adopted words from Pali rather than Sanskrit. The earliest forms of literature were stone
engravings called Kyauksa which was inscribed for special purposes such as a memorial,
building a temple or a monastery. Later Palm leaves called peisawere used as paper. Pali
became the mode of literary expression during Bagan dynasty brought from Ceylon.
During Bagan and Inwa dynasty mawgun, eigyin and pyo(Hays2013) religious works
developed from Jataka tales. Burmese literature basically reflects the local folklores and
culture. Traditionally the education system of Burma was based on monasteries with
monks as teachers in towns and villages. Poetry flourished as the most popular form after
literature grew liberal and secular. During the colonial rule, the British formalised and
unified the education system and made it Anglo-vernacular with English and Burmese.
Burmese literature played a pivotal role in disseminating the ideals of nationalism during
the colonial times. The arrival of printing press and publishers disseminated the literature
among the masses. ThakinKodawHmaing was a candid critic of British Colonialism in
Burma.
Literary landmark was established by the Hkit San movement which under the
leadership of TheippanMaungWa, NweSoe, Zawgyi, Min Thu Wun and Mya Katyu
searched for a new style and content. After the independence of Burma in 1948, Burmese
literature adopted the western style of writing. Government organization was established
after Burmese Translators society to translate foreign works in Burmese. A new
dimension to native Burmese literature was added by the publication of first Burmese
literary encyclopaedia in 1971.Burmese literature began to flourish after the colonization
of Burma. Burmese literature subdued as a result of the strict censorship by the
 Patwa 17

government. The number of annual publications declined as a result of this censorship

from 445 to 411.
Some of the notable works of Myanmar literature are-
Burmese Days (1934); a novel by George Orwell, is enriched with his experiences as a
policemen in Burma during the imperial rule. He severely criticise British imperialism
and empire. The main character John Flory is a white man of prestigious position, he was
a friend of DR. Veraswami but owing to the conditions in Burma, Flory leaves Burma
and can’t help his friend Veraswami.
The River of Lost Footsteps-(2006) it delineates the history and political situation of
Burma; a geographically remote, politically and economically backward, country of
South East Asia called Myanmar today. It is the story of modern Burma, echoing with the
rich past contrasting with the violent present. Myint U offers-
“an introduction to a country whose current problems are increasingly known but whose
colourful and vibrant history is almost entirely forgotten”("The River of Lost Footsteps".)
Smile as They Bow (2008) it is a translation into English written by Nu Nu Yi. Most of
the characters are outcasts. It casts a cursory glance over the life of a gay transvestite
spirit medium caught up in a crisis amid the currents of annual summer Buddhist festival.
Al the characters Daisy Bond, Min Min, and Pan Nyo, are slaves in the hands of culture
and circumstances. It becomes an account of the gay culture and animistic religion
observed in Burma.
Freedom from Fear (1991) it is a collection of essays by Burmese pro-democracy
activist, Aung San Suu Kyi. It is split into three sections-
The first deals with the biography of his father; the creator of modern Burma. She
compares the colonialism of India and Burma and reviews the Burmese literature. In the
second section she establishes herself as an intelligent writer with a wide range. It is a
collection of speeches and essays. In the final part, Aung San Suu Kyi is appreciated by
others. This book delineates courage; physical as well as mental, courage to admit the
truth, accept criticism, and admit the fault and to reform the vices, and the courage to
accept the people as judge of our behaviours.
The Voice of Hope (1997) - Aung San Suu Kyi
 Patwa 18

It is an interview series of Aung San Suu Kyi; a democratically elected leader in 1995.
After her banquishment for six years inside her house, by military Junta. It is the
inspiring collection of views on the political and spiritual revolutions in the country. It is
a series of 13 interviews and she refers to Dharma as a devout Buddhist in these
interviews.
The Road to Wanting (2010) by Wendey Law Yone
Na Ga; a girl sold by his family to overcome starvation. A visiting woman appalled by
her pathetic condition moves her to Rangoon, where an American couple adopts her as a
daughter. After 1962 military coup, they leave Burma and now she travels to Shan state
and works in a paper factory. Her aspiring ambitions for betterment leads her to a night
mare and she finds her caught in a web of physical seduction; working as a prostitute in
Thailand, with multiple copulations, miscarriages and abortion. This novel cast a glance
over the heinous or the darker side where the minorities are forced to live and suffer.

Bangladeshi Diaspora-
Bangladesh; a sovereign country in South-East Asia formerly a part of Pakistan, is the
eighth most populous country. Diasporas play an important role in providing economic
aid on personal as well as national level. Mobility is an encoded behaviour of society
mandatory for the development of society. Bangladesh; a country with low income
depending on emigration remittances, has a pattern of labour migration existing since
colonial times and is in practice till present times. After the establishment of tea
plantations in Assam, the British compensated the shortage of labours by importing
labourers from Bengal in 1853. After II world war the abolishment of slavery resulted in
shortage of labour, and UK looked towards South Asia and Common Wealth states for
compensating the shortage. Sylhet region witnessed the migration of young men to UK,
and this incident paved way for the mass exodus of migrant family members to UK in
1950-1970. Prior to the formation of Bangladesh, refugees started to emigrate as a result
to overcome the atrocities of the Pakistani Army in 1971. After independence, the desire
and motif for migration and the destinations have changed considerably. A new trend of
increase in internal migration was observed after independence. The oil boom in Middle
East countries lead to migration of Bangladeshis in 1973. The development of means of
 Patwa 19

transport lead to a boom in migration, from 1990-1995 1.2 million Bangladeshis left the
country; this data continued a considerable rise with the passing of time. Three million
people migrated between 2005-2010, and the year 2008 witnessed the migration of
875000 Bangladeshis. Migration at this instance, was of a temporary nature, limited to a
single member of the family for the economic well being of the family, and consequently,
500,000 migrants returned back between 2006-2011.Bangladeshis have migrated to
Europe, West Asia, India and East Asia and are working in service sectors in developed
countries. The important characteristic associated with Bangladeshi migration is they
migrate to overcome unemployment, poverty and for their familial benefits by sending
remittances back home. In this respect, the head of the family or the male member
migrates leaving the whole family, but a new trend in Bangladeshi diaspora has been the
migration of women, UAE, Lebanon etc demand female workers in service sector has led
to migration of Bangladeshi women to these centres..Bangladeshi diaspora observed
downward class mobility in the hope that the next generation will prosper. Bangladeshi
diaspora in Britain is mainly from the East Pakistan, namely Sylhet, located in North East
of present Bangladesh. The Sylheits have transmigrated to Britain as early as the 1920s
and 1930s when the country was a part of East Pakistan. The migration was further
enhanced during the 1970s when the liberation was commenced in the country. After
independence and establishment of Bangladesh as a free nation state, a new trend of
chain migration was to make life prosperous for the one back home changed and families
shifted and distrusts were evacuated. Bangladesh has an image of “poor starving people
floods and famines.” (Seligson,Susan.) is hurtful not only to their sense of national pride,
but distressing on its simplification in its ability to reduce the rich and complex relation
of a country they know so well to a one dimensional stereotype. The job opportunities in
shipping company also tempted the Bangladeshis. UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia,
USA, UK and India are important destinations for Bangladeshi migration. As a young
nation, Bangladesh has not produced so many creative literary voices as India and
Pakistan have. One of the reasons is the average socio-economic condition of the
immigrants in Britain. An interesting fact about Bangladeshi Diaspora writers is that most
of them are women writers. Monica Alia and Tehmina Anam’s novels are the testimonies
of the struggles faced by the Bangladeshi people both at home or in diaspora.
 Patwa 20

A Golden Age (2007) reflects the story of Bangladesh war of Independence.

Anam writes of torture, brutality, and struggles faced by refugees as a result of the war.
The Good Muslim(2011) delineates a beautiful brother and sister controversy over
ideology, the rise of Islamic Radicalism in Bangladesh and the values of faith, love and
sacrifice shadowed by war. Bones of Grace (2016) possess epic dimensions and narrate a
tale of migration and belonging, tragedy and survival. It is a story of a woman torn
between the social mores of two homes- Bangladesh and America.
K.Anis Ahmed is a Bangladeshi writer, and he in his novel The World in My Hands
(2013) defines a world on the verge of “grand political divide” (Mirza2014) otherwise a
haven with love and loss, ambition and temerity. It is a novel about the political
corruption and its after math on personal lives of Hissam, Kaiser and Natasha. Good
Night, Mr. Kissinger and other stories (2012) it has as its background the pre-war
world of 1970s tracing the modern history of Dhaka and “its rise from provincial outpost
to megacity”(66cheiser)
Neamat Imam; a Bangladeshi born, Canadian author of literary fiction. His The
BlackCoat (2013) is a condensed “meditation on power, greed and the human cost of
politics”("The Black Coat, Penguin India"). It is a controversial novel as it presented a
distorted dystopian image of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, and he is depicted as a despotic
ruler who suppressed truth in his kingdom to strengthen his rule. It is often criticised as a
“dark political satire fuelled by anger and absurdist humour” (Morrison2015).
Monica Ali; a renowned name associated with Bangladeshi diaspora literature, is
Bangladesh born British writer of fiction. She has written four novels till date- Brick
Lane (2003), Alentejo Blue (2006), In the Kitchen (2009), Untold Story (2011). Her
Brick Lane (2013) encompasses the themes of cultural alienation, an immigrant
perspective of a woman experiences in a host land along with the personal and
psychological problems.
Maldives- Maldives also called Republic of Maldives (Maldives' Islands) is an island
country in the north central Indian Ocean. It is a collection of about 1200 small coral
islands. Male is the capital of Maldives. The population of Maldives are a multicultural
one; various ethnic groups settled at different times- Tamil and Sinhalese people from
India and Srilanka. Later traders from various Arab countries, China, Indonesia, Malaya
 Patwa 21

and Madagascar visited Maldives for the establishment of trade and commerce relations.
Islam is the religion of the country and Dhivehi is the official language spoken in the
country. Only 20 islands are more populated, the poorest country in the world with a
developing economy, the citizens rely on fishing, coconut collecting, growing vegetables
and fruits for their livelihood. Tourism and boat building too add to the economy of the
country. After the independence in 1965, Maldives became a republic in 1968. 29 March
1976 became the Independence day and Ibrahim Nasir, the first president, succeeded by
Maumoon Abul Gayoom in 1978. It gained a membership of commonwealth in1982.
Maldives adopted a new constitution in 2008, and Mohamed Nasheed was elected as the
president. He worked for climate change.
Maldivian Diaspora- the first and foremost factor responsible for migration is the
climate factor, as the island is frequently disturbed by cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis,
swell waves etc. The rising ocean temperatures had led to the erosion of the coral reefs
which serve as “natural breakwaters” ("Maldivian diaspora"). The population displaced is
known as “climate refugee”. ("Maldivian diaspora"). Apart from this, political
subjugation, search for proper education, search for jobs, and the search for proper health
services are the chief impetus behind displacement. People generally migrate to
overcome the environmental hazards and thus displacement becomes a part of the
survival strategy.
A unique characteristic of Maldivian diaspora is the natives don’t wish to leave
their homeland, they love their country, and so not much diaspora literature exists today.
Maldivian literature written in English chiefly includes writings of the renowned
politicians and the scholars who have travelled abroad. The important writing revering
the oral folktale tradition of Maldives include- “Folk Tales of the Maldives”(Xavier
Romero Frias) . Some of the important writings are-
Radio Man - it is called “slice-of-life”.(Maldivivana2008) The picture of Maldives
during various time period, development from “a medieval sleepy island”
(Maldiviana2008) into a modern tourist space. It is the story of the birth of an island and
its development.
Kite Fighter - it is the story of a seventeen year old boy whose only aspiration was to fly
the kite whereas his parents dream a reputed job for him in capital Male. The locale
 Patwa 22

moves from the rustic village to the dynamic capital modern city where dreams are
shattered ambitions and wishes merge into a fast race called development and modernity.
Apart from the above the chief writers are – Ibrahim Sahib and Bodufenvalhuge Sidi.
Maldivian writings coloured in the native hue also reflects a marginal characters as they
portray the distant, alienated islands with all the natural, climatic and developmental
problems.

Pakistani Diaspora-
Pakistan has a huge and diverse Diasporas. Pakistani emigrants comprise mostly of
working class who leave their homeland in search of livelihood, though the number of
members from higher socio-economic strata, professionals and businessman has been
growing over the decades. The motive for migration is economic to secure a better life for
themselves and dependants back home. The choice to return depends upon factors like
comparative opportunities in host and homeland, familial compulsions etc. It has become
part and parcel of the economic life in the host country by filling the human resource gap,
making up for labour and professional shortages. Politically also they are active in home
as well as host countries. After the 9/11 incident, the Pakistani diaspora has emerged with
a suspected image worldwide. The development of a suspicion all over the world
concerning the image of Pakistani Diaspora has depressed their morale.
The overseas Pakistani diaspora spreads across more than twenty different countries, like
Saudi Arabia, UK, UAE,US, Canada, Oman and several other countries. According to
PrinaWebner
“the Pakistani diasproa community the earliest and by far the largest and most prominent
inter nationally which emerged in the 1900s (is) a major player in global diaspora
religious politics". (Werbner476).
The Pakistani migrated from the Barani area of Jhelum, Gujarat and Gujranwala and from
Mirpur districts. The first migrants were of “impoverished background” (Werbner76) and
most of them worked in the wool and cotton industries of Lancashire and Yorkshire.
Later on shifted to the cities of Birmingham, old hen, Bradford, Manchester, New castle-
on-tyre where they established new business and engaged in textile industry. Pakistani
diaspora emerged after the Second World War, following the partition of India and
 Patwa 23

Pakistan in 1947. Major disaporas exist in USA, Canada and Norway and smaller number
exist in most western European countries, in Australia and in post colonial developing
countries,especially the Middle East and Gulf states, Malaysia, Indonesia, East and
Southern Africa. The Pakistanis were recruited to the low skilled jobs abandoned by the
local population the past war years. The initial migration was of single young men,
usually originating from small older peasant farms in Punjab. Many of the early arrivals
were from East Punjab from highly populated areas of Jhalandar and Hoshiyarpur (now
in India) where there were land shortages. A major group of arrivals in early years were
students from this region studying in British universities. Most factory workers arrived
through chain migration following in footsteps of relation or co-villagers. The early
arrivals were at least primary or high school level some had served in the Indian and
Pakistan armies and others have worked in factories in Pakistan or India.
Although the Pakistani diaspora is strongly linked to the cultural traditions and religious
values of its native land, simultaneously, they struggle to assimilate in Western culture,
creating a hybrid between the host and the home country. Dr. ZamurradAwam
The recent outburst by Donald Trump, a Republican front- runner presidential candidate
has created a stir amongst the Muslim expatriate community, including Pakistanis. Trump
has called for a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entry in the US”. Before this he
suggested the registration of Muslim American and the strict surveillance of their
mosques. In the prevailing atmosphere of Islam phobia, Pakistani Americans felt not only
left out from the main stream, but also have the impression that they have been singled
out as a religious/ethnic minority. Such a mindset has pushed the Muslim community
towards the defensive as they feel insecure, suspected and, at times discriminated against
based on religion and nationality.
The number of the Pakistani immigrants has increased considerably from 2500 to
500000. The majority of Pakistani immigrants in the US are from the urban-based middle
class, especially from Punjab (Lahore) and Sindh(Karachi). In the US, they reside in
metropolitan cities –New York, New Jeresy, Houston, California, Washington DC and
Dallas (Texas). Pakistani diaspora has a penchant for higher education and its ambition is
to achieve professional excellence in their chosen field. The assimilation pattern of the
first, second and third generation is diversified in terms of cultural adaptation and
 Patwa 24

religious flexibility. The integration process of second and third generation of this
community has been comparatively smooth and quick, as compared to the first because of
various reasons. Nevertheless, one fact needs to be reckoned and that is, across
generations, the Pakistani Diaspora has maintained its cultural identity and has tried to
operate in the middle stream through which they are capable of integrating. In marriage
mattes unlike the first and second generations, the third generation Pakistani Americans
prefer arranged marriages. Pakistan has a huge and diverse diasporas. Around seven
million scattered all over the world. They are either Pakistani citizens or are of Pakistani
origin. The impulse for migration, social conditions prior to migration, experiences in the
new country of residence, social and familial connection to Pakistan and dilemma
whether to return or not are some of the variables influencing the non-resident Pakistani’s
patterns of engagement back home. Group Pakistani emigrants comprise mostly of
working class people who leave their homeland in search of livelihood though the
number of members from higher socio-economic strata, professionals and businessmen
has been growing over decades. The motive for migration is economic to secure a better
life for themselves and dependants back home. The choice to return depends upon factors
like- comparative opportunities in host and homeland, familial compulsion. Pakistani
diaspora has become the part of economic life in the host country by filling the human
resource gap, making up for labour and professional shortages, politically also they are
active in home as well as host countries. Reflection has its psychological, familial,
cultural, religious and political life of migrants. After the 9/11 incident, undue prejudices,
stereotyping and linking the Pakistanis to activities of extremist have depressed their
morale.

Pakistani Diaspora Literature

Pakistani literature evolved as an individual entity after the end of British rule in India
and the sequential partition and formation of Pakistan in August 1947.
The first phase of Pakistan English literature 1947-1960
This phase witnessed a scanty literary output at the hands of the English educated elitist
class writers' chiefly writing for a limited reader circles. Diplomat Ahmad Ali with a
liberal outlook wrote excellent prose, fiction and poetry. Other writers included – “Shahid
 Patwa 25

Suhrawadry, Ahmed Ali, Alamgir Hashmi, Taufiq Rafat, Daud Kamal, Maki Kureishi and others.
“(Wikipedia, Pakistani English literature)etc. The Murder of Aziz Khan (1967); a novel
written by Zulfikar Ghose in 1967 portrays the earliest Pakistani society with the Shah
Brothers exploiting its resources and people for personal gains. Aziz Khan becomes an
emblem of the traditional human values and its publication created agitation among the
ruling classes.
The second phase 1970-1990
This period observed the development of Pakistani poetry. The notable poets were Taufiq
Rafat, Daud Kamal and Alamgir Hashmi. The expatriate writers included- Hanif
Qureshi, Sara Suleri, Imtiaz Dharker, Adrian A Hussain. BapsiSidhwa; the first Pakistani
author to write a novel in English. She faithfully uses literature as a medium to give voice
to the atrocities on the victims of partition. Her works echoes with the poor treatment of
women, humiliating experiences of the minority in a fanatical society with typical wahabi
style Islam under Zia ulHaq’s dictatorship.
The third phase 1990 to the present
The 1990s saw a bloom in Pakistani English literature, the middle class adopted English
as a medium of instruction as well as expression. English became a global language of
business and a sort of cross- pollination amongst cultures lead to the linguistic freedom of
creative imagination. Poets who dominated the literary scene were- Alamgir Hasmi, Ejaz
Rahim, and Omer Tarin etc.
Pakistani Diaspora literature is the English version of Pakistani literature pregnant with
the immigrant experiences of humiliation, nostalgia, and identity crisis. The Pakistani
diaspora writers Mohsin Hamid, KamlaShamsie, Mohammad Hanif, Bina Shah, and
Nadeem Aslam has secured a place, recognition in the literary reign of Pakistani
expatriate writings.
Ali Eteraz a writer and free lance journalist claims-
"Pakistani Diaspora subdues identity to religion"("Pride and the Pakistani Diaspora") and
Eteraz is damn correct in his assumption and perception. Pakistan; being a country came
into existence on a communal base and so religion matters most for them. Homeland
orientation is a common theme in diaspora writings of Pakistan.
Diaspora writings of Pakistan-
 Patwa 26

The delineation of homeland is a common characteristic of Pakistan diaspora writers, and

the portrayal of native culture, folklore, myths, political and social scenario provides
authenticity to their homeland orientation. Pakistanis are in diaspora from the moment of
creation of Pakistan. Their Indian identity was shattered in an instant; and they developed
an innate identity crisis, but after the formation of Paksitan, they asserted their new
identities, nurtured it and loved to be addressed as Pakistanis. Sidhwa claims and
laments- "I … became…Pakistani in a snap"(Sidhwa140). Further the citizens were
initiated into another identity crisis and dilemma after the division of the East and the
West Pakistan. These fluid identities, anxieties and dilemmas make Pakistani diaspora a
unique diaspora. A diaspora after returning back receives a second grade treatment. The
political scenario too discourages the belonging of the citizens. The freedom of
expression will arouse feelings of belonging in Pakistani diaspora world wide.
Mohsin Hamid; (1971-) born in Lahore is a Pakistani novelist, writer and consultant, is
the author of four novels- Moth Smoke The Reluctant Fundamentalist, How to Get Filthy
Rich in Rising Asia, and Exist West. All his characters are in diaspora, experiencing an
acute angst in the modern world.
Moth Smoke (2000) is a novel by Mohsin Hamid, set in the present day Lahore, divided
and torn in the name of religion and cultural practices. The elite enjoy all the luxuries of
life whereas the minorities are devoid of basic necessities. It becomes a voice of the
downtrodden.
The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007) another novel by Mohsin Hamid encompasses
the issues of cultural identity, victimization of Pakistan and the power of America.
Changez; a highly educated Pakistani goes to New York to work as a financial analyst.
After the Sep 11 attacks, returns back alienated to Pakistan. The title suggests his
mentality not to accept the humiliation he faces as being a Pakistani in New York. It
advocates Muslim identity with a dictum- Muslims must identified personally not
collectively.
Kamila Shamsie- born in Karachi in 1973, is a British Pakistani novelist, is a writer of
novles- in The City by The Sea(1998) (which laments the plight of common man due to
political instability in Pakistan) Salt and Saffron(2000) (salt symbolising poor and
saffron symbolising rich, dealing with the socio-economic issues of Pakistan)
 Patwa 27

Kartography(2001)(dealing with the backdrop of unstable and uncertain politics of

1970s and 1980s) Broken verses(2005)(dealing with the societal issues where no one is
safe because of the communal riots and war like situation) Burnt shadows(2009)(the
magnum opus dealing with the events of Nagasaki and delineating a spectacle where due
to constant war, terrorism and partition. Human beings are reduced to mere shadows with
no fixed identities).
A God in Every Stone (2014) this novel covers a vast period of history, and transports
us around the globe. Three different empires are placed in contrast to each other- “the
ancient Persians between 515 and 485 BCE, the dissolution of the Ottoman state and the
decline of the British colonial rule in India.”(Popescu 2014) Shamshie along with a love
story encompasses subjects' like- War, Colonialism, Nationalism, Gender and
Archaeology in the background.
Nadeem Aslam- born in Gujranwala, Pakistan in 1966 is a British Pakistani novelist. His
famous novels are- Maps for the lost lovers, the blind man's garden, the wasted vigil, the
golden legend.
The Golden Legend (2017) is a love story set in the modern Pakistan ignited by
religious intolerance and fundamentalism. Nadeem gives voice to the marginal. It
presents an attitude of hatred towards strangers and refugees.
The Wasted Vigil (2008) set in Afghanistan under Taliban rule, where women and
minorities are suppressed under strict fundamentalism. A country whose agonies seems to
never end, with Afghanis being slaughtered at the hands of British, Soviets, Talibans and
Americans. It is a book of extremes, presenting the perception of Islam for Aslam as
irrational and hopeless, but powerful and effective.
Maps for the Lost Lovers (2004) set in an imaginary city Dasht-e-Tanhaii, the lovers
Chanda and Jugnu have disappeared from this city. This novel is filled with stories of
cruelty injustices, violent attacks on migrant houses, racism, bigotry and solitude. It is a
life story of the working class Pakistani immigrant community.
The Blind Man’s Garden (2013) a love story delineating conflicting views about the
attacks on Afghanistan. It is set in the background of 9/11 attacks on world trade centre
towers. Jeo and Mikal foster brothers from a small town in Pakistan decide to go to
Afghanistan to help the wounded civilians against the Americans. Their good and
 Patwa 28

humane intentions too couldn’t save them from the atrocities of the war; their family back
home too suffers the pangs of sorrow, alienation and suspicions. It describes a
contemporary timeless world blurring the line between enemy and friends leaving a state
of utter unrest and confusion.
Seasons of the Rain Bird (2013): set in 1980s in a small town in Pakistan. It deals with
turmoil and religious bigotry of the people during Zia's rule.
Hanif Qureshi- a child of mixed marriage is a British playwright. Filmmaker and
novelist of Pakistani and English descent. He was born in Bromley, South London. He
experienced acute identity crisis when he was addressed as Paki by the natives-
"We are Pakistanis, but you will always be a Paki- a slang derogatory term used
by the English for Pakistanis"(Qureshi12-13)
He is famous for The Buddha of Suburbia (1990) (dealing with the crisis of diasporic
life. The characters are the victims of racial attack poised in a dilemma of belonging even
in Pakistan. Unable to locate their roots in Pakistan, the journey back home becomes a
sorry affair for the character) The Intimacy (1998) (interior alienation, sexual
frustrations and identity crisis of a character in a feministic age on account of his
upbringing in a male dominated society) The Black Album (1995) (dealing specially
with the Muslim diasporic community in the West giving voice to their identity crisis,
cultural alienation.) Something to Tell you (2008) (Memories arousing a painful
nostalgia, strengthening the alienation.) The Nothing (2017) (dealing with host land
locale and the culture and the psychological alienation of the characters) The Last Word
(2014) (dealing with the conflict of will, an ethical dilemma to choose between fame and
discipline) and Gabriels Gift (2001) (deals with early maturity of Gabriel who is caught
in domestic conflicts, experiencing psychological hallucinations)
Bina Shah- she is a Pakistani writer, blogger living in Karachi. She is famous for- where
they dream in Blue, The 786 cybercafé, slum child.
Where they Dream in Blue (2001) is a novel by Bina Shah, delineating the theme of
identity crisis in the case of Karim Afsar; a Pakistani American visiting Pakistan to
discover the birth place of his parents. He finds himself in a state of confusion concerning
his identity.
 Patwa 29

The 786 Cyber Cafe (2004) a novel by Bina Shah is coloured in all native hue and
colour. it is not a typical story of expatriate experiences or of Partition rather it is the
story of a would be entrepreneur: Jamal Tunio; a middle class sindhi, who hits upon the
idea to establish a cyber cafe in the middle of busiest shopping centre in Karachi.
Slum Child (2010) is a story of Laila; a young Pakistani Christian girl living in slums.
The novel is coloured in local colours.

Bapsi Sidhwa
Basically a Parsee, born in Pakistan and emigrated to US, is the first Pakistani women
writer to write in English. She has been an advocate of women rights and was a member
in the advocate committee on women development under the guidance of Prime Minister
Benazir Bhutto. After her emigration to US her genius was recognized internationally and
many prizes and awards were showered on her. She received Pakistan’s highest national
honour Sitara-i-Imtiaz. She has written four novels, a short story collection and an
anthology.
She started her career with The Crow Eaters (1980) a ridiculous term associated with
the talkative nature of Parsees; it is all about Parsees, their culture, their thought process,
mentality among the majority, idiosyncrasies, shrewdness etc. The tone is humorous and
the reality is conveyed in a very light manner.
Cracking India or the Ice candy Man (1991) is all about the heinous partition and the
turmoil aftermath. Sidhwa concentrates on the inhuman treatment of women during
partition; the perspective is of a polio ridden child whose world is limited. Sidhwa
presents a female oriented study of the historical events in Cracking India.
The Bride (1983)
It is a real account of the Kohistani tribal patriarchal customs and traditions. Sidhwa
heard the story during her visit to the Karakoram Mountains. It was of a girl from the
plains who suffered the atrocities in a rigid patriarchal society and finally died. The
pathetic story moved her, and she designed a character from the plains Zaitoon married in
the tribal area, but as a true feminist she made her victorious, the germination of
 Patwa 30

consciousness that she will not survive in the mountains lead to Zaitoon’s emancipation
and survival.
An American Brat (1993)
For the first time, Sidhwa broadens the locale of her novel and introduces the culture,
locale of America. Feroza; a traditional Pakistani Parsee girl is sent to America to
broaden her outlook, she fulfils the aspirations of her parents, but the hold of the rigid
Parsee culture creates a cultural clash between the parents and Feroza. Feroza after her
emigration realises, she no longer belongs to Pakistan, and she finally settles in America
and the title symbolises her stubbornness to marry a Jew against the Parsee community
marriage rules.
Their Language of Love (2013)-
All the eight stories deal with the author’s life and her experiences. All the stories
concentrate on her understanding of human nature, political and social events. She
presents totally different food stuff for her readers, apart from feministic, historical
fiction, it is all about the persons and events she has experienced and met with in her life.

Indian Diaspora-

Rabindra Nath Tagore speaks about Indian diaspora in a letter to C.F.Andrews-

“The civilization of India, like a banyan tree, has shed its beneficent shade away from its
birth place...Indian can live and grow by spreading abroad.”(Tinker1977).

The origin of Indian diaspora has its roots deep in the subjugation by the British Empire.
The first instance of migration was the forced migration of the indentured labourers.
Indians also fought in the Boer war and the two world wars on the behalf of the empire.
In the World War II, the dispersal of Indian labour and professionals has been a
worldwide phenomenon. In 19th century, unskilled labour from South-Asia has been the
main force in the transformation of the physical landscape of the Middle East. Twentieth
century observed a new trend in migration to the industrially developed countries.
Colonial and post-colonial phases of Indian Diaspora.
In the first phase of migration the Indians crossed the sea for some specific purposes, they
never made a permanent settlement outside the homeland, and the Palas of Bengal was in
 Patwa 31

contact with the Sailendra kings of Indonesia. The campaigns of Cholas lead to the
vanquishment of the kingdom of Srivijay. The initiative for the movement of the Indians
across the border was overseas trade relations with East Africa. The important
characteristic of the movement in this phase was “population mobility was inherent in
social order.” (Jain1993) This period witnessed the movement of “marginal peasants with
shifted loyalties from one place to another."(Jain1993)
The colonial phase-
The time of British rule from 1830s to 1930s encompasses the colonial phase. Famine
and economic degradation worsened the situation leading to mass unemployment. Apart
from these perilous situations, the abolishment of slavery in 1830s in Britain leads to an
acute shortage of labour in sugar plantations in British colonies. British exploited the
situation and looked towards India for cheap and massive labour supply. These situations
paved way for the indentured system of labour from India and Asia. Western Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Bengal and Orissa were the regions chosen for the recruitment of the indentured
labourers. The indenture was a type of contact for five years and the labourer was
demanded to work on a particular plantation and after the end of that contract, he was
free to leave and return home with the money earned or to further enter into another term
for new contract to work and earn more money. The whole process of emigration from
India and immigration to the British colonies was operated through an ordinance
governing the immigration, approved by the country of service. In this phase, the initial
migration was mainly to three specific regions as pronounced by R.K.Jain
01. The Indian Ocean (Mauritius 1834) Uganda, South Africa, Malaysia and Srilanka.
02. The Pacific Ocean (Fiji 1878)
03. The Carribean Sea (Trinidad 1845, Guyana-1838, Surinam-1873)
Kangani or Maistry form of labour followed the indentured system. Kangani was a
type of middleman who selected labourers to work on plantation. The indentured
labourers from Northern India whereas the Kangani labourers were from South India.
(" Indian Communities Abroad: Themes and Literature")
 Patwa 32

The post-colonial phase-

The colonial period produced an educational system and produced such English educated and
skilled generations who either couldn’t find jobs in India or they were tempted by the charm of
the better working conditions and ample job prospects in the West. The rapid and developed
means of transport and communication lead to the movement and resulted in “brain
drain”(Young2019). Migration in this period was towards the West especially to the US, the UK
and other countries of Europe and Australia. Nayyar defined some specific aspects of migration
during this phase- it was a permanent type of migration to the English speaking countries, the
migrants were English speaking technical experts eligible for high income.

The Indian diaspora-

Indian diaspora developed in three phases depending on the initiatives for movement
abroad.
01- The first phase was the during the British rule, labourers were transported to British
colonies to work as indentured labourers in the “sugar plantations, rail and road
constructions”(Ferdous 6-7)
02- The second phase can be traced around the mid 20th century when the urge for the
move was “to experience independence and for economic developments movement
during this phase was towards developing countries. ”(Ferdous 6-7)
03- The third phase was the result of free will and the urge to be educated and to earn,
and the time was the end of 19th century and beginning of 21st century. ”(Ferdous 6-7)
S.K. Sareen divides the history of Indian Diaspora into four major movements
01- the indentured labour that builds for the empire in the South Asia and the West
Indies.
02-the seekers who went mainly to the west in search of security, freedom or identity.
03-the aspirants who went again to the west in search of opportunities (money) and
04-the re-migrants who for self preservation, had to move from where they had
arrived from India to other locale such as Uganda's to UK and USA and the Fijians to
Austrailia (Sareen2004:82)
Markand Paranjape distinguishes Diasporas as- Visitors and Settlers. The visitor
diaspora encompasses dis-priviledged and subaltern classes who were sent forcefully
 Patwa 33

to a distant settlement. Return from that diasporic settlement was next to impossible
owing to the lack of proper means of transport and so the physical distance sprouted
the psychological alienation and homeland became an icon of reverence in the
imagination of the these diasporas. Man’s inclination towards material gains and
identity prospects lead to the voluntary movement and thus settler diaspora came into
existence. The advanced technology, developed means of transport have eased these
types of movements abroad. Diasporic writings fill the gap of physical distance and
psychological alienation to some extent. It is the refusal of the temptation of the host
land and a severe blow on authoritarianism. It is a reassurance towards the importance
and reverence for the homeland, acquiring a safe and objective perception to delineate
and comment objectively on homeland issues, presentation of a healthy and un-biased
image of the homeland, the celebration of nostalgia.
The term diaspora literature not only signifies literature written by writers' abroad
homeland it also encompasses literature enriched with certain themes and theories –
nostalgia, identity crisis, alienation and rootlessness etc.
Indian Diaspora Literature-
The roots of Indian diaspora literature lie deep in the history of diaspora itself. The
descendants of the indentured labourers in the Girmit colonies uses English as a medium
of expression.Old generation diaspora writers like- Raja Rao, G.V. Desani, Dhal Chandra
Rajan and Nirad C Chaudhari all writes about their homeland experiences during the
colonial period, the new generation diaspora writers left their homes willingly for better
social and economic prospects. Their works record the experiences of being an immigrant
in a host land, the problems in adaptation, the humiliations, the nostalgia about the lost
home etc. Indian diaspora literature is one of the best, widely read, and recognised
literatures of the present times. The galaxy of the Indian diaspora literature includes well
recognised and distinguished stars (writers) as- Bharti Mukherjee, Shauna Singh
Baldwin, Jhumpa Lahiri, Anjana Appachana, Anita Nair, Chitra Banerjee Divakurni,
Manjula Padmnabhan, Anita Rao Badami, V.S. Naipaul, KamlaMarkandaya, Anita
Desai, Salman Rushdie, Meera Syal, Meena Alexander, Amit Chaudhari, Vikram Seth,
Kiran Desai, Sunetra Gupta, and Rohinton Mistry.
 Patwa 34

Bharti Mukherjee-
An indo-American writer, concentrates on the strategies of survival in the alien land, she
as a female writer focuses chiefly on the feminine experiences and strategy to survive.
The Tigers Daughter (1971) shares the experiences of Tara when she encounters a
cultural shock on her return to India from America. Jasmine (1989) changes her identity
to survive in America, Desirable daughters deal with the immigrant experiences of Tara
who suffers in a patriarchal society. She is adept at adaptation and assimilation. Tree
bride (2004) is a historical novel where a Brahmin lady resists the British rule. The
Middle Man and Other Stories (1988) focuses on the immigrant experiences of people
from developing country. Wife (1975) is the story of a woman who oscillates between
her home and foreign culture. Leave it to me is the story of Debby Di Martino’s
alienation and the search for identity. Mukherjee incessantly gives voice to the sufferings
of subdued women on account of the patriarchal society or the change in surroundings
which reduce them to a weak alienated creature.
Shauna Singh Baldwin- an Indo-Canadian diaspora writer.
She is an advocate of women rights and equality; her characters are often strong- willed
women who fight against oppression and the patriarchal social structure. Her
What the Body Remembers (1999) presents a patriarchal society where women
are reduced to the periphery and all the decision taking powers are controlled by
male. Women are considered a mere womb and her existence is not possible
without men. The Tiger Claw (2004) is the story of Noor; a bold lady poised
between hypocrisy, racial hatred, betrayal and war.
Jhumpa Lahiri-
NilanjanaSudeshana named as Jhumpa Lahiri is an American author from Indian parents.
She, in The Namesake (2003) delineates the nostalgia for the homeland in case of
immigrants, the identity crisis, and alienation in case of the second generation
diaspora. The Interpreter of Maladies (1999) deals with the dilemma of the
Indians immigrants try to settle in America. The theme of loss runs through all the
nine stories and it finally results in alienation and isolation. Her Unaccustomed
Earth (2008) presents the theme of migration and alienation. It is a collection of
eight stories depicting the second generation Indian American characters that are
 Patwa 35

in search of identity. Human wants according to Lahiri defines human culture.

Her works are replete with sweet and bitter experiences of immigrants from India
in America.
Anjana Appachana-
She is a novelist of Indian origin settled in US. She is a female-oriented writer dealing
with the everyday lives of Indian middle class woman. Her works expose the
atrocities on women, the patriarchal societal background, and the base for
exploitation and their quest for identity. She in Incantation and Other Stories
(1991) illustrates the conflicts, exploitation, silence and revolts of the Indian
women poised between the traditional outlook and modern developing society.
Her novel Listening Now (1998) unfolds the secrets of a woman's love story
revealing the conflicts, fear, trauma and reestablishment. Her works thus give
voice to the psychological trauma of Indian women caught in the coop of tradition
and culture.
Anita Nair-
She is an Indian English writer. Her Ladies Coupe (2001) portrays Akhila; a Brahmin
lady, over burdened with familial responsibilities seeks freedom, but couldn’t.
She never deserves respect and so she is haunted with a question that can a
woman be single? And happy at the same time. Mistress (2005) questions the
institution of marriage, considering it as bondage on the free feelings, and finally
assigning duties and asserting rights. Her, The Better Man (1999), Cut Like
Wound (2012) Malabar Mind (2002) and Alphabet Soup for Lovers (2015) all
deal with the man woman relationship. They are all women- oriented account of
marriage, sex and the decisive choices of their life.

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni-

She is an Indian-American author of Indian origin. Her works are replete with immigrants
of South Asia. The palace of Illusion- it is the feminine perspective of
Mahabharata, the story told from Draupadi’s perspective.
 Patwa 36

Mistress of spices (1997) - Tilo the protagonist is the mistress of spices, who not only
supply spices for food, but also for homesickness and nostalgia. Her search for
identity entangled in between tradition and modern culture.
Sister of my heart (1999)- Sudha and Anju two cousins considered to be twins,
experiences a clash on ideological level as their mother's desire Indian culture
whereas they prioritize Western way of thought. Their arranged marriages
separate them both yet they continue the extraordinary bond between the two.
Arranged marriage (1995) is a collection of short stories concentrating on women
caught between two cultures.
Oleander girl (2012): A Novel is a story of women who grows in maturity and leaves
India for America thinking that this plight will transform her life. It presents the
identity crisis as well as the questioning of the traditional values in a foreign land.
Manjula Padmnabhan-
An Indian writer who grew up in Sweden, Pakistan and Trinidad.
She too deals with women caught in patriarchal dystopias created on account of the male
ego and feminine docility.
Lights Out (1984) ; a drama based on a real incident foregrounds the act of ‘gang rape’
delineating women subjugation and the inhuman treatment a women encounters
on account of gender based inequality.
Harvest (1997) presents the bad effects of technology, gadgets on traditional life and
women subjugation and exploitation on account of these developments.
The Island of Lost Girls (2015) - it depicts the identity crisis of Mejis in a world where
there are no man, only women and transgender. Mejis is reared as a boy, but her
growth of the body parts, leads to an identity crisis.
Anita Rao Badami- a writer of South-Asian origin residing in Canada.
Tamarind Mem (1996) the story of Kamini and Rupa who grew up as daughters of
railway man after marriage settles abroad and view their parents from the foreign
culture perspective. It is story of bitter and sweet nostalgia of past days.
 Patwa 37

The Hero’s Walk (2000) - it is about an ordinary man’s struggle. It deals with themes of
displacement and belonging and it also presents the mindset of an ordinary man
oscillating between the assertions of identity welcoming the differences.
Can You Hear the Night Bird Call (2006) -delineates the story of three women- Bibi-ji,
Leela and Nemmo. Set in India and Vancouver, the novel solely concentrates on
the immigrant experiences, the cultural shock and the shattering of dreams on
account of the difference in appearance and reality.
V.S.Naipaul- Nobel laureate, an English writer of Indian origin born in Chaguanas; a
British colony in Trinidad in a Brahmin family, is famous for his comical novels
in the initial stage of his career and the autobiographical works in the later part.
His notable works are-
A Bend in the River (1979) - it is a novel about becoming a nation after being
independent from colonial powers. It is a tale of an immigrant; uprooted by “the
bloody tides of third world history” ("A Bend in the River" Penguin.) comes to
live in a newly independent African town. The main themes are search for a
masculine identity in a society where leadership changes frequently.
The Enigma of Arrival (1987); a novel in five sections, - it is in the design of an
extended essay rather than a novel. It is full of autobiographical glimpses, a book
full of melancholy where the author presents serious themes like- a person's firm
determination to endure disappointment, alienation and change at a new place in a
simple manner.
A House for Mr Vishvas, (1961) is the search for identity denoted through the search for
home. The protagonist; Mr Mohun Biswas is inspired by Naipaul’s father. He
struggles throughout his life to find out a house; an embodiment of freedom and
identity.
The Mystic Masseur (1957) - it is the story of Ganesh; a Hindu man looking for his lost
place in a society divided between Indian and British cultures. He finds himself in
a doubt and dilemma between the Indian and British cultures in Trinidad.
Apart from these novels, he also wrote non fictional works such as travelogues, and
journalistic works. All of Naipaul’s writings concentrate on the diaspora themes,
 Patwa 38

immigrant problems and gives voice to the marginal who experiences a diasporic
dilemma, identity crisis on account of change in government or change in place.
KamlaMarkandaya; an Indian English writer, who later moved to Britain after Indian
independence. She wrote basically on cultural clash between town and city,
between Indian and British culture. Her chief works are-
Nectar in a Sieve (1954) - it is all about the women’s struggle to grasp her identity and
happiness in a changing society and cultural scenario.
A hand full of rice (1966) - Ravi comes to Madras dreaming a better life, but all his
dreams are shattered and the novel projects the immigrant problems along with
the struggle for survival in a metro.
A Silence of Desire (1960) - Markandaya foregrounds the relationship between husband
and wife. It is a story of a clerk who suspects his wife to have a lover. Silence in
case of both the husband and wife lead to turmoil in their life. Dandekar and
Sarojini becomes the embodiment of typical Indian men and women respectively.
The family becomes a micro some of the society. It deals with the theme of the
inevitable and eternal clash between traditionalism and modernism, the
ideological struggle between faith and reason and Sarojini and Dandekar becomes
the representative characters. The domestic conflict between the couple represents
the conflict between science and superstition, Indian spiritualism and western
modernism
The Golden Honey Comb (1977) - it delineates the fictional representation of the Indo-
British conflict.
Some Inner Fury (1952) - the two themes dealt in with are love and death, the title
suggest the inner fury of passion, the love and anger between the colonizers and
colonized. The whole plot encompasses the love affair of
The Nowhere Man (1972) -
The East-West encounter is animated through personal relationship and individual
experience. The title symbolically represents the fate of Srinivas; who was forced
to leave India during British rule, and in England his wife and son dies and he is
left lonely and alienated. He experiences nostalgia and feels like an outcast, an
 Patwa 39

outsider in England. The novel delineates the wretched condition of the

immigrant.
Two Virgins (1973)-
it deals with the theme of adolescent and highlights the conflict between first and second
generation, village and city, tradition and modernity. The two village girls-
Lalitha and Saroja grow up and turn into brat. Lalitha lured by the attraction of the
city life leaves her parents and her native village.
Pleasure City (1982) - it delineates the motto of “live and let live”(Wikipedia). It
explores the issues of the interaction between East and West. It also explores the
theme of identity formation, in the context of scientific and technological
development, between native tradition and imported technology. It establishes the
fact that a state of equilibrium and harmony is inevitable for the world to become
a best place.

Anita Desai-
An English writer of Indian origin. She is a feminine writer who stresses individuality
and delineates the drawbacks and complexities of man-woman relationship, the
fate of married women in Indian society. She also give voices to the fears and
frustrations portraying the inner world of introvert women on the verge of
psychological breakdown and alienated from the world, society and family on
account of their failure in adaptation.
Cry the Peacock (1963) - it gives voice to the fears and tensions of a woman who is tied
in a disharmonious relationship with her husband.
Fasting Feasting (1999) - the title symbolises India; the world of fasting, and America;
the world of feasting. It deals with themes such as gender, class and racial
inequalities and discrimination. Uma and mother had to perform even the smallest
of task for the male (father) of the family; this stresses the rigid patriarchal system
of the Indian society. Woman sacrifices her desires and in the story Uma and
Anamika and many more like them sacrifice their scholarships and desires to
study.
 Patwa 40

Clear Light of the Day (1980) - set in Delhi, it deals with the Hindu-Muslim tension of
1947. It is autobiographical in tone and a masterpiece of familial attachment. It
portrays the anguish of Bim; a women who aspires to live in past. Tara too loves
her childhood memories. Time changes the situations and geography.
In Custody (1984) - set in Delhi, is a story about men, the protagonist is a simple naïve
man with no definite goal in his life. It is an account of Deven’s struggle to
conquer his flaws and to be successful at the end. it portrays the existential
dilemma and the shattered dreams and ambitions of Deven.
The Village by the Sea (1982) - the writer conveys the difference between the town and
rural life; she also delineates the sorrow, the hardships and poverty faced by a
small rural community in India.
Baumgartner’s Bombay (1988) - it deals with the exploits of Hugo from his childhood
in Germany to his murder in India by another German, and thus gives voice to the
complexities and dangers in an immigrant’s life.
Where shall we go this summer (1975) - it deals with the alienation of Sita on account
of being introvert and unique emotional reaction?
Bye Bye Blackbird (1971) -it deals with the nature of human relationship foregrounding
the East- West clash, and alienation faced by the immigrants.
Salman Rushdie-
An English writer of Indian origin is a celebrated diaspora author. His novels are all
replete with diaspora themes as alienation, nostalgia, diasporic consciousness and
cultural dilemma.
Rushdie started his career with-
Grimus: Roman (1975) - it is the story of estrangement and alienation the migrants face
on account of their displacement. They have no future in this mortal and in the
immortal world.
Mid Night’s Children (1981) - it is chiefly a narrative of displacement and rootlessness
caused by relocation. Saleem, Shiva, Padma and Parvati face calamity, identity
crisis, alienation and cultural and geographical dislocation. Fluid identities in the
characters case prove fatal.
 Patwa 41

Shame(1983) - its theme is chiefly political. It displays the trauma of migration; it

delineates the identity crisis the characters experience on account of the pressure
of migration. The canvass in this novel is packed with subalterns and marginal
characters and Rushdie gives voice to their "...psychological crisis resulting from
the forfeiture of identity and roots."(Tiwari03)
The Enchantress of Florence (2008) - the protagonist Moger is the victim of identity
crisis, on account of his uprooted ness and disintegration. Longing for belonging
is the predominant theme.
The Ground Beneath her Feet (1999) - it is a story of emigration, the story of a loss of
home (country); Bombay due to socio-political change, the merits and demerits of
fame, and the dream to cross our earthbound nature. It deals with the theme of
globalization coloured with myth and music. All the three chief characters-
Ormus, Rai and Vina Aspara leave Bombay and stuck in England.

Meera Syal- an English writer from a Punjabi immigrant background in England. She in
her novels deals with the theme of displacement, alienation and quest for identity.
Her characters feel trapped between the dilemmas of native and foreign culture. In
Anita and Me, (1996) the protagonist: Meena experiences alienation and sense of
separation from her native culture. Her Life isn’t All Ha HeeHee (1999) is a
female oriented novel dealing with the lives of three very different women from
South Asian community of East London: Tania, Sunita and Chila. Sunita: a
former activist, a law student is a depressed wife of two; Tania has rejected the
traditional arranged marriage for a high-powered career on TV, Chila;
apprehended simple by the two, is marrying Deepak. All the three struggles on
account of the differences in the Indian and British culture.
The House of Hidden Mothers-(2014) it explores the theme of the risks of surrogacy.
The protagonist Shyama: a British Indian woman suffers the pangs of
abandonment by her husband. She engages with Toby and finds all the happiness
of her life, but she was unable to conceive. The other side of the coin, Mala: a
young married lady of rural India learns about surrogacy as a medium to gain
riches, from her neighbour. Thus the chase begins A Shyama in search of A Mala.
 Patwa 42

Apart from these, the novel also explores the themes of motherhood, infertility,
feminism, rape through the means of cultural dislocation, corruption,
commercialisation and globalization.
Meera Alexander- an internationally acclaimed English poet and writer, born in
Allahabad, India and brought up in Indian and Sudan. Her novels and works become the
confluence of Eastern and Western cultures.
Manhattan Music-(1997) it is basically the story of a woman attempting to assimilate
into America while holding her native identity. Sandhya Rosenblum: an Indian married to
a New Yorker, she is now in Manhattan and experiences herself as directionless,
alienated and culturally adrift. She turns towards her Egyptian lover for solace and
emotional fulfilment, but all prove futile. All the immigrant characters struggle with
hyphenated identities and finds themselves in the midst of divided loyalties and
fragmented dreams.
Fault lines-(1993) it is a type of memoir reminiscing issues of identity and dislocation in
the life of the first and the second generation. She describes life in New York as-
“The great island city where poor cry out of tunnels.”("Fault Lines" Review)
Nampally Road-(1991) it is a narrative of minority struggle revolving around the issues
of cultural richness, psychological complexity, feminism and social politics.
Amit Chaudhari- a novelist, poet, literary critic and music composer, born in Kolkata
and brought up in Mumbai. He is widely acclaimed for his novels and the themes of
social transition, representation of home etc in his novels.
A Strange and Sublime Address-(1991) Sandeep; the main character represents Amit’s
childhood. The simple and pure joys of childhood are celebrated. Chaudhari presents a
middle class Calcutta, a shift in cultural values of the first and second generation.
Nostalgia figures in the local spaces and people. Bombay and Calcutta is compared and
contrasted, and a sense of dislocation and loss pervades the atmosphere.
Odysseus Abroad-(2014) the protagonist is a young Bengali student studying English
literature at an unnamed university in London. He experiences an identity crisis and
develops a hybrid identity, experiences an Odysseus like dilemma with no obvious Ithaca
to return, no familiar place to claim at home in.
 Patwa 43

Freedom Song-(1998) it explores the relations of two families in Calcutta, and identity
crisis in case of Bhaskar; the protagonist who is an active communist party worker; a
Marxist. He is obsessed with the search for true freedom and self-esteem. He experiences
an identity crisis poised between the responsibilities of his party and the newly gained
responsibility as a husband.
Afternoon Raag-(1993) it gives voice to the confused sensibility of a music student,
fixed in a dilemma between his loving and caring parents and a complicated love triangle.
It depicts the theme of marginalization in multicultural society.
The Immortals-(2009) A detailed picture of life in Bombay and the story of Bombay
becoming Mumbai. The homeland finds an important place in the marginal writings.
Vikram Seth-Vikram Seth; an Indian novelist and poet, born in Kolkata, an Indian by
birth but diasporic by life style. Three novels chiefly- The Golden Gate (1986), A
Suitable Boy (1993) and An Equal Music (1999) needs due mention for the delineation of
diasporic themes and marginal voices.
The Golden Gate-(1986) it is the story of John; a corporate engineer who remains
unhappy throughout his life, and ends up as he begins-lonely, depressed life.
A Suitable Boy-(1993) it is the most voluminous work, the plot revolving round mothers
search for a suitable boy for her daughter. All the characters are in a chase, the novel
establishes the Indian perspective of the institution ‘Marriage’.
An Equal Music-(1999) the story revolves round love lost, love regained. It is basically a
novel of loss, longing and it establishes the power of music and art. It is basically a love
story, but music and love are parallel themes. Michael Holme and Julia McNicholl are
musicians. They love, lose and then regain their love, but Julia rapidly become deaf, and
is drifting apart from her lifeblood; Music. It is Seth’s love for music that made this
creation possible.
Kiran Desai- An Indian born, English author who moved to England at 14, finally settled
in America. These multiple locales provide diasporic perspective for her novels.
The Inheritance of Loss-(2006) it depicts a group of middle class, poor, and lost people
who leads a perplexed life on account of their pursuit for discovering their cultural
identity in the age of globalization. It foregrounds the problem of Immigrants in America-
 Patwa 44

struggle for green cards, return to India- desolate and penniless. It records the destructive
effect of globalization and post- colonialism on the psyche and social life of Indians.
Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard-(1998)
This novel explores the dreams and aspirations of the Indian middle-class people. Desai
employs the technique of magical realism in the character of Sampath who becomes a so
called Monkey Baba, as he resides on a guava tree in an orchard. Sampath experiences
alienation from his family and leaves home in search of peace. Sampath’s act connotes
the eternal human struggle for peace and solace. Disenchantment leads to displacement in
the case of Sampath. Thematically, this novel belongs to diasporic genre and Desai
experiments this genre by employing the theme of magical realism in the character of
Sampath.
Sunetra Gupta- an English writer of Indian origin born in Kolkata and settled in London.
Her main works are-
Memories of Rain (1992) –A meditation upon the East-West divide; it is the story of
Moni; a desperate woman from Calcutta, separated from her roots, forced by her husband
Anthony to believe that women are weak and docile. Anthony marries her and takes her
to London away from her culture. Moni feels the pull of his culture and decides to return
to India with her daughter. The two main characters become embodiment of colonizer
and colonized.
The Glass Blower’s Breath (1993) - it is an account of the alienation and loneliness of
the unnamed protagonist ‘You’ which she experiences as a result of her dissatisfaction
from all her relations. She develops a feeling of anger and hatred towards the patriarchal
suffocation that she experiences. She develops an emotional and intellectual draught
along with the frustration to play her gendered roles.
A Sin of Colour-(1999) it is a tale expounding the obsessive and unrequited love of
Debendranath Roy for his sister-in-law. He faces a doomed end leaving his family and
friends. Gupta foregrounds the idiosyncrasies associated with romantic love and
establishes the value of self control.
Moonlight into Marzipan-(1995)
It is the story of shattered dreams in case of Esha and Promothesh; a couple who moves
to London for a scientific project, Promothesh thinks that his discovery will bring good
 Patwa 45

fortunes, but all efforts prove futile. On the other hand, Esha stuck to her ethnic identity
and thinks it a temporary displacement, but Promothesh obsession with her assistant
collapses all her dreams and her life ends in a chaotic suicide.
Rohinton Mistry- A Parsee writer of Indian origin, born in Bombay and settled in
Ontario, Canada. Mistry occupies an eminent place among the South-Asian writers and
all his novels and short story collection revolves around the Parsee customs, manners,
and way of life. His works empower the silent and subdued voices of the society, his
perception towards the social and political events and society is an objective and neutral
one. He is famous for-
Tales from Firozsha Baag-(1987) it is a constellation of 11 stories with mainly Parsee
characters, dealing with the day to day customs and traditions of the Parsee. The
characters are mostly from the lower strata of the society. Some of the stories in the later
section deal with the immigrant problem and the alienation, sense of loss looming large
before the immigrants. Thematically, the 11 stories can be divided into two parts, the first
part encompassing Auspicious Occasion, One Sunday, The Ghost of Firozsha Baag,
Condolence Visit, The Collectors, Of White Hairs and Cricket, The Paying Guest and
Exercisers focus on the Parsee community experiences as a part of the society. The
second part- Squatters, Lend me Your Light, and Swimming Lessons dealing with the
lives of protagonist away from home in pursuit of wealth, prove to be a background for
the first part.
Such a Long Journey-(1991)
Set completely in Bombay, journey explores a multifaceted perspective, encompassing
the age long journey of the Parsees to Sanjan, the journey of Mistry from Bombay to
Canada and ultimately the journey of Gustad’s life.
Family Matters-(2001)
A familial saga of all the human values- love, hatred, sacrifice etc foregrounding the
heinous aspect of the Parsee rigid culture. On the psychological level, it is a nostalgic
journey towards the past golden days (time). Yezad and Nariman Hansotia experiences
unrest and dilemma, Yezad dreams of leaving India and Nariman finds himself chained in
the rigid Parsee culture. The dreams are shattered and both of them try their level best to
cope up or balance the oddities of life.
 Patwa 46

A Fine Balance-(1995) it reflects the multi cultural approach of Mistry, encompassing

characters from lower to upper classes of the society. All the major characters are in
diaspora; away from the place of birth, experiencing an identity crisis, cultural dilemma
and in the end only Ishvar, Om and Dina succeeds to establish a fine balance between the
oddities of life and the pragmatic approach towards life.
The Scream (2008)- it is a novella; a type of dramatic monologue, the protagonist is an
old man, displaced from youth, deserted from his family, expressing his grief over the
changed circumstances and behaviour of the family members and lamenting his
helplessness to cope up in such an atmosphere.

Afghanistan Diaspora
Afghanistan; basically a landlocked country within South Asia with Hindu Kush,
Karakoram, Pamir and Suleiman mountain ranges. Afghanistan history is replete with
social mobility which fostered the development of Afghanistan. The first instance of
migration was perceptible in 1850 when “Hazaras"(Afghanistan Hazaras2019) migrated
to Iran and Pakistan as a measure of refuge against natural disasters. The development of
technology and the age of industrialization, the lack of industrial development in
Afghanistan in 1960s and 1970s resulted in mass unemployment and grant of low wages.
In 1973 many Afghan labours travelled abroad to Iran, Pakistan and other Middle East
countries to increase the income as a result of the oil boom. Afghanis normally worked in
construction sites, brick factories, on farms and received much lower wages than local
Iranians.
First Wave of Migration: Soviet Union (1979)
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan lead to the mass exodus of Afghanis to nearby Iran and
Pakistan. The settlement and migration was easy on account of the geographical
proximity and similarities in matter of language, food, culture and religion. It was a
forced exile of refugees from rural areas. In the second half of 19th century, many "small
farmers, village artisans and tenants... lower middle class shopkeepers, civil servants and
bazaar craftsmen" (Boesen160) flee away consequently to the great draught in search of
food and water. Seventy percent of Afghan’s refugee was ethnic Pasthuns from rural
 Patwa 47

origin. In 1989 the Soviet withdrew from Afghanistan, and it was followed by intensified
Mujahedeen activity in 1990 about six million Afghans were displaced to Pakistan.
Second Wave of Migration: Taliban Regime (1992)
After the victory of the Mujahedeen (those engaged in a religious war ‘Jihad), there
occurred a mass exodus but it was the urban and educated middle class who fled to IR of
Iran and Pakistan. Now these refugees were neither welcomed by Iran nor by Pakistan.
Owing to the low status and humiliation abroad about 1.3 million Afghanis returned back
during 1992-1995. The rise of oppressive Taliban regime in 1995 in Afghanistan also
lead Afghans to move to Iran and Pakistan and it continued till 2000. In 1995, Iran closed
its borders with Afghanistan and deported 19000 illegal refugees between 1998 and 1999.
Third Wave of Migration: End of Taliban Regime (2001)
The 9/11 incident of the terrorist attack on Twin towers at World Trade Centre, America
arrested the attention of the world towards Afghanistan, a direct war started between the
Taliban and USA coalition forces in 2001. Pakistan reduced the number of Afghan
refugees, closed refugee camps and Iran increased the cost of living of Afghan refugees.
Afghanistan observed large wave repatriation of the natives between 2002-2005.
2001- to the present: The Karzai Era
After 9/11 incidents Afghanistan was exposed as a seat of terrorism. America and its
allies brought a quick end to the Taliban regime. On 9th November, Mazar-e-Sharif was
recovered from Taliban rule, later Herat too, on 13th November Taliban regime ended in
Afghanistan. Kandhar was taken over on 7th December. In 2004, new constitution came
into force and Karzai was elected as the President of Afghanistan with a eligible cabinet
of technocrats and educated women representing Pasthuns, Tajiks and Hazaras.
Despite some improvement, Afghanistan is yet a sufferer from violent outbursts,
instability and extremely low living standard. The country has no space, capacity health
and sanity conditions for the returning refugees. Twenty four years of war has lead to a
mindset of war and violence. However most of the educated elites reside abroad and
Germany is the first choice destination.
Afghan Literature: The Voice of the Negligible
The majority of Afghan writing is unstudied, marginalised and anonymous.
Afghani literature owes much to the oral story telling tradition. Afghan literature is
 Patwa 48

unique in its responsiveness, social responsibility and immediacy. Traumas when

occurred are attacked by pen swiftly after their occurrence. Taliban poetry seems to hover
on the peripheries of sensuality and pragmaticism where nation occupies an eminent
place. Pashto and Dari languages were the medium of expression in early centuries. Shah
Nama by Firdousi was written in Dari. Modern writings try to understand the changes all
over the world and writes about the destruction of the country by war. Mohammad Asef
Soltanzadeh; an Afghan expatriate fiction writer in Denmark writes about the horrors of
war, religious extremism and fundamentalism, extreme poverty, through the introduction
of themes such as alienation, trust and betrayal, physical abuse, ignorance, death, mental
and physical health and complete destruction of the society. Alienation, Nostalgia,
depression, racism etc themes are used to describe refugee lives. As a diaspora writer he
writes about diaspora themes as acculturation, globalization, changing gender roles, the
loss of tradition, cultural preservation etc.
Khaled Hosseini; a Afghan born, American novelist, uses contrasts the light
colours simple tales of betrayal, grace and redemption along with the darker realities of
war in the background. The Kite Runner (2003) is metaphorically a journey towards the
homeland with a wish for its development. Sky, Kite and Threads all are used as a
metaphor of human life. Sky- signifies a land without boundaries, Kite- symbolises the
non-restricted movement of the human figure, Thread- symbolises nostalgia or memory.
Hosseini says- “when you have lived as long as I have, you find that cruelty and
benevolence are but shades of the same colour” (Vades2013)
Thousand Splendid Suns (2007); is again a story of love and betrayal. It is at once a
chronicle of thirty years of Afghan’s history. Amir commits betrayal towards his friend
Hasan. Again in the return, after the flight to America, he comes back and do sacrifice
many things in order to set things right. This work delineates the familiar world in all its
daily dealings, problems of racism, exiles, ethnocentrism and immigrant problems.
Atiq Rahimi; another renowned French-Afghan writer, gives voice, face and
identity to the neglected woman of Afghanistan. It is an account of the women courage
and valour during the oppressive regime of Taliban, in The Patience Stone (2008). His
Earth and Ashes (1999) deals with the time of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. It is a
short tale of three generations during the unpredictable massacre of war. He conveys the
 Patwa 49

loss of vision for a better future in Afghanistan. The Thousand Rooms of Dream and
Fear (2011) is a horror full experience of Russian occupation in Afghanistan. It shows
that how a belief of vengeance helps to sustain a cycle of violence in Afghanistan.
Bhutan Diaspora-
It is the result of ethnic cleansing and the seeds for mass exodus were laid down by the
change of mood which started in the late seventies after the defeat of the Sikkim and
assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984 by her body guard. The assassination of Indira
Gandhi was a blow to the unity of the northern states. Various ethnic groups from the
north of the country and in the mountains from Nepal to Bhutan and even Assam desired
Independence. All the northern states once part of India was now desired individual
independence and it lead to the independence of Pakistan and Bangladesh. In 1975 some
insurgents from Gurkha group lead to the Sikkim king down, Sikkim became a new state
of India. This incident has a severe effect upon the policies of the King and Government
of Nepal and Bhutan. The King of Nepal changed his country into a multi ethnic country,
whereas the fourth king of Bhutan did the opposite, and pushed the people living in the
south out of the country into exile.
Bhutan was a tyrannical Buddhist monarchy, Druck was the rulers who came
from Tibet and were the successors of the Tibet monks. Until Duar war, Bhutan was a
Lama kingdom, after this war British took control over Bhutan. After the end of the
theocratic rule (Gods rule) in 1907, the British selected a few powerful land owners in
Bhutan to be the ruling elite. The Wang chuck family came to power and Bhutan
established itself as a British Protectorate. Since the two world wars, Wang chuck
became the sole rulers of the country supported by Druks. The people in the south
migrated to Bhutan and prospered. They were hard working and acquired many higher
standing jobs and were loyal to the kings, a lot of them joined the army.
The fourth king practised the policy of excluding the Southerners (the Bhutan
government calls Lotshampas) meaning people from the South was extended.
The government practised a policy of ‘one nation one people’ (Bird2012) to
safeguard the culture and tradition of Bhutan. The government propagated a practice of
exclusion against the southerners, their language was abolished from schools, they were
considered illegal immigrant. Southerners were forced to accept the dress, food habits of
 Patwa 50

Bhutan and when they opposed they were beaten, threatened, abused and thrown into jail.
This discrimination lead to social unrest among the southerners and people started to
protest against these injustices and atrocities. A reign of terror started, public protest
started and in 1990 the southern politicians started rallying against the government. Both
the opposite ethnic groups (Hindu and Buddhist) were on the verge of an impending civil
war. At last, people were forced to move out of the country sometime on gun point. The
mass exodus stared after the escape of the local leaders and intellectuals. They were
forced to sign the papers and transfer their property before leaving the land. Around
150000 people left Bhutan between 1990-1992. Thus ethnic cleansing became a reality
and it was the largest exodus since two world wars.
Bhutani Literature:
Bhutan has a rich oral tradition of telling stories and so there is no reading culture in
Bhutan, whatever material we get as literature is only the myths, history or the lives of
Bhutani kings. Bhutan failed to develop its own native literature in Dzongkha language
later the condition worsened with the influence of English. The Bhutanese are poised
between the dilemmas of tradition and modernity and is unable to produce anything
creative or imaginative. Bhutan has nothing of its own drenched in its own native hue
and colour. Phuntsho felt that a strong cultural identity is necessary for a strong literary
tradition. First the Bhutanese need to be confident in their native language then to
embrace English.
KunzangChoden was the first Bhutani writer to write in English.
The Circle of Karma (2005) is the harrowing tale of Tsomo; a Bhutanese woman living
during the mid 20th century. Her expedition to India is an interrogation into the shifting
boundaries of gender identity in modern Bhutan. She interrogates the patriarchal
oppression in the economic, political, social and sexual realms of a pre modern Bhutan.
Dawa: the story of a stray Dog in Bhutan (2007) delineates the story of Dawa an old
dog who sits outside the temple of ChandgangkhaIhakhang in Thimpu. He becomes an
embodiment of the people of Bhutan; his story exemplifies the gentle, hard working,
devout and friendly people of Bhutan. Dawa understands the native Dzongkaha language
and is determined to see the world. The determination of Dawa symbolises the
determination of the Bhutani people to be free of foreign influences.
 Patwa 51

Tales in colour and other stories (2009) is a collection of stories with rural settings as
their locale; the approaching urbanization brings physical and mental changes and lead to
tension between the old nurtured values and the present hovering new values, the
tradition and the modernity.
Folktales of Bhutan (1994) Kunzang Choden
It is an attempt to connect the past with the present by Kunzang Choden and to preserve
the rich culture and tradition .It is a collection of thirty-eight folk tales and is the first
attempt in English to give voice to the rich oral tradition of Bhutan and to imbibe the
feeling of nationality among the citizens.
Married to Bhutan (2011); a travelogue by Linda Leaming is a beautiful picture of a
country where Gross national Happiness decides the living standards of the people. It is
an account of the personal experiences of being living in Bhutan, as she learns the
language, the customs and her realizations of being on the path of happiness. She says-
“if enlightenment is possible anywhere, it is particularly possible here” ("Review of
Married to Bhutan"). She further adds we all need a little bit of Bhutan in our lives and
following our dreams will make us truly happy.

Home Shangrila: A novel from Bhutan (2014); a work by Lingchen Dorji, is a story of
dream and hope, magic and secrets, strength and courage, and a man’s quest for
happiness. It is the quest of Rinzin; a humble and sensitive boy from Bhutan for his
unknown future, the novel is set in multiple locales and is a tale of struggles of Rinzin.
His life in Scotland is full of experiences of humiliation resulting from the cultural
differences. The experiences in foreign land oozes out the immense love for his country
and culture engraved in his heart. The author discovers his identity- ‘I became more
Bhutanese by going to the West than I was when I was in Bhutan.’ (Review of Home
Shangrila2016)

The Kingdom at the Centre of the World (2013) is a collection of stories by Omair
Ahmed revolving around the myths, cultures, folklores and tradition of Bhutan and
establishing this Himalayan Nation with a glimpse into the history, Mythology and
contemporary politics of Bhutan. Ahmed’s deep love and respect for Bhutan make his
work provocative and appealing. It echoes not only the story of the Buddhist sage
Padmasambhava; who was regarded as a second Buddha but problems of Nepali refugees
and the personal quest of the land for sovereignity and international recognition.

The Hero with a Thousand Eyes: a Historical Novel (1995) by Karma Umra, it is the
story of a fictional minister working under various kings. It is the historical narrative of
Bhutan politics and culture from 1930-1970s.
 Patwa 52

The Heart of the Buddha (2010) by Elsie size is a tale of adventure, mystery and
romance where the two sisters observes physical and spiritual journey to find themselves
and their selves.

Conclusion- The above description establishes the fact that the colonial history of a
nation had a great impact on the cultural and literary tradition of that country. The South-
Asian countries once colonies of the British, are robed of their innate culture and the
writers try their level best to portray these losses and tries to regain the culture again
through an element of home and homeland orientation in their writings. The a term South
Asian Diaspora Writing designates a thematic similarity in the works, most of the
writings acquire a marginal terminology on account of the writer’s nativity (from a
colonized country), the community to which he/she belongs, and the female oriented
perspective of events and issues. All the countries included in this group differ
geographically, culturally, historically and so are the literary traditions and writings, style
and author’s perspective. Bhutan, Nepal and Maldives never experienced colonial rule
and so Nepali literature reflects the domestic themes, religion and spirituality. Samrat
Upadhyay writes about religion and spirituality in Arresting Gods in Kathmandu. Samrat
Upadhyay’s writings are rebellious in the sense as they present a bold image of the
female totally different from the meek, modest and docile female expected in Nepali
culture. Apart from these, Upadhyay posits Nepal in the midst of political turmoil,
cultural changes and dilemma, social changes etc and give voices to the subalterns, have
nots and down trodden to fulfill their hopes and aspirations. Manjushree Thapa; a mature
female writer encompasses in her canvas female voices, labor classes and the turbulent
history of Nepal. Bhutan on the other hand possesses a rich oral tradition of storytelling
and foreign influences of English devoid Bhutan of its ability to develop native literature,
though Bhutan never remained a colony under foreign rule yet the writings give voices to
the suppressed females against the patriarchal system, the feeling of patriotism to
overcome foreign influences etc all provide it a hegemonic hue against the powerful
centre. Apart from these, all the writings of Kunzang Choden reflect a female oriented
perspective, respect towards the old values, customs and culture etc. The rich oral
tradition of Bhutan finds a secure place in her writings. Dawa; the story of a stray Dog in
Bhutan foregrounds the devout, friendly and hardworking people of Bhutan. His
determination symbolizes the determination of the Bhutanese to overcome the foreign
influences. Linda Leaming- Married to Bhutan articulates the voices of the native,
expressing a beautiful picture of the country where Gross National Happiness defines the
standard of a person’s life. Home Shangrila by Lingchen Dorji expresses identity crisis in
a state of cultural dilemma. Bhutan writers thus created awareness among the people
towards patriotism, love for their native culture, language and people. The hopes and
aspirations are equally reflected in Bhutan Diaspora writings. Maldives; a country of
Islands, with Climatic hazards, meager migration and scanty of diaspora writings owes
much to the politicians, journalist and scholars for the literary wealth. Most of the
writings in English hover around the distant, alienated islands giving voice to the hopes,
fears, and aspirations of the citizen. Maldivian Literature too becomes marginal on
account of the homeland orientation i.e. portrayal of an island country developing and
struggling for basic facilities and its survival form environmental attacks. Maldivian
literature chiefly paints the island, its culture, the society and the climatic impacts and the
 Patwa 53

struggles of the natives. The above description establishes the fact that Nepalese ,
Bhutani and Maldivian literature grow marginal on account of the geographical,
cultural, political and climatic conditions and echoes the voices of the natives, the have-
nots and the women who experience gender based inequalities on account of the
patriarchal society. Other countries like- India, Pakistan, Srilanka, Bangladesh and
Afghanistan have produced multiple writers of international acclaim. Indian diaspora
writing has become famous and it has become a new genre of post colonial times. Indian
diaspora developed from slave to brain drain. The Indian writers time and again delineate
India; its problems with an objective perception. Bharati Mukherjee expresses her
feminine concerns in diaspora. Her protagonists become double marginalized on account
of their gender differences and culture shock they administer in foreign land. Shauna
singh Baldwin is sincerely bothered about the condition of woman in a patriarchal
society. Jhuma Lahiri's concerns are limited to the immigrant experiences of Indians in
America. Anjana Appachana is an Indian diaspora writer concerned with the condition of
middle class women, identity crisis in the Indian society. Anita Nair; an Indian English
writer becomes diasporic on account of the delineation of the housewife and her shocking
experiences at in-law's house. Her novels all revolve around feminine problems, freedom
of decision, marriage and sex. Chitra Banerjee Divakarni; an Indian American delineates
the immigrant experiences of South-Asian. The Indian scenario, the identity crisis, the
generation gap and the dilemma woman experiences are all dealt by Divakarni in her
novels. Manjula Padmanabhan's prime concern is the presentation of women caught in
patriarchal dystopias experiencing identity crisis and the dilemma of survival. Anita Rao
Badami another Canadian author of South Asian origin deals with feminine concern
along with identity crisis, cultural shock and nostalgia of the past. V.S.Naipaul; a
Carribean writer of Indian origin posits diaspora paradigms- identity crisis, nostalgia,
ethnic dilemmas etc. some of his novels concentrate on India whereas others are a
nostalgia of the past time. His prime concerns are identity crisis and dilemma of
belonging. Kamala Markandaya writes about the cultural clash, the ideological clash
between the East and the West, Indian and British culture. Anita Desai; an English writer
of Indian origin gives voice to the fears, frustrations and dilemmas of women in
adaptation amidst a psychologically alienated world. Bangladesh; a country born out of
Pakistan, basically observes a labour diaspora. The diaspora writers are mostly woman-
Monica Ali, Tehmina Anam and Neamat Iman are famous. Monica Ali and Tehmina
Anam deal with Bangladesh diaspora and people back home. Ali's Brick Lane becomes a
narrative of identity creation. Tehmina Anam delves deep into the homeland issues and
her The Good Muslim posits the inevitable clash between the religious orthodoxy and the
rational outlook of the secular. As a diaspora writer Anam concentrates upon home,
homeland orientation and immigrant experiences in her works. Her characters portray
sense of divided loyalties and are tormented with the angst of displacement and the clash
of culture.

Every diaspora writer is consciously aware of the burning issues, cultural and political
scenario of his/her homeland. The whole scenario of the South-Asian countries are
identical on account of the British colonization, and so the same theme of marginality,
homeland orientation, identity crisis, atrocities on women, nostalgia, ethnic dilemmas,
immigrant experiences run through the South-Asian diaspora writings. Indian Diaspora
 Patwa 54

writing occupies an eminent place in the literary arena of the world. Diaspora literature
generally emanates from the pen of one who has directly been cut off from his roots and
he feels the enigma of losing homeland, suffer the pangs of alienation and nostalgia or the
product of the intellectual brain of the descendants of an exilic community whose
forefathers were once displaced forcefully from their native land. This inevitable fact
applies equally on all diaspora writings devoid of nation, language and community
perspective. Diaspora becomes marginal both in their homeland as well as land of desire
(adopted land). Diaspora literature is generally written by intellectuals who were well
acquainted with the homeland society, political, economical, cultural scenario, policies,
community, and culture and were part of brain drain diaspora.

“Diaspora literature helps to clarify issues which may not be so readily dealt with through
any other medium” (Cauchi2015). The first and the second generation diaspora writing
differ on account of the homeland orientation and the thematic content. The first
generation diaspora posits the exact portrayal of homeland, their suspicion, anxiety,
dilemmas, the characters and culture portrayed are of the writer’s community along with
a cursory glance over the history and conditions of migration.

The second generation diaspora either paints the picture of homeland twice removed from
reality or presents the image of their adopted land. Their writings give voice to the
dilemmas, biases, enigmas and anxiety. In both the cases homeland orientation is a
common theme. South Asian Diaspora literature encompasses countries such as India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Maldives. The literature of these
countries are marginal on account of their colonization by British Empire. Diaspora
literature of these countries reflects minority concerns and gives voice to the down
trodden, women, subaltern, home and abroad. Marginal literature reflects the humiliation
as haves and have-nots, gender experiences, racial discrimination. Changes in
demography, caste, religion and region make one marginal. Power operates through
hegemony to make one central and marginal. Marginal voices or the subaltern voices
echoes in a marginal locale in diaspora literature. South Asian diaspora literature echoes
the voices of humiliation, the have-nots face, the gender inequalities and differences in a
patriarchal society and racial discrimination at home and abroad. One becomes marginal
on account of the changes in demography, caste, religion and region.

In this era of globalization when all arts and culture is colored in a global hue,
marginal literature establishes itself as a separate genre and foregrounds the problems of
the down trodden, marginal. “The marginal cultures which flourish away from the main
stream were called subaltern by Italian Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci. (Ishalkar,
Umesh and Swati Shinde 2009). Generally Tribal literature, folk literature, Dalit
literature, women literature form the major part of subaltern literature. Subaltern
literature commonly concentrated on the study of peasant and tribal uprising in south
asia. It does not foreground the class struggle between the rich and the poor, not like
Marxist literature, but it portrays the struggle between the caste viewed from the
perspective of lower caste, the have-nots, women, and the minority. Subaltern literature
becomes authentic when written by one who has experienced the humiliation of being a
subaltern. Arvind Adiga presents a rooster coop in his White Tiger which becomes a base
 Patwa 55

for the exploitation of the poor and subaltern. It is generally the strategy of the centre to
rule the other and the subalterns are oriented in such as way that they accept the coop as
something natural and significant for them. The coop is guided from inside. Spivak in her
Can the Subaltern Speak, asserts the idea that the west uses the strategy of “epistemic
violence” (Weselby2014) to create a subordinate other, presents it as uncivilized and
barbarian and thus creates an artificial need to civilize the barbarian. In this process, the
colonial power affects the consciousness of the subalterns and legalizes the cultural
supremacy of the west. This epistemic violence authenticates the image of the west as
“sublime, civilized, modern, and superior” (Bernasconi55). Subalterns depend on the
dominat authority for the delegation and authentication of their basic rights, and this
status commodifies their identity. Subalterns become subalterns by rejecting the agency
(activity to revolt), Balram in The White Tiger assumes that savaging is the only way to
break subalternity. South Asian Diaspora literature either looks back towards home or
also speaks about the condition of the peasants, laborers, and women etc marginal in the
society. Apart from these immigrants in hostland are also considered marginals and
South-Asian diaspora literature is replete with diaspora experience of the immigrants.
Identity crisis, nostalgia, alienation etc are common themes associated with South Asian
diaspora literature. Rahul.K.Gairale (2002) describes that subaltern identity is generally a
reflexive gift. It oscillates between the use value and the exchange value according to the
circumstances, wherein the use value connects one to his/her homeland and the exchange
value is the retort one uses against exploitation. Balram sheds his use value as a driver
and aspire to become an entrepreneur. Exchange value is an arbitrary and temporary
position where one comes back to use value. The relation between the subaltern and the
dominant authority is vertical where the dominant authority is in an advantageous
position to violate the rights of the subaltern. Antonio Gramsci: the Italian Marxist
thinker describes subalterns are those marginal cultures which are away from the main
stream of the society. Gramsci used the term subaltern for an inferior rank and it
generally includes- peasant, worker and other groups denied access to hegemonic power.
He believed that the history of subaltern classes was just as complex as the history of
dominant classes, wherein the latter is pronounced as official history. The history of the
subalterns is fragmented and episodic. South Asian Diaspora literature thus owes its
uniqueness to its marginal and subliminal character on account of being the product of a
Colonized continent whose reputation and recognition was eclipsed by the British and
foreign invasion.
 Patwa 56

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