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ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2018-2019)

M.H.I.-1
Ancient and Medieval Societies
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Note: Attempt any five questions. The assignment is divided into two Sections ‘A’ and ‘B’. You have
to attempt at least two questions from each section in about 500 words each. All questions
carry equal marks.
SECTION – A
Q. 2. Give a detailed account of development of writing and method of communications in Bronze Age
societies.
Ans. The civilizations of Bronze Age were marked by settled agriculture and emergence of towns. This gave
impetus to copper and bronze technologies. As society was not much stratified, the emerging towns took the shape of
small city-states. The settled agriculture, domestication of animals produced ample food and surplus to support
groups of skilled metal workers and construction of city walls. They felt the need of developing communications
among themselves, with neighbouring settlements and for trade with far-off places. This led to emergence of writing
in these civilizations.
Writing
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols known
as a writing system. In a particular language graphemes, or set of visibly recognizable signs, stands for phonemes, or
coherent pattern of sounds, that hold meaning.
Writing is a sort of technology. It is so easy today that a child can start practicing it with pen and paper. But it was
not so earlier because it involved drawing picture signs and there were hundreds of signs that had to be learnt. It was
an adult job.
In all the civilizations except the Mesopotamian, the writing system was logographic, with one sign representing
one word relating to a concept or quality or thing. It included the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians, Egyptian
hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, and the Harappan hieroglyphs or sign writing. The Chinese script likely developed
independently of the Middle Eastern scripts around 1600 B.C.
The early methods of writing have generally not survived. In Mesopotamia, about 2600 B.C. cuneiform began to
represent syllables of the Sumerian language. Finally, cuneiform writing turned into a general purpose system for
logograms, syllables, and numbers. But by 2000 B.C. the public language changed to Akkadian, and in the process of
adaptation to the new language, the script became almost fully syllabic, with one sign representing one syllable.
When the Harappan civilization and its cities came to an end, the Indus script too died out. It could be compared
to the end of the scripts of the Minoans of Crete when the Minoan civilization ceased to exist. Among the all ancient
scripts only the Chinese script continues until today but it has undergone a lot of modification. In the ancient China,
there was an inimitable tradition of taking oracles from turtle shells, finding of these shells has helped archaeologists
in many ways but when the tradition elapsed, the signs related with this ritual procedure were also forgotten.

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 Ancient Egyptians had started to use other hieroglyphs in a specific way. The features that are visually well
arranged about heavenly bodies, natural facts, animals and plants, God, humans, residences and households were
used for 3000 years for recording. Hieroglyphs refer to the characters made by graphical figures, be it animals,
objects, or concepts that concern the religions Gods. Ancient Greeks called this system hieroglyphs, literally meaning
“sacred writings” because it was mainly used by religious functionaries who doubled as government bureaucrats.
In Egypt hieroglyphs were mainly written on papyrus paper or on pyramids. Today, many believe that this form of
writing was first to be created, but actually it was cunieform. Hieroglyphics originated from Sumer in Mesopotamia.
Before the creation of writing on pyramids they were used for recording agricultural products and registering births,
rather like a census. The Egyptian hieroglyphic or formal writing had exceptional aesthetic properties. Equipped with
cakes of soot and red ochre, the scribe was an artist using reed pens, thin and thick brushes, and pointed erasers.
Signs were closely spaced and their forms standardized. In some cases, writing blends into what we would call relief
or painting. Sometimes hieroglyphic writing occurred together with painting on a temple or tomb wall, as an adjunct to
art. It is the cursive form that changed over time, whereas the formal and aesthetic hieroglyphic script changed little.
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among the educated
elite of scribes. Only people from certain background were allowed to become scribes, in the service of temple,
pharisaic and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but as writing developed and
became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic
(priestly) and demotic (popular) scripts. These variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus.
Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed alongside the other forms, especially in monumental and
other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek.
Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule and after Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt, during
the ensuing Macedonian and Roman periods. In the changed political situation, some misconstruction among Greek
and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to
distinguish ‘true Egyptians’ from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a
foreign culture on its own terms which characterized Greco-Roman approaches to Egyptian culture generally. Having
learned that hieroglyphs were sacred writing, Greco-Roman authors imagined the complex but rational system as an
allegorical, even magical, system transmitting secret, mystical knowledge. However, Egypt maintained this system till
about the fourth century AD. But by then lot of changes had already taken place. By the 4th century, few Egyptians
were capable of reading hieroglyphs, and the myth of allegorical hieroglyphs was ascendant. Monumental use of
hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in AD 391 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius-I.
Among many ancient societies, writing held a extremely special and important role. Often writing is so revered
that myths and deities were drawn up to explain its divine origin. In ancient Egypt, for example, the invention of
writing is attributed to the god Thoth (Dhwty in Egyptian), who was not only the scribe and historian of the gods but
also kept the calendar and invented art and science. In Mesopotamia, among the Sumerians the god Enlil was the
creator of writing. Later during Assyrian, and Babylonian periods, the God Nabu was credited as the inventor of
writing and scribe of the gods. And similar to Thoth, Mesopotamian scribal Gods also exhibit the power of creation via
divine speech.
In China, the invention of writing was not attributed to a deity but instead to a ancient sage named Ts’ang Chieh,
who was a minister in the court of the legendary Huang Ti (Yellow Emperor). While not divine, this invention occurred
in mythological times, and served as a communication tool between heaven (realm of gods and ancestors) and earth
(realm of humans), as demonstrated by the inscribed oracle bones used for divination during historical times. Further,
writing was a regarded as a treasure of the past experience of society and knowledge of the past could guide the later
rulers.
Non-verbal Communication
While both the oral and written communications are verbal as they use words or language, there is another
medium of communication which is the use of images. The images generally entail visual communication, though in
some of the images one can find the use of both visual and verbal communication. As is the case with a tomb painting
of 1400 B.C. that depicts the inspection of cattle, and also has two rows of writing that comments on the illustration.
However, such findings of simultaneous use of visual and verbal communication are rare. Generally, all non-verbal
depictions are only visual whether they are found in caves, or temples or tombs.

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 The famous Narmer Palette has a complex combination of verbal and non-verbal communication. It was found in
Hierakonpolis, near a group of ritual artifacts. Dating about the 31st century B.C. of the Egyptian Archaic Period, it
is one of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. The Narmer Palette, a shield-shaped slab of siltstone gray
schist some 63 centimeters long, is in the shape of a cosmetic palette, a type of object made by Egyptians for at least
10 centuries before the date of the Narmer palette. What makes this particular palette of importance is that it is larger
than other palettes and elaborately carved on both sides with images and words.
The palette depicts king Narmer who unified the Upper and Lower Egypt. In addition to the carvings illustrating
Narmer’s battles, the images include symbols of a cattle cult and drawings that are typical of Egyptian forms of
decoration. On both sides of the plate there are the bovine heads thought to represent the cow goddess Bat. Below
that on the obverse side is what appears to be a procession, with Narmer depicted at almost the full height of the
register shown wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt holding a mace and a flail, two traditional symbols of
kingship, behind him is his sandal bearer. Immediately in front of the pharaoh is a long-haired man, before this man
there are four standard bearers, holding aloft an animal skin, a dog, and two falcons. At the far-right of this scene are
ten corpses, possibly the victims of Narmer’s conquest. A central cavity is formed by the intertwining serpent necks
of two animals. These animals have been considered an additional symbol for the unification of Egypt.
On the reverse side, a large picture in the centre of the palette depicts Narmer wearing the White Crown of
Upper Egypt whose symbol was the flowering lotus, and wielding a mace. To his left is a man bearing the king’s
sandals, again flanked by a rosette symbol. To the right of the king is a kneeling prisoner, who is about to be struck by
the king. Above the prisoner is a falcon, representing Horus, perched above a set of papyrus flowers, the symbol of
Lower Egypt.
It is interesting to see that how the king was depicted in Mesopotamian sculpture. Naram Sin of Akkad was one
of the most militarily successful kings of the third millenium B.C. Naram Sin’s famous victory stele depicts him as a
god-king climbing a mountain above his soldiers and enemies. About six and half feet tall stele made from pink
sandstone reveals the pride, glory and divinity of Naram Sin. This may be the first instance in history when a king was
depicted as a God. More than two dozen statues of another Mesopotamian king Gudia have been found and most of
them bear an inscribed dedication explaining to which god it was dedicated. Gudea is either sitting or standing,
normally wearing a close fitting kaunakes and a long tasseled dress.
The images and writing of the Harappan civilization are found on the carved stone seals which carry an image
under a line of script. The images found are animals or hybrid/mythical creatures. There are comparatively few
“scenes” depicting action. Though the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered, it was found through computer
analysis that the writing on seals has no correlation with the image.
Only the statues of males were ever carved in the Harappan civilization. One such statue is of “Priest King” from
Mohenjo-daro. It has ribbon headband with circular inlay ornament on the forehead and similar but smaller ornament
on the right upper arm. The two ends of the fillet fall along the back and though the hair is carefully combed towards
the back of the head, no bun is present. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double circle
and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicate
they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel.
Q. 3. What do you understand by Nomadic Empire? Discuss the pattern of Nomadic migration before
the 15th Century.
Ans. The ‘nomadism’ and ‘pastoral nomadism’ are not synonymous. While the later engaged in cattle rearing and
tending, the former did not have any livestock. It was the pastoral nomads who played a major role in the creation of
the empires on the Eurasian steppe. Pastoral nomads can be described as the people who instead of bringing fodder
to their herds, keep moving year round to pasture for providing food to their herds.
The size of such nomadic groups, the composition and size of their herds, the distance covered by them are
determined to a large extent by the ecology of their particular region. Most of them, particularly in Eurasia, also
practiced a little bit of agriculture. They did not have sedentary agro-pastoral societal make up, the economy of these
nomadic groups was based on pastoralism. This formed the basis of emergence of powerful steppe empires in
Eurasia.
As ‘nomadism’ and ‘pastoral nomadism’ are not synonymous, likewise ‘kingdom’ and ‘empire’ are not synonyms.
While kingdoms can be called centralized states, empires consist of a core and peripheral territories with different
local cultures. The control exercised from the core ensures flow of resources to it from the peripheries. The structure

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of an empire is not fixed and it is this aspect that concerns its stability and durability both. The structural consolidation
led to the relative stability of the Persian Empire, Roman Empire, among others, and the structural problems were the
very reasons of failure of such empires as created by Alexander the Great and Attila the Hun.
The Eurasian steppe lies further south of the Taiga and North of harsh deserts. This vast expanse of grass rooted
in fertile humus soil stretches from the Hungarian plains in the west of the Carpethian mountains to the Manchurian
lands in the east of the Khingan range. Thus, the steppe is located across the heartland of Eurasia to the littoral states
at both the ends.
While in the north the Eurasian steppe is bounded by the taiga coniferous forests of Russia and Siberia, there are
vast desert regions in the south. The grassland becomes increasingly dry as one moves south. The steppe is home to
diverse plants and animals, but not appropriate to agriculture, barring some scattered pockets.
Nomadic Migrations
The Eurasian steppe was inhabited by pastoral communities. Due to scarcity of rainfall settled agriculture was
not feasible. A distinctive feature of communities of Eurasian steppe was the use of horses. The horse was first
domesticated there some 6000 years ago, in the beginning it was to used as a source of food and later as draft animal
to pull carts. Some 4000-3000 years ago the people began herding cattle from horseback and fight as archers. Due to
various ecological factors, now and then nomads were forced to migrate in search of new pastures and generally the
thrust of migration was westward as more fertile and prosperous regions lied in that direction.
Migratory waves from Central Asian regions occurred from time to time and between 1700 and 1500 B.C., if not
earlier, Hittites and Kassites had moved to Asia Minor; Aryans to India and Iran and the Hurrians and Hyksos went
to the Levant and Egypt. Another major migratory wave originated around 1000 B.C. While Phoenicians, Arameans
and Dorians moved into the Levant and Greece, Indo-Europeans moved eastward and later came to be known as
Tocharians of the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang. Around a thousand years later, migratory movement from Central Asian
region moved toward China.
Around 500 A.D., migration took place in many directions. While Ephtalites moved into India, Goths and Huns
into Europe. Before 1000 A.D., the Turks of the Altai near Mongolia, moved into Anatolia which turned out to be
Turkish and Turkey later. Most recent Mongol migrations and invasions took place in the 13th and 14th century led by
Ghingiz Khan and his successor Tamerlane. The vast empire that they established could not last long but influenced
the course of history in many parts of the east, south and west Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.
Q. 5. Write short notes on any two of the following in 250 words each:
(ii) Religion in Pre-modern China
Ans. The practice of religion in China is a moot question among scholars of history and sociology. However, it
can be asserted that the concept of religion as practiced in various other parts of the world was alien to pre-modern
China. It can be regarded as a consequence of geographical realities that various organised religions did not reach
China in the way they were disseminated in other regions of the world. There were no institutions devoted to a
particular faith with its own hierarchy and priesthood. Though Buddhism was an exception but it too was not propagated
as an organised creed.
Confucianism
But, it should not mean that there was no belief system prevalent in China. In fact, the teachings of Confucius
formed the backbone of the moral and ethical beliefs and the traditions associated with Confucianism were deep-
rooted in the people, even as Confucianism did not address the issues of cosmology and metaphysics. It was basically
related to issues of society and individual and those of statecraft.
Confucian ideology has been the bedrock of the Chinese society. Confucius was a Chinese thinker in 6th and 5th
centuries B.C. He thought that the emperor must be assisted by learned scholars in administration. The scholar-
official should be informed with values of harmony, humanity and sincerity. Confucius advocated the importance of
morality in statecraft. His prescriptions were notdogmatic or unchangeable. Actually, his ideas gained ground gradually
after four centuries of his death and started influencing the policies of the state.
Religious Traditions Associated with Confucianism
The period of anarchy and disorder which followed the fall of Chou rulers, continued for more than two centuries.
The attempt of Shih Huang-hi, the founder of the Chin Empire, to rule in a legalist manner with stern state and
inflexible laws, failed miserably and gave the lessons to all future rulers about the course of action which must be
avoided. The Han rulers tried to start afresh and the way was paved for adoption of Confucian traditions. Emperors

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 of Han dynasty found the ideas of the great thinker appealing. They put them in practice in a very gradual manner. It
took many generations for emergence and acceptance of scholar-official system to succeed and get a hierarchical
order. Evolved, changed and modified by later thinkers and the experience of the working of the state. It was around
a thousand years after his death that his teachings formed the basis of examinations for selection of scholar-officials.
With further passage of time learning and mastering Confucian teachings became compulsory for literati. The
institution of scholar-official became the backbone of the imperial system. So much so, that the rise and fall of the
dynasties in China did not affect the society very much. The state apparatus of scholar-official ensured the continuation
of the system. There was a cycle of emergence, rise and fall of the dynasties but the institutions of the state continued
unabated.
Taoism and Buddhism
Along with Confucianism, Taoism too had great impact on Chinese society. Broadly speaking, Taoism was quite
contrary to the teachings of Confucius. While the later was not concerned about supernatural aspects like existence
of God or life after death, etc. Taoism is a mystical philosophy which is deeply concerned with issues related to the
nature and spontaneity. Taoism is based on the teachings of Lao Zi who was a contemporary of Confucius. In the
course of its evolution Taoism preached about numerous gods and had priests who propagated it among the masses.
Despite the fact that Taoism could not have mass following but it deeply impressed the literati, artists and poets, etc.
Unlike Taoism Buddhism of Mahayana variety gradually took an organised form. It entered in China from India
in the 1st century A.D. and spread slowly but steadily. During the periods of political instability and social turmoil, such
as the one which followed the downfall of Han dynasty, the Buddhist sanghas proliferated and made their contribution
in providing succour to the masses. In the period from 5th to 8th centuries Buddhist sanghas were given state
patronage and turn out to be very influential. But its sway could not last for long and when the imperial system was
reinstated, the teachings of Confucianism regained their official position.
Some General Characteristics of Religion in China
Besides the teachings of Confucius, the Chinese people had widespread beliefs in Gods, Goddesses and spirits as
is evident from numerous temples and shrines in various provinces of China. The main features of religion in China
included:
(a) The practice and concept of religion was very eclectic. Various religious traditions co-existed and followed
by people, even if they were mutually exclusive. For instance, a state administrator was Confucian in office
and a Taoist in personal life.
(b) The State was governed by teachings of Confucius but it had no qualms with other religions or faiths.
Whenever followers of any particular faith tried to become a rival center of power, they were persecuted and
crushed, but no attempt to exterminate them or reconvert their followers was ever made.
(c) The ethical aspect of Chinese deities was limited to their power to help or damage an individual or the society.
This was the precise reason of the worship of many Gods and Goddesses.
(iii) Maya Civilization
Ans. The Maya civilization of central Americas was highly developed and widespread. Its region included modern-
day Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador and Central Mexico. It flourished from 500 B.C. to around 1000 A.D., out of
which the period from 300-900 A.D. is regarded as Classical Period. Many centres of the Maya culture reached their
highest state of development during the Classic period and continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the
arrival of the Europeans, mainly Spanish. They were the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies of
their time.
Unlike many European or Asian civilizations, the Maya civilization did not evolved in the form of any empires. A
typical Classic Maya polity was a small hierarchical state comprising no more than a capital city with its neighbourhood
and several lesser towns. Its identity was that of a political unit associated with a particular ruling dynasty. They
controlled large territories and extended patronage over smaller polities as is evident by the use of the emblems or
glyphs, made of sculptured characters. The centres of the Maya culture were scattered over a vast region whose
length was around 1000 km. but they were connected with each other, often by causeways.
Settlements and Architecture
The settlements and architecture of major centres of Maya civilization are inimitable as they have their own
distinctive style. The well-known centres of the Maya civilization were Tikal, Palenque, Copán and Calakmul. Nearly
all of them witnessed large-scale construction and urbanization during the Classical Period. The Early Classic settlement

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distribution in the Northern Maya lowlands is not as clearly known as the southern zone, but the expanses include a
number of population centres like Dos Pilas, Bonampak, Altun Ha, and Uaxactun.
Major building characteristics included multi-storey palaces with scores of rooms arranged around quadrangular
courtyards and small temples sitting over towering pyramids. The Maya cities were spread throughout the varied
geography of Central America, the Maya architecture tended to integrate a great degree of natural features, and their
cities were built as dictated by the topography of each independent location. However, some semblance of order, as
required in any large city, still prevailed.
A predetermined axis was typically established in a cardinal direction. Depending on the location of natural
resources such as fresh-water wells, or wells (cenotes) the city grew by using cause ways to connect great plazas
with the numerous platforms that created the sub-structure for nearly all the Maya buildings. As more structures
were added and existing structures re-built or remodeled, the great the Maya cities seemed to take on an almost
random identity that contrasted sharply with other settlements.
The Maya urban design could easily be described as the division of space by great monuments and causeways.
Open public plazas were the gathering places for people and the focus of urban design, while interior space was
entirely secondary. None of the Classic Maya cities shows evidence of economic specialization and commerce
comparable to Mexican Tenochtitlan. Instead, the Maya cities could be seen as enormous royal households, the
locales of the administrative and ritual activities of the royal court. They were the places where privileged nobles
could approach the holy ruler, where aesthetic values of the high culture were formulated and disseminated, where
aesthetic items were consumed. They were the self-proclaimed centers and the sources of social, moral and cosmic
order.
The heart of the Maya cities was large plazas surrounded by the most important governmental and religious
buildings, such as the royal acropolis, great pyramid temples and occasionally ball-courts. Though city layouts evolved
as nature dictated, careful attention was placed on the directional orientation of temples and observatories so that they
were constructed in accordance with the Maya interpretation of the orbits of the heavenly bodies. Immediately
outside of this ritual centre were the structures of lesser nobles, smaller temples, and individual shrines; the less
sacred and less important structures had a greater degree of privacy. Outside of the constantly evolving urban core
were the more modest homes of the common people.
An elementary aspect of the great Maya structures is their use of locally available building material and abundant
manpower. All stone for the Maya structures appears to have been taken from local quarries. Also notable throughout
the Maya architecture is the corbel arch, which allowed for more open-aired entrances. The corbelled arch improved
upon pier/post and lintel doorways by directing the weight off the lintel and onto the supporting posts.
Polity and Society
Ceremonial platforms were commonly limestone platforms of typically less than four metres in height where
public ceremonies and religious rites were performed. Palaces were large and often highly decorated, and usually sat
close to the centre of a city and housed the population’s elite. Large royal palace consisted of many small chambers
and typically at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed functionality
required of a residence, as well as the decoration required in accordance with the stature of their inhabitants.
A typical Classic Maya polity was a small hierarchical state. The kingdoms of the Maya period were usually no
more than a capital city with its neighbourhood and several lesser towns, although there were greater kingdoms,
which controlled larger territories and extended patronage over smaller polities. Each kingdom had a name that did
not necessarily correspond to any locality within its territory. Its identity was that of a political unit associated with a
particular ruling dynasty. The Mayan city-state was headed by halach uinic or the “real man”. The post was
hereditary and primogeniture or the eldest son having exclusive right of inheritance. It is evident that halach uinic
was not an elective or selective post and can be compared to a tribal chief or a king. Halach uinic is also referred to
as religious authority, in the sense that he had a leading role in major public rituals. In the Classic Period, the rituals of
kingship became the more elaborate rituals.
The administration of city-states was headed by ahau. also known as batabob, who were often a near relative
of halach uinic. A batabob was head of his area but local town council, which could reject his decisions. The council
was composed of chiefs of various areas of the town and its members were known as ah cuch cabob. The batabobs
used to settle disputes. He ensured social order in his area and he was assisted by many officials. Thus, halach uinic

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was like a king and batabobs were like provincial governors. But, in times of war, actual command was exercised by
the captain of the army, called nacom. The Maya used to engage in wars and capture slaves who were employed for
various tasks, one of them was sacrifice to propitiate the gods.
While land was communally owned, common people were given plots to cultivate by batabobs and his officials.
Despite being a high rainfall area, availability of water was scarce barring the land situated near the rivers or streams.
Hence, rain God Chac as well as Yum Kaax, the corn God, associated with good harvest were widely worshiped.
Being an agriculturally intensive society every activity related to agriculture was done with rituals as and when
directed by the priests. The upper echelon of the priesthood was a repository of learning, also in the field of history
and genealogical knowledge. The most general word for priest was ahkin. The High priest used to teach how to
compute years, months, days, days for festivals and rituals. But the teaching was restricted to the nobles and the
priests’ sons, common people were not entitled for learning.
The people of the Maya believed in a cyclical nature of time. The rituals and ceremonies were very closely
associated with celestial and terrestrial cycles which they observed and inscribed as separate calendars. The Maya
priest had the job of interpreting these cycles and giving a prophetic outlook on the future or past based on the number
linked to their calendars. They also had to determine if the heavens were propitious for performing certain religious
ceremonies. To a great extent Maya religious traditions were based on their belief that the cosmos had three major
planes, the Earth, the underworld beneath and the heavens above. The night sky was considered a window showing
all supernatural doings. The Maya configured constellations of Gods and places, saw the unfolding of narratives in
their seasonal movements, and believed that the intersection of all possible worlds was in the night sky.
The Maya believed in many gods that were related with each other in numerous ways. There was a massive
array of supernatural characters in the Maya religious tradition, only some of which recur with regularity. Good and
evil traits were not permanent characteristics of the Maya gods because of their belief that based on cycles what
seems inappropriate during one season might come to pass in another. Knowing the past meant knowing the cyclical
influences that create the present, and by knowing the influences of the present one can see the cyclical influences of
the future. Among the many types of the Maya calendars which were maintained, the most sacred one had 260-day
cycle, while another one had 365-day cycle which approximated the solar year. The third calendar was based on
mythical beginning of the Maya era in 3111 B.C.
The centres of the Maya culture were basically agriculturist and majority of the people were peasants. Droughts
were common and peasants used to store food grains for rainy days. Weaving was also one of the main occupations
of the people and both men and women were engaged in this to make baskets, ropes and mats etc. Exchange of goods
and trade with other people was a regular activity. They also participated in long distance trade with many of the other
Central American cultures and had sea trade links with distant islands of the Caribbean Sea. Important trade goods
included salt, sea shells, jade and obsidian.
Why and how did the Maya Civilization Collapse?
It is a moot point that how the Maya civilization collapsed or decayed. Archaeological evidence, the studies of the
cemeteries of the Late Classic Period have revealed stunted growth, scurvy, anemia, and periodontal disease, which
indicate under-nourishment, and sequentially, famines. To prevail over adverse conditions and food shortages, the
people might have stepped up the use of the natural resources which in the end caused fall in the fertility of the soil
and aggravated the crisis. This led to agricultural collapse and environmental calamity.
As a matter of fact, the Mayan construction of buildings seems to have stopped after 9th century A.D. The exact
reason of the end is unknown. It might have been either an epidemic like malaria or yellow fever, or some natural
calamity like a prolong drought or earthquake or an invasion most probably by the Mexicans.
SECTION – B
Q. 9. Discuss the characteristic features of medieval towns. What was their relationship with rural
areas?
Ans. Pre-modern towns of Europe and Asia had their own individuality as they reflected unique social and
cultural attitudes of the society in which they existed. Different from the countryside the towns had diverse socio-
economic, political and cultural milieu. That is the reason of dissimilarity between the towns of Europe and Asia.
In western Europe, towns provided the foundation for capitalism to flourish. Urban trade drew agricultural production
towards the towns. The end of serfdom coincided with the increasing importance of liquid capital. The autonomy and
the comparative liberal communal structure of the urban centers allowed them to develop as an independent body in

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line with their own inclinations. While the conservative concept of freedom was limited to a privileged order, the
growth of middle class spread the idea of liberty and brought about gradual enfranchisement of the rural classes. In
this way the markets played a decisive role in the growth of towns and their influence on smaller rural estates was
very profound. The rural population was forced to migrate to towns by exploitative rural extortions. Most of the
medieval towns in the beginning were small only a few had 20,000 inhabitants. York only had some 11,000 and Bristol
9,500 inhabitants. In the 14th century only Italy and Flanders had towns having 40,000-50,000 habitants.
In Asia, medieval towns were not autonomous like they became in Europe. Towns in Islamic world could have
some autonomy only for a short while when the empires collapsed. The towns in Islamic world were much older and
bigger than the European towns. The towns represented essence of Islamic civilization. The towns were centers of
education, they had both the schools attached to the mosques and institutions of higher learning. They had a very firm
grip on the highly primitive peasantry in the surrounding rural areas.
The urban centres of medieval India were connected by sea and land routes to the cities of West, East and
Central Asia. The cities and towns in India were the centers of manufacturing and marketing, banking and commercial
activities. Smaller towns had limited role with regard to local commerce and local consumer needs. In Mughal period,
the cities were the centres of commerce and trade and storehouses of higher culture and learning. They were
symbols of Indo-Islamic ‘Great Traditions’ and transmitted these traditions to the entire society. Some big cities
became prosperous as they were centers of political and administrative activities. While Delhi and Agra were capital
cities of the empire, some other such as Patna, Dacca, Vijayanagar, Lahore, were provincial capitals. Some other like
Benaras, Nasik and Ajmer were centers of pilgrimage.
Most of the medieval towns both in Europe and Asia were enclosed by walls with ramparts. It defined the
borderlines of the town and provided protection against any attack. It generally had many gates with guards to
regulate the entry and keep away undesirable intruders. The ever-increasing size of the cities resulted in constantly
widening boundaries. New residential areas came up outside the old city walls and in some cases, subsequent expansion
again had a wall.
Though different parts of the town were marked for market, government offices and residential use, but due to
migrations from countryside the towns kept on expanding and requirements of residential and business areas kept
increasing. Usually, the central part of the city was hub of activities for business and official establishments. The
artisans and producers were often allotted land at the periphery of town.
In India, most of the towns had separate markets for various products such as grain, cloth, iron objects etc.
However, in many towns such divisions were not orderly, though in large commercial centres they continued. Different
areas inside the towns frequently drew their names from the main groups of inhabitants. In most of the towns there
were sarais for traders and travellers.
Relations of Towns With the Countryside
The urban centres and rural areas have always been dependent on each other. In some societies this inter-
dependence is very vivid, while in others efforts were made to uphold the divide. Though, walls of the towns in
medieval Europe were built for protection but they also had a symbolic meaning; they signified the boundary between
the two different cultures. In Islamic countries the divide was rather sharp, but there too town could not disregard or
exclude the countryside.
More often than not, the towns were always dependent on the countryside for their food supply and manpower.
Likewise, the surrounding areas of a town are dependent on it to sell their wares, to get employment by providing
various services and to fertilize their fields with refuse and rubbish from the town. Hence, the co-existence between
them is inevitable, except in the cases of few centres of long-distance trade such as Rome, Venice, Beizing, Istanbul,
Delhi and Mecca. While such big urban centres were few, there were countless small towns in Europe and qusbas
in North India which were more like a big villages. They had many features of the countryside and were known as
‘rural towns’.
There was another aspect linking the towns and the surrounding rural areas in the medieval period. Many big
landlourds and vine-growers had their house in the neighbouring towns and many wealthy men of towns had their
gardens, fields and orchards in adjoining rural areas. Further, there used to be a sizable section of migrant labourers
who would go to the countryside during the harvesting season and come back after harvesting work is completed.
This was widespread practice which continued even in the later medieval period.

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 Q. 10. Write short notes on any two of the following in 250 words each:
(i) Major scientific advances in medieval period
Ans. In medieval Europe the men of science were mostly interested in astronomy but many other disciplines too
emerged with the passage of time. As the scholars came out of Aristotelian method of logic and reasoning to construct
theories, significant advances became possible in numerous other disciplines such as engineering, chemistry, optics,
navigation, medicine and physiology.
Physics and Mechanics
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was one the foremost figures of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. His work
in physics or natural philosophy, astronomy, and the methodology of science continue to be relevant even today.
Galileo’s work can be divided in many parts such as physics, astronomy and scientific methodology. He is also known
for inventing the microscope, pioneering experimental science, advocating the relativity of motion, and creating
mathematical physics. He was first to see the moons of Jupiter and the mountains on the Moon. He determined the
parabolic path of projectiles and calculated the law of free fall on the basis of experiment. He defended and made
popular the Copernican system, his role in promoting the Copernican heliocentric model invited the ire of the clergy
that believed in geocentric model. Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church for “vehement suspicion of heresy.”
He was sentenced to formal imprisonment but it was commuted to house arrest which he remained under for the rest
of his life. His book Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World was banned.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) applied mathematical methods to conclude and formulate his hypotheses. Newton’s
discoveries were so numerous and varied that are enunciated in many consider him to be the father of modern
science. Newton developed an intense interest in mathematics and the laws of nature which are enunciated in his two
most famous works: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) and Opticks (1704). Newton is
renowned for defining the laws of gravity and planetary motion, known as Newton’s laws of motion. He worked out
the fundamentals of calculus, independently of German mathematician G.W. Leibniz, though this work went unpublished
for more than 30 years. His experiments passing sunlight through a prism led to the discovery of the heterogeneous,
corpuscular nature of white light and laid the foundation of physical optics. He built the first reflecting telescope in
1668.
Life Sciences
The role of Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius in enhancing the understanding of human anatomy can be
compared to trio of astronom–Copernicus, Tycho and Keplar. The same year, 1543, which saw the publication of
Copernicus book on heliocentric model, also witnessed publication of Vesalius’s ground-breaking work on human
anatomy On the Fabric of Human Body. Unfortunately, the similarity between Vesalius and radical astronomers did
not end here. Just as Galileo had to face the ire of Church for advocating heliocentric model of Copernicus, Vesalius
too had to face the furor caused by his book. Vesalius tried to give up research and accept a position as royal
physician to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (and, later, to his son Philip II of Spain). The Inquisition condemned
Vesalius to death for dissecting a human body, but his connections to royalty helped knock the sentence down to a
forced pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1564. On his return voyage his ship was damaged at sea and he died off the coast
of Greece.
Based on the dissection of human corpses and detailed studies done by Vesalius, his book was the most extensive
and accurate description of the human body that had ever been published. Before the publication of On the Fabric of
Human Body the teachings of human body were based on the works of Galen which were based on dissection of
animal copses. Comparing his findings with ancient texts led him to question the theories of Galen which at that time
were considered authoritative. With the passage of time Vesalius’s textbook of human anatomy replaced the earlier
Galenic book. Part of the credit for development of modern physiology also goes to English Doctor William Harvey
(1578-1657) who explained the circulation of blood in his book, On the Movement of Heart and Blood in Animals
(1628).
Chemistry and Others
In many other branches of science also big advances were made by scientists. An Irish scientist Robert Boyle
found ways to identify chemical composition of substances, Swedish chemist Carl Scheele and English chemist
Joseph Priestley, independently, discovered Oxygen. Antonne Lovoisier of France, who discovered the nature of
combustion and the role of Oxygen in combustion, propounded the Law of Conservation of matter. The Law of
Conservation stipulates that matter can neither be formed nor destroyed and in both physical and chemical reactions
the matter only alters its form.

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 The nature of magnetism was explored by the English Physician William Gilbert (1544-1603). In his book About
Magnates (1600) Gilbert proved that the Earth is an enormous magnet and its magnetic poles are located near the
north and south poles. Theory of magnetism propounded by Gilbert remained unchallenged until the 18th century when
the linkage between magnetism and electricity was discovered.
(iv) Textile production in medieval period.
Ans. The textile production is possibly the oldest expertise man learnt. The textile production was the most
widespread craft as clothes were produced for domestic consumption in all regions of the world. The requirement of
clothing for wearing was different in all parts of the world as it depended upon the climate of the regions and
accordingly diverse kinds of clothes were produced. In the medieval period woollen clothes of Europe were famous
for their quality, the Chinese were known for their silk, India and some other regions of Asia and Africa excelled in the
production of cotton textiles. Though cotton textiles were also produced in various other regions, but India was the
largest producer of cotton textiles and more than hundred types of fabrics were produced here.
Indian clothes were famous for their durable bright colours. Colouring of clothes was done by two methods: batik
and patola. In the former method wax was used to keep the design intact before dipping the fabric into the dye bath,
in the later method the yarn was dyed before weaving and weaving was done as per the requirements of the design.
Extensive trade in textiles contributed in the increase in quantities produced.
Egypt, Senegal and other regions of Africa also had quite advanced weaving industry. In fact, the Egypt was on
of the earliest regions of the world to develop the skill of the trade. The Central Asia and parts of Arabia were known
for their outstanding carpet weaving. In Arab world cotton was carded through a kind of bow and weaving was done
on a loom and for weaving wool the combing method was used. But, the carpet weaving was the noteworthy craft of
the Arab world as well as the Central Asian and Islamic region. The children in large number were employed in the
making of carpets. While children worked at great speed, a veteran supervisor monitored them and provided guidance
to get the desired design.
In China, production of silk was quite labour-intensive work and craftsmen were involved in various stages of
sericulture. However, the work of spinning and weaving were done by the women generally. In the medieval period
the silk production reached its zenith with large demand in Europe and other parts of world. The Chinese contact with
Iran led to numerous changes in woven patterns and designs. For instance, Sassanid motifs like pearl entrusting
medallions appeared in the T’ang patterns woven on the weft. Later, brocaded silk designed with threads made of
gold were produced during Sung dynasty.
The woollen textiles manufactured in Europe were known for their high quality and sheep were reared in many
parts of the continent. Though woollen textiles were produced in every region as people everywhere required them,
but big production centres were located in England and Italy. The manufacturing process consisted of many stages
and each of them underwent vast technological changes with time.
The best wool came from shearing the mature sheep. After shearing came cleaning, the wool was put into large
tubs containing hot alkaline water. 15-25% of the weight of the wool was removed by this process, as dirt and oils
were washed away. The wool was next rinsed in cool water and then set in the sun to dry. After drying, the wool was
put on tables and beaten with sticks to separate the fibres and remove any remaining dirt. The fine short-haired fibres
destined for cloth-making were then oiled or greased. This served to protect them from any damage which might
occur during the later harsher stages of production.
Combing and carding processes were done by women at home. The carding and combing was to remove imperfect
fibers and dirt, and also to straighten the threads. Combing is the older process, used for all types of wool fibres.
Carding was introduced later for the shorter fibres.
Spinning was the process of making long threads or yarns out of the combed or carded wool. Several methods
existed over time, but they all involved separating out fibres, twisting them together to make a long thread, and winding
the thread onto a spindle or bobbin. The process of spinning was eased by the introduction of the spinning wheel to
Europe in the 13th century. The process of weaving required a lot of strength to maneuver some of the looms. In
families making cloth for their own use, women typically did the spinning and men the weaving.
Fulling was an important stage as it improved the density of the material by shrinking loose fibres and causing
them to twist together, and it removed any remaining oils that might be present. The process had several steps. First
the cloth was scoured in water with a cleaning agent. The cloth was beaten and walked on to aid the cleaning
process. It was then rinsed in cool water and burling was done to remove any knots. Now the cloth was again put into

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hot water and walked upon, in order to remove wrinkles and untwist the fibres. At the end of fulling, the fibres were
more closely wound together, making for a stronger fabric. After another round of washing, the still wet cloth was
stretched to dry on tenters in fields. Tenters were wood frames with hooks on the ends. The loose threads of the cloth
were cut. As the cloth dried, it shrank. The cloth was not to be stretched too far on the tenters lest it weakened.
The dyeing of cloths was a specialized process in which Kermes was used to give red dye. This mineral was
imported from Asia Minor, Spain and Portugal. For blue dye, indigo was imported from India. Finally, the material was
brushed and folded. Any loose threads were then cut off by the shearer. The shearer was a specialist who took proper
care to ensure the look and feel of the final product.

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