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<l monopIqrDsutuv[q\w<nomoxyn.z^{|y}{v^~Dpk6€ n‚^{|Sq%x~<|
xN^{ƒD~:w<no„…z^{|Sq%}pk6€[xyno„€[v^~Dpk6€AqABCDEF
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G

ut v[q\w<nomoxynbz^{|y}{v^~Dpk6€[nˆ‡‰€2 †‹ŠfŒ v[q\w<nomoxynbp%~Dx‚wD{pkz^xyn Œ ~Dmono{|yv^nfv[q\w<xynoxynbz[q


z^{|Sq%}Žw<v^„y~:w%qn>nozT€[~€[~Dmonop%~zT€[v[q%xyno‘\q‚’xynoz^ “ynomon Œ v^~Dy”\q\w%q%xyn>xyn‹€[n.“ymono•–€Aq%p%~
nox‚€[{xy•n‹w<xy~—pIq%~—xN^no„y~:w<n˜v^~D™Sq%‘n˜nozT€[~DzT€[v[q%xyno”xyn"€[v^~Dpk6€[n Š p‚w%q%|yv[qI€[n ŠŒ v[q\w<nomoxyn
ŒnŸ{pk€[xN{^v^no~Dƒ‚pkq%6}–€[nq…Š }n ~DŒ ƒDv[q\ w<z^nomo{ xynv^š^~D{xSzT€[q%{¡v^n~Dpkw<6v^mo€[~n †œv^n ^› {€[p%zTw<~ no}~Dxy}–{qIpk€[n"{}–v^{•qIy€[nom‹”A€ApkqIno€[}ž

n ~
”\q%z^~ Œ noz^no}–q
v[q\w<nomoxyno}
Œ
z^{|y}{v^~Dpk6€[no}–q—nf~ xN^no}–q Œ v^no|yv^y¢{xyno}£€[•w † z^{|Sq%}pk6€[xyno}£€[v^~Dpk6€[no}–q Œ Œ
‡‰w<no|ynSl<monopkrN’ †¥¤ ~D“Sq%v Œ v^{ƒDmo{|yxyny”m¦q%xSq%p~ €Aq%p‚w<no}§v^{•ym‹€AqI€[no}–qfxSq Œ noz[q%mon6z^
¨^©©N¨ ª«A¬®­N¯F°˜«A¬o±‹²´³¶µ%·I¸®¹T¯Z²F¬ºy» «[³Z³´± ¼>²Z«A¬o±‹½A¾D¿ iÀXYM V˜@8XYÁਠ('Ä8ÅNÆÇ ¨ ehÅ8ÈIÆÇÉ\R^ÊFKHI]N@8XYÁ
¨ Èg'ÄÂ:Æ ¨ È:Ë'ÅÂ:_
Ì ¯FÍÏÎ.½AÐYÑ[³,«A¾DÑ!ÒI­\ÐY«[³T¯´³T¿ LNXZ@[?\M E HNMOQR^]:V"RTXYKJ\P:W^ƏOQR^]N@8V"J\P:WYHNMhWYXYKJ\P:W^ƐJ\?A@]:XZ@AW^Æ
L%KE KA?\MGÓ2WYRÆ:]:PNÔTM HI@NÆI]:PNE B2M HI@N_ Õ
Ö ×:Ø>Ù>Ú>Û*Ù ÜyÝkÞ.ßoÚ
Œ”m¦v^q%n ^xy{pkàDá}ƒD~<~Nu|yno‘xSnomq.q%^{}~ {v^nonopIz[qIq%€[xynS‘xynk{â1p%{{b~Dx~<|ˆã"€[q%noxy„ˆp%v^~%{ä•yn6m‹åD€Aq%qI‘A€ApqhzÇæh}–q%vTq%ç2yxN^xynop%} {mk ~D“.è®r~Dé †¥m ^š[› q%xN~:^wDno~D}–} q
n~D“k[q%z^xyn‹€[nÇpIq%p%~z^{ Œ ~Dxyn}~DƒDê|y~DpIq%•\qI€[nÇy• Œ ~D}~<¡z^mo~D¢{xy~DŒ ƒ!v[q%”yxSq%moxy~Dƒ
Œ v^~DlkƒDwDv[{ q%}–€[{q¶~Dv^ë!{}q Œ{ mo{ p%~Nìí^{z¡p%{~N}^no~}î~ z^…noz[qI”n‹€[€An qI€[{~:m wD^n{•t*N~D^y{”AnopIzTqˆ€Aq…wD{€[¡{}– Œq ~D•xSqIq%€[|yn nŸ† z^{ ~Ãw<v^mo~
no•xy{xSq%™yN^y¡{,”{zT€[~D} Œ ~N[q\w<m Œ ^n‹w%q%xN^ðŒ |yv^yƒD~Dƒñp%~Dv^n ^{xSqÏno†,•ï “yv^~N[qò|6w%qœ‡‰€2 †
√ ’no•v[q%•no}–qŸ•\q˜y|Sq%m ^{xy~DzT€*xy{pkno„ €[~<”\q%pIq˜p%~N^{z^ v^no|yv^y¢{xy{ v[q\w<nomoxy~D}
z^{2|y}{v^~Dpk6€[^{|yxy~DzT€Aq\w<xyno}îƒD{~D}{€[v^n ^z^pkno}Žp%~DxyzT€[v^yŒ p%‘n [q%}–q † Œ
ó q Œ ~<”noxN^{}~z[q€[{„yxyno”Ap%~D}ímo{}~D}œp%~N[qf¡{Ÿz^{Ÿp%~Dv^nozT€[n‹€[nD Œ vTwD~D}í|y~DpIq%•
Œ vT~DwDmono~Dxyƒh~D€[}õ{~D€[v^v^{{}–¡{q ƒ†'zTô €[qh mo{xN}–[q qb€^w<v^|ynS|Sq p%~Dz^noxkyzpk6€Aq Œ ~DxynošT€Aq\w%q^{|yxy~DzT€Aq\w%q%x π

ŒÇö<÷êøñùSúûüAýDþfÿ\ü Œ †  þÿ\ü 7

π 2 3
ϑ= 4 cos ϑ + 4 cos ϑ − 8 cos ϑ = 1
 ýD
þ • v^{m¦q%‘n ^{ sin x = sin (π − x) p%~N[qw<v^n ^{|yn•\qˆ“ynomo~p%~N^n x pIq%|Sqf^{
7

|y~D“yn‹w%q%}~ sin 3ϑ = sin 4ϑ † ï q%•w<n ^{}~monumon ^{w<,zT€[v[q%xkêp%~Dv^nozT€[{¡n


x v^{=m¦q%‘3ϑ n ^{
sin 3ϑ = sin (ϑ + 2ϑ) = sin ϑ cos 2ϑ + cos ϑ sin 2ϑ
n sin 2ϑ = 2 sin ϑ cos ϑ
|y~D“yn‹€[n¡{}~b^{|yxSq%p%~DzT€
sin 3ϑ = (cos 2ϑ + 2 cos2 ϑ) sin ϑ,
|y~Dph^{ |y{z^xSqzT€[v[q%xSqf^{|yxSq%pIq
sin 4ϑ = 2 sin 2ϑ cos 2ϑ = 4 sin ϑ cos ϑ cos 2ϑ.
t*~<|yn ^{mono}~mon~D“k^{hzT€[v[q%xy{hz[q sin ϑ
np%~Dv^nozT€[no}~¶mon
cos 2ϑ = cos2 ϑ − sin2 ϑ = 2 cos2 ϑ − 1
|y~D“yn‹€[n>¡{}~¢{m ^{xk…v^{m¦q%‘n ^ 4 cos ϑ − 1 = 4 cos ϑ(2 cos ϑ − 1) † 2
 2

Ÿ ö Nö<÷žùSú*ûüAýDþ*ÿ\ü ABCDEF G  þ


  :ü  ü   ý  \þ   ý    !"
k 
 #  ÿ\ü  þ R \$
þ   ü  %"´ü  & 
' ý  O ( ý  ÿ\ü P     
%"´üý  þ )Aü+*,#‚ýDþ
þ U  V "     
%"Zþ  -  þ AB  OP   þdÿ\ü |U V | = R   *  √

  ÿ\ü '  /þ . |U V | ÿ\ü     


![þ  0ÿ  1ü "  þ !AüÇý Iþ  þ Z2
 þ  \þ   *3ý   !"
2
BC     2
 
k
4 
    ýDþ
› €[v^~Dpk6€[ 4OU V ^{ ^U OV Š Šn
= R q ~ˆp%~Dz^noxkyz^~:wD~D}î€[{~Dv^{}w<v^n ^{|yn
ŠyŒ Œ
= 2ϑ |OU | = R cos ϑ |OV |
2
 2  
R 2 2 R
|U V | = + (R cos ϑ) − 2 (R cos ϑ) cos 2ϑ =
2 2
R2 R2
(1 + 4 cos2 ϑ − 4 cos ϑ(2 cos2 ϑ − 1)) = .
5bw<|N^{ z^}~noz^p%~Dv^nozT€[nomonÇâ1{}ðr|SqÕ\q%pkm ^y”no}~!|Sqˆ^{ •\q%ƒDv[q%|Sq!Ï|yv^yƒD~D}
4 2
v^{|y^{|yxSq%pIq76 † 
8 Ý6Ù:9"Ý;yÞ.ß=<?>A@kÞB>%Ø>ß=CIÚ1Ù E
8 D Ý FG9"ÝkÞ.Ù>Û:HI;> J
C P
B

D V U

A
O

G
F
<l monopIqK6<s ¤ y ¢noxSq U V p%~N[q…z Œ q:[q Œ ~Dmo~:w<nošT€Aq |yy¢noxSq n
^{|yxSq%pIqf^{ Œ D~ mo~:w<no‘n>zT€[v[q%xyno‘{h Œ noz[q%xy~Dƒˆp‚w%q%|yv[qI€Aq † OP AB

A(e2 )
G(e)
 
e2 +e 3
U 2
B(e3 )

P (−1) F (1)
V (− 12 ) O(0)

C(e4 )

E(e6 )

<l monopIqà6sL5|Sq%“ynov¶p%~D} Œ D(e


om {pkz^xyno)„òp%~<~Dv^|ynoxSqI€AqÀ[~<”\q%pIqñ|yv^yƒD~D}
5

|y~DpIq%• ô {~Dv^{}–qr †

   *   ýDþ
ãŸ{•—z^}–q%xN^{xN[qò~ Œ ¡{xyn‹€[n ~DzT€[~<n |y}ƒD~:~Dw%¢q%{v[}q:^~ Œ z^v^{{|y€ }Œ ~Dno}
zT€Aq\w<n‹€[nh|Sq!^{
nk|Sqfw<v^„y~:w<n
F Š n G Š A^{Š |yBnoxyŠ noC
Š‘{ D Š q%|SEq¡{ €[~<”Ap%{ p%~Dv^n ^{xyno}–q
R=1
1Š eŠ e Š e Š e Š e Š e
2 3 4 5 6
†,ô OŠ P Š U Š V
n “yn‹€[n
M ×:Ø>Ù>Ú>Û*Ù ÜyÝkÞ.ßoÚ
p%~D} Œ mo{pkz^xyno} “yv^~N^{w<no}–q 0 Š −1 Š Š n − † ó Iq €[~f^{
e2 +e3 1
2 2

|U V |2 = (U − V )(U − V ) = (U − V )(U − V ) =
 2
e + e3 1
 5
e + e4 1 2 + 1 + e + e 2 + · · · + e6

1
+ + = =
2 2 2 2 4 2
“yy|yy¡n1|Sqb^{ 1 + e + e 2 + · · · + e6 = 0 † 

C Q

B
U

R cos ϑ P

<l monopIqANys ô v^~Dpk6€ OU V  ô {~Dv^{V}O6 ^{!p%~DxyƒDv^y{x‚€Aq%AxnozT€[~D}


R
O 2

€[v^~Dpk6€[… ô {~Dv^{}—r †

Ÿö Nö<÷QPúfûüAýDþbÿ\ü ABCDEF G  þ


  R:ü  ü   ýS  \þ  ý    !"
þ   0ÿ T\þ U ü  %"Zþ ( ý "   
%"Zþ…ý þ )"VW#‚ý  Iþ AB 
 þ R "    
O%"Zþ  -   þ P  Q   .   þÿ\ü 


2
BC U V P Q OA |U V | = R 2
 ýD
þ X ql<mono‘Yn Nz^{f[q%z^xy~ w<no|yn¥|Sq }~D¢{}~ ~ Œ {€ Œ v^no}^{xyn‹€[nd}{€[~<|yno•
Œ vTwD~Dƒ|y~DpIq%•\q ô {~Dv^{}–qr † 

Ÿö Nö<÷[Zú*ûüAýDþ*ÿ\ü ABCDEF G  þ


  :ü  ü   ý  \þ   ý    !"
"þ  0ÿ  T \ þ 
R%"Zþ \   -ü   %"þ ´ü O ý .   ÿ\ü  Pþÿ\ ü    
%"´ü ý  þ )Aü+*]#‚ýDþ BC þ U  V
   (


2
AE OP |U V | = R
2
8 Ý6Ù:9"Ý;yÞ.ß=<?>A@kÞB>%Ø>ß=CIÚ1Ù E
8 D Ý FG9"ÝkÞ.Ù>Û:HI;> ^

A(e2 )
G(e)

B(e3 )
 
e2 +e6
U 2
P (−1) V (− 12 ) O(0) F (1)

C(e4 )

E(e6 )

l<monopIq]_<s`5|Sq%“ynovfp%~D} Œ mo{pkz^xyno„Óyv^~N^{w%q •\q€[~<”Ap%{¶no•|y~DpIq%•\q


D(e5 )

ô {~Dv^{}–qà †
 ýDþ
X %q ”noxyno}~mon<nozT€[{ Œ v^{€ Œ ~DzT€Aq\w<p%{pIq%~bn<|yv^yƒD~D} |y~DpIq%• ô {~Dv^{}–qr
|y~D“yn‹€[n%¡{}~ |U V | = (U − V )(U − V ) = (U − V )(U − V ) =  + 
2 e2 +e6 1

e5 +e 1
+

2+1+e+e2 +···+e6
= = . 1 ‡‰ìno|yndl<monopkL  _D’ † 2 2


2 2 4 2

l<mon ^{|y{¡nv^{•ym‹€AqI€Ãz[q%|yv^¢n ô {~Dv^{}{ rÏnà pIq%~ðz Œ {‘n [q%moxy{êz^moy”\q:^{wD{Ïn


~%€[pkv^n‹w%q…pkv^y¢xyno‘Ïp%~N[q Œ v^~Dm¦q%•n Œ ~Dmo~:w<nošT€[no}–q}xy~DƒDno„ê|yy¢noxSq Œ v^no|yv^y¢{xyno„
Œ v[q\w<nomoxy~D}Žz^{|y}{v^~Dpk6€[ †
Ÿ ö Nö<b ÷ adúfûüAýDþbÿ\ü ABCDEF G  þ 
  R:ü  ü   ý S  \þ  ý    !"
kþ  
þ   0ÿ T\þ R S  ü  %"´ü  O ûüAýDK þ " . .
( ý  ÿ\ü    
%"´üŸHý = þ )A+ü AE
*c#‚∩ýDþ DG þ I = ÿ\AB ü  ∩  CD

 
 "
% ´
 ü
 - Jü = BG ∩ CE þ    
%"Zþ P -   þ .  . . BC. V .  . .
. OP . .  .R "
 I
 þ d o
 ü ? N
 ü
þ
 AB ý 
 
CD  !" BI \2 þ 
CI ü  BG

 "
% ´
 ü  AE 7
 

 ' DGý  
  þ   0ÿ T  
AH DH CE EJ GJ
e  ÿ  ![þ fü 2ÿ\üAýDþý    ![þ m ÿ\ü   ý   Zg þ "
   "ü  þ V‹þ
 -  ü R    

2
2
k m
PV
 ýD
þ X {pIq ~Dxy~:wD~w<v^n ^{|y{ v^{€ ~DzT€Aq\w<p%{…|yv^yƒD~DƒÃ|y~DpIq%•\q {~Dv^{}–q r
å%{|yxSq%|y¢“SqÃpkv^yŒ ¢xyno‘{ m ^{ 4 z z̄Œ + 2Œ z + 2 z̄ − 1 = 0 † ë…{€[~<|Sq!ô |y~DpIq%•\q¶^{ †
|SqxSq%™y{}~p%~D} Œ mo{pkz^xy{p%~<~Dv^|ynoxSqI€[{zTw%q%p%{€[~<”Ap%{nd|Sqz^{ Œ v^~:w\^{v^n*|Sq~Dxy{
•\q%|y~:wD~Dm [q\w%q:^!€[ˆ^{|yxSq%|y¢“y † X q Œ v^no}^{v Š |Sq–“yn'z^}~ Œ v^~:w\^{v^nomond|Sq–€[~<”ApIq
X Œ
‡ ~Dmo~:w<nošT€[{,|yy¢noxy{—p%~N[q z Œ q:[qòw<v^„ B z[q Œ v^{z‰^{p%~D} I Œ v[q\w%q%‘\q AB
h ×:Ø>Ù>Ú>Û*Ù ÜyÝkÞ.ßoÚ
A
G
Q
N
M U
X1
B
X
L
I P Z V O
H F
J K
Y
C
Y1
T W
S
R
E
D
l<monopIqji6slk v^y¢xyno‘\q¶pkv^~D•h}xy~Dƒ‚q Œ D~ mo~:w<nošT€Aq †

n ’ ŠfŒ vTwD~ò~<|yv^{|yno}~^{|yxSq%|y¢“.{ Œ v[q\w%q%‘\q AB n CD Œ q ~Dxy|SqÏv‰^{š[q/m


w%q%CDxN^{} €[no„ð|6w<n ^monoxy{\q%v^xyno„,^{|yxSq%|y¢“yn Œ ~ z n z̄ xSq%™y{}~Ï|Sq…^{,xN^no„y~:w
Œ v^{z‰^{pê€[~<”ApIq I = çQq%p‚|y€[~D~Dpv^no^v[{ qXpIq%~ˆ=p‚wD~<(‘n ^{x‚€ ) † ãŸy|yy¡n"|Sqz^{no•v[q%•
(e+1)e4
e2 +1
e3 2 e2 +e+1
2(e2 +1)
4 X X̄ + 2 X + 2 X̄ − 1

(2 e5 + e4 + 3 e3 − 2 e2 + e − 1) (e6 + e5 + e4 + e3 + e2 + e + 1)
,
(e2 + 1)2
\• q%pkm ^y”N^{}~¶|Sqb^{ €[~<”ApIq X |y~DnozT€Aq¶xSq¶pkv^y¢xyno‘n m †
ó q%|yxN[q¶€^w<v^|yxN[qb^{hnozT€[noxyn‹€Aq•\qI€[~^{vz^{pkv^y¢xyno‘{ m n k ‡2”n [qf^{|yxSq%|y¢“Sq
^{ z z̄ = 1’Ÿz^n ^{pk €[~<”ApIq%}–q Q = − + i n R = − − i n“yv^~N − √ √

^{ Œ ~Dmo~:w<no‘\q~<| −1 n − †
3 7 3 7 3
4 4 4 4 4
1
2

lkwD{…z^monop%{ñ~:wD~D}£”m¦q%xypkñxSq%‘vT€Aq%xy{…z^ñ v^~DƒDv[q%} „y{Ãæ {~D}{€[{v-n z
l<p%{€[‘A„ Œ q%|Ãp%~N^ndz^{}~D¢{hp%~Dv^nozT€[n‹€[nn1•\q Œ v^no“ymono¢Œxk Œ v^~:w\^{v^…ô €^w<v^|yxN^n*q%monn1•\q
~%€[pkv^n‹w%q%xN^{xy~:w<no„…z Œ ~D•xSq:[qˆ~ˆzTwD~N^zT€^w<no}–q Œ v[q\w<nomoxyno„z^{|y}{v^~Dpk6€Aq †
æ ~Dv^xN^n1}–qI€[{}–qI€[no”Apkn>p%~Dv^{p‚€[xyn*|y~DpIq%•n1~DzT€^w%q%v^{xyndz^…xSqˆv[q%”yxSq%mo… Œ v^~m
ƒDv[q%}p ë otÇGâ qÃ쇉wD{v^•n [`q r‚’ ó q vTw%q€[v^n‚€[{~Dv^{}–q˜€[~b“Sq%š'nkxyn ^{ ~%€[v^{“yxy~
^{vz^{¶zTwD{ Œ v^~:w\^{v^{¶}~DƒDm¦q%ƒ‚† q%xy~–noŒ •wD{zT€[nun Œ ^{š^p%{ † ó q Œ ~Dz^m ^{|yxN^Œ n*€[{~Dv^{}
z^{€[~}~D¢{z[q%}~6w\^{€[xy~€^w<v^|yn‹€[n˜‡‰€2 † “.{•¶ Œ ~%€[v^{“.{¶v[q%”yxSq%m¦q Œ v^nopIq%•\q%xyn
|y~DpIq%•"no}–qxy{p%~Dmonop%~€[{¢no„¶zT€[{ Œ {xyno‘\q‚’ † ó qI€[~¡¶z[q%|Sq~ Œ noz[qI€[n6pIq%p%~ z^{"|y~DpIq%•
ô {~Dv^{}–jq Nˆno•wD~<|yn1xSq¶v[q%”yxSq%mo †
8 Ý6Ù:9"Ý;yÞ.ß=<?>A@kÞB>%Ø>ß=CIÚ1Ù E
8 D Ý FG9"ÝkÞ.Ù>Û:HI;> s
tuvTwD~•\q%|Sq%}~¶€[~<”Ap%{hpIq%~ˆyv^{™y{xyn q%v q] p%~D} Œ mo{pkz^xy~Dƒ“yv^~N[q p n
Nx ^{ƒD~:wD~Dƒp%~DxN^yƒDnov[q%xy~Dƒ q † ãŸv^~N eŒ ^{hz^[p,
{|y}n1p%~Dv^n ^{xno•^{|ynoxyno‘{ †Ç¤ q%pkmo{ Š
w<v^n ^{|yn
e7 − 1 = 0
ãŸy|yy¡n1|Sqb^{
e7 − 1 = (e − 1) (e6 + e5 + e4 + e3 + e2 + e + 1)
•\q
‡2šT€[~b^{h~<”n‹€[~¶|yno~ˆxSq%š^no„ Œ ^v {€ Œ ~DzT€Aq\w<epk6=n‰’Ÿ1w<v^n ^{|yn
e6 + e5 + e4 + e3 + e2 + e + 1 = 0.
> tvuSwyx1z0{I|-{~}Swt€1wyx1zƒ‚\|„‚v…†}Swtv‡Swƒx1zƒ‚v…Tˆ\|„‚v…T‰}Sw
> tŠwyx1zƒ‚v…‹Œ|„‚v… }SwtŽ1wyx1zƒ‚v…l|„‚v…‹T}Swtvwyx1z‚v…‰\|?‚v…ˆ}w
t‘wyx1zƒ‚v…†\|„‚}Swt’wyx1z?“v{I|0“v{~}Swtv”wyx1zf“v{•TˆŒ|0“v{• ˆ}Sw
l<pkv[q%”{xyno‘Lu– l p%~Dv^nozT€[no}~¶pIq%|Sq¶¢{mono}~¶}–q%pkz^no}–q%moxy~ ~N^{|yxy~DzT€Aq\w<n‹€[n1n
>

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uv—lwyxT˜“™šv›vœ/Ÿž Œ¡0¢£-¤¥¦v£/š §Œ¡˜¨¨Rw
l<mon ^{|y{¡\q Œ v^~<‘{|yyv[q!‡2nomon.ç2yxyp%‘n [q‚’Ÿ~<|yv^{™yN^{hp‚w%q%|yv[qI€fy|Sq%m ^{xy~DzT€[n|6w<n ^{
>

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y|Sq%m ^{xy~DzT€'^{ Œ v^~<|yyp‚€fv[q%•monop%{ b − y n1xN^{}p%~DxN^yƒDnov[q%xy~Dƒˆ“yv^~N[q c − z †
> T© ªv«vˆwyx¥v žœG¡?›\|ƒ˜¨
> ¦ žœ›¦­¬S|fœY|ƒ§l|ƒ®l¯
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uv—R¡ ¡y¬B“/§¨T°G¡0œ“/®¨ ¨Rwƒ‚±v«Sw
ut v[q\w%q%‘h~<|yv^{™y{x…z[q¶|6w<n ^{ €[~<”Ap%{ Œ v^~DƒDv[q%}nov[q%xh^{ pIq%~¶ç2yxyp%‘n [q³² NøT´yøŸµ Pv¶
>

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p%~<Œ {"·S‘n ^{x‚€[n1xN^{ƒD~:wD{monoxy{\q%v^xy[u,{ǁ^v,{|yw]xSq%|y¢“.{ Œ
u z + v z + w = 0.
> ¥v v›¸›vœˆwyx¥v žœG¡+¤|+±B¨
> ¦ žœ›¦¹›\|+¬S|fœY|ƒ˜l|ƒ§l|ƒ®l¯
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uv—R¡z¬B“/§l|&˜“›\|&›v°§“~¬°˜ }¨Rwƒ‚±v«Sw
q¶z^!p%~<{"S· ‘n ^{x‚€[n n |y~DnozT€Aq n m¦q%ƒ‚q%xy~z^{
>

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{u = − ,v=− }
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xy{}–q:^ Œ v^{z‰^{pIq‚’ †
> ¥v v‚v¢× ‚©ˆ¥Uwyx¥v žœG¡+¤|+±B¨
> ¦ žœ›¦¹›\|+¬S|fœY|ƒ˜l|ƒ§l|ƒ®l¯
> ›lwyx¤ºz0{~}Sw¬Uwyx¤ºzƒˆ}Sw„œ\wyx¤ºzy‹T}Sw+˜wyx±Uz"{~}Sw+§wyx±Uzˆ}Sw+®wyx±Uzƒ‹T}Sw
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>

Œ
Œ ~Dmo~:w<nošT€[{|yy¢noxy{hp%~N^~Nz^…pkv[q:^{w<nd|6w<n ^{h•\q%|Sq%xy{ €[~<”Ap%{ †
> ¥ž ¦ ž¸£T¢/‚ ˆwyx¥v žœG¡+¤|+±B¨
> ¦ žœ›¦¹›\|+¬S|fœY|ƒ˜l|ƒ§l|ƒ®l¯
> ›lwyx¤ºz0{~}Sw¬Uwyx¤ºzƒˆ}Sw+˜Swyx±Uz0{~}Sw+§wyx±Uzˆ}Sw
uv—R¡z0{•Tˆv°›T¼{•Tˆv°˜l|­{•Tˆv°
¬¼{•Tˆv°§ }¨Rwƒ‚±v«Sw
ô ~<”Ap%{ I Š H Š n z[q%|Sqˆ|y~D“yn‹w%q%}~~:w%q%p%~ys
>

N
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> tvÙSwyx¥ž ¦ ž¸£T¢/‚ ˆl¡ytBØG|+tŠ¨G¯AtvÚSwyx¥ž ¦ ž¸£T¢/‚ ˆl¡ytŠ1|+tv‡¨G¯
(e + 1) e4 (e + 1) e4
hI := [ 2 , ]
e +1 e2 + 1
e3 (2 e2 + e + 1) e4 (e + 2 + e2 )
hX := [ , ]
2 (e2 + 1) 2 (e2 + 1)
e2 (e + 1) (e + 1) e4
hN := [ , ]
k v^y¢xyno‘\q ^ { •\q Œ v[q\wD~–ƒD{~D}{€[v^n ^z^p%~¶}^{zT€[~¶€[~<”\q%pIq¶p%~N^no}–qf^{ p‚w%q%|yv[qI€
2 2
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m

Œ v^~<no”A|ypIv^q¶y¢¡N{^{ mo{v[¢\q%qI•€[monnopkxSq¶p‚pkw%v^yq%|y¢xyv[qIno‘€An q¶xN^{q%xyp%{h~yz^{ |Sq%€Am q^{ç2xyy~DxyzTp%€[‘n1n [~<qˆ| V €[~Nn<"^{€[|y~<xy”Apk{ n Œ ~D~Dmo~:xyw<nošTno€Axyq\{ w%† q
ô ‡‰€2 xN^~Nno}–qw<v^n ^{|yxy~DzT€fxkymm¦q‚’ Œ
† †
tuv^~:w\^{v[tTq\¤ºw%q%wy}xT˜~ˆ“™pIuvq%p‚—Rw%¡ƒqb©Tªv^«v{ˆç2lyxy¡˜lp%‘|+tn [”q ¨ hm
> “v{•TˆŸ¨Rw
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n N†
> tT¤S¡ytvÙ¨G¯+tT¤S¡ytvÚ¨G¯
(2 e5 + e4 + 3 e3 − 2 e2 + e − 1) (e6 + e5 + e4 + e3 + e2 + e + 1)
4 (e2 + 1)2
(e2 + e − 1) (e6 + e5 + e4 + e3 + e2 + e + 1)
4
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6 5 4 3 2

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ô {~˜~D^v^{b{}–z[q%7q }N ~xS|N^q–{mov[~Dq%}”yno”xSxyq%~hmo…€[~<€[v^”{xy“S~˜q%^mo{ndv|6ƒDw<~%n ^€[{~:wDzT~€[v[zTq%wDxy{bno‘ç2{yxy€[{p%pk‘zTn ^€A{bq p%n*~N}^{xyz^~D}ƒD~~€[|yn "{ Œ ·SpIxyq%noxNv[[q%q mon†
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