FOUNDATION

ANALYSIS
AI{D DESIGI\
Third Edition

Joseph E. Bowles
Consulting Engineer I Software Consultant
Eng ine e r ing C omPut er S oftw ar e
Peoria, Illinois

McGraw-Hill Book ComPanY

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotd Hamburg

New Deihi
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 CONTENTS

Preface xt11

Chapter 1 Introduction I
l-l Foundations-Definition and Purpose I
t-2 Foundation Classifications 2
1-3 Foundation Site and System Economics J
1-4 General Requirements ol Foundations 5
t_5 Foundation Selection 6
l_6 SI and Fps Units 6
t_7 Computational Accuracy versus Design Precision 9

Chapter 2 Soil Mechanics in Foundation Engineering 10

2-l Introduction l0
11 Foundation Materials t2
l-J Soil Volume and Density Relationships 13
2-4 Major Factors Which Affect the Engineering Properties
of Soils t6
2_5 Routine Laboratory Tests t9
2_6 Soil Classification in Foundation Design 24
2-T Soil Classification Terms 25
2-8 In Situ Stresses and Ko Conditions 32
2-9 Soil Water-Soil Hydraulics 35
2-1A Consolidation Principles 4t
2-11 Shear Strength 50
2-12 Sensitivity and Thixotropy 60
2-13 Stress Paths 6l
2-14 Elastic Properties of Soil 66
2-t5 Isotropic and Anisotropic Soil Masses 70

Y
vi coxrrNrs
Chapter 3 Exploration, Sampling, and In Situ 5-8 Stress

Soil Measurements
5-9 Cons<
79 5-10 Relial
3-1 Data Required 79 5-11 Prop<
3-2 Methods of Exploration 80 Equal
J-J Planning the Exploration Program 81 5-12 Struct
3-4 Soil Boring 84 5-13 Strucl
3-5 Soil Sampling 89
3-6 Marine Sampling
3-7 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
96
97 Chapter 6 Impr
3-8 Other Penetration Methods 102 6-1 Intror
3-9 Core Sampling t02 6-2 Coml
3-10 Water-Table Location 105 6-3 Preco
3-t1 Depth and Number of Borings 108 6-4 or*iiir
3-12 Presentation of Data 108 6-5 Vibrri
3-13 Field Load Tests 110 6-6 Fouri
3-14 Field Vane Testing of Soils 1t4 6-7 Alten
3-15 Measurements of In Situ Stresses and Ko Conditions tl7 6-8 Use o
3-16 Static Penetration Testing-Dutch-Cone Penetration Test (CPT) t2t
3-17 The Borehole Shear Test 122
3-1 8 Seismic Exploration 123 Chapter 7 Facl
7-l Footi
7-2 Displ
Chapter 4 Bearing Capacity of Foundations 130 7-3 Net v
4-l Introduction 130 7-4 Erosi
4_2 Bearing-Capacity Equations 131 7-5 Corrr
4-3 General Comments on Bearing-Capacity Computations 135 7-6 Wate
4-4 Bearing Capacity-Examples 140 7-7 Foun
4_5 Footings with Eccentric or Inclined Loadings 143 7-8 Foun
4_6 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity 147 7-9 Foun
4-7 Bearing Capacity for Footings on Layered Soils 149 i-to Foun
4_8 Bearing Capacity of Footings on Slopes 153 7-lI Foun
4_9 Bearing Cafacity from SPT 155 7-12 Frosl
4_10 Bearing Capacity Using Cone Penetration Test (CPT) Data 159 7-13 Envir
4_tl Bearing Capacity of Foundations with Uplift or Tension Forces 160
4-t2 Bearing Capacity Based on Building Codes
(Presumptive Pressure) 163 Chapter 8 Sprr
4-13 Safety Factors in Foundation Design 163 8-1 Foot
4_14 Bearing Capacity of Rocks 167 8-2 Allot
8-3 Assu
8-4 Reinl
Chapter 5 Foundation Settlements t7t 8-5 Stru<
5-1 The Settlement Problem l7t 8-6 Bean
5-2 Stresses in a Soil Mass Due to Footing Pressure t72 8-7 Pede
5-3 The Boussinesq Method for Evaluating Soil Pressure t73 8-8 Rectt
54 Westergaard's Method for Evaluating Soil Pressures t78 8-9 Eccer
5_5 Immediate (Elastic) Settlement Computation-Theory 183 8-10 Unsl
l6 Immediate Settlements-Application 187 8-11 Wall
>7 Alternative Methods of Computing Elastic Settlements 192 8-12 Spre
 CONTENTS Yii

5-8 Stresses and Displacements in Layered and Anisotropic Soils 196

5_9 Consolidation Settlements 197
5_10 Reliability of Settlement Computations 200
5-11 Proportioning Footings for a Given Settlement or
Equal Settlements 201
5-t2 Structures on Fills 203
5- 13 Structural Tolerance to Settlement and Differential Settlements 204

Chapter 6 Improving Site Soils for Foundation Use 208

6-l Introduction 208
6-2 Compaction 209
6_3 Precompression to Improve Site Soils 2rl
6-4 Drainbge Using Sand Blankets and Drains 213
6-5 Vibratory Methods to Increase Soil Density 215
6_6 Foundation Grouting and Chemical Stabilization 217
6-7 Altering Groundwater Conditions 2t8
6-8 Use ol Geotextiles to Improve Soil 218

Chapter 7 Factors to Consider in Foundation Design 221

7-1 Footing Deprh and Spacing 22t
I-Z Displaced Soil Effects 224
t-J Net versus Gross Soil Pressure-Design Soil pressures 225
7-4 Erosion Problems for Structures Adiacent to Flowing Water 226
7_5 Corrosion Protection 227
7-6 Water-Table Fluctuation 227
7_7 Foundations in Sand Deposits 227
7_8 Foundations on Loess 228
7_9 Foundations on Expansive Soils 230
7-10 Foundations on Clays and Silts 233
7-11 Foundations on Sanitary Landfill Sites 235
7-12 Frost Depth and Foundations on permafrost /.36
7-13 Environmental Considerations 238

Chapter 8 Spread Footing Design 240

8-1 Footings-Classifi catron and purpose 240
8-2 Allowable Soil Pressures in Spread Footing Design 241
8-3 Assumptions Used in Footing Design )a)
8-4 Reinforced-Concrete Design-USD 243
8-5 Structural Design of Spread Footings 249
8-6 Bearing Plates and Anchor Bolts 258
8-7 Pedestals 265
8-8 Rectangular Footings 269
8-9 Eccentrically Loaded Spread Footings 273
8-10 Unsymmetrical Footings 282
8-11 Wall Footings and Footings for Residential Construction 286
8-12 Spread Footings with Overturning Moment 290
viii coNruNrs

Chapter 9 Special Footings and Beams on l2-5 R

12-6 A
Elastic Foundations 295
l2-7 S
9-l Introduction 295 12-8 T
9-2 Rectangular Combined Footings 295 t2-9 X
9-3 Design of Trapezoid-Shaped Footings 304 t2-!0 s
9-4 Design of Strap (or Cantilever) Footings 309 l2-tt D
9-5 Footings for Industrial Equipment 312 l2-r2 A
9-6 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction 320 t2-13 D
9-i Classical Solution of Beam on Elastic Foundation 326 t2-14 D
9-8 Finite-Element Solution of Beam on Elastic Foundation 330 12-15 B
9-9 Bridge Piers 339 R
9-10 Ring Foundations 341 t2-16 R
9-11 General Comments on the Finite-Element Procedure 344

Chapter 13 S
Chapter 10 Mat Foundations 349 a
10-1 Introduction 349 13-1 Ir
l0-2 Types of Mat Foundations 350 l3-2 S
10-3 Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations 351 13-3 T
l0-4 Mat Settlements 352 I3-4 S
l0-5 Design of Mat Foundations 354 13-5 C
10-6 Finite-Difference Method for Mats 361 T3-6 A
l0-7 Finite-Element Method for Mat Foundations 363 l3-7 R
10-8 Mat-Superstructurelnteraction 374 F
10-9 Circular Mats or Plates 374 13-8 F
13-9 \I
Chapter 1l Lateral Earth Pressure 378
11-1 The Lateral Earth Pressure Problem 378
Chapter 14 E
ll-2 Active Earth Pressure 379 S
1l-3 Passive Earth Pressure 381 l4-r c
ll-4 CoulombEarth-PressureTheory 381 l4-2 S
11-5 Rankine Earth Pressures 388 t4-3 C
ll-6 Active and Passive Earth Pressure Using Theory of Plasticity 392 t4-4 E
ll-7 Earth Pressure on Walls, Soil-Tension Effects, Rupture Zone 396 14-5 F
1l-8 Reliability ofLateral Earth Pressures 399 14-6 k
II-9 Soil Properties and Lateral Earth Pressure 399 l4-7 0
11-10 Earth-PressureTheories in Retaining-Wall Problems 401 14-8 C
11-11 Graphical and Computer Solutions for Lateral Earth Pressure 4M t4-9 Sl
ll-12 Lateral Pressures by Theory of Elasticity for Surcharges 414
11-13 Other Causes of Lateral Pressure 419
Chapter 15 C
ll-14 Pressures in Silos, Grain Elevators, and Coal Bunkers 420
15-1 C
t5-2 C
Chapter 12 Retaining Walls 431 15-3 Sr
l2-l Introduction 431 l5-4 Pl
I2-2 Common Proportions of Retaining Walls 433 15-5 D
l2-3 Soil Properties for Retaining Walls 436 15-6 C
124 Stability of Walls 438 t5-7 C
 CONTENTS iX

t2_5 Retaining-Wall Forces 440

12-6 Allowable Bearing Capacity 448
12-'7 Settlements 449
l2_8 Tilting 450
l2-9 Design of Gravity and Semigravity Walls 453
12-10 Wall Joints 457
12-11 Drainage 458
12_t2 Abutment Wing and Retaining Walls of Varying Height 459
12_13 Design of a Cantilever Retaining Wall 460
t2-14 Design of a Counterlort Retaining Wall 466
12-15 Basement or Foundation Walls; Walls for
Residential Construction 468
12-16 Reinforced-Earth Retaining Structures 469

Chapter 13 Sheet-Pile Walls-Cantilevered

and Anchored 474
13-1 Introduction 474
13-2 Soil Properties for Sheet-Pile Walls 475
1 3_3 Types of Sheetpiling 477
13-4 Safety Factors for Sheet-Pile Walls 479
13-5 Cantilever Sheetpiling 481
t3_6 Anchored Sheetpiling : Free-Earth Support 489
13_7 Rowe's Moment Reduction Applied to the
Free-Earth-Support Method 49s
1 3_8 Finite-Element Analysis ol Sheet-Pile Walls 499
13_9 Wales and Anchorages for Anchored Sheetpiling 506

Chapter 14 Braced, Tieback, and

Slurry Walls for Excavations 516
14-1 Construction Excavations 516
l4-2 Soil Pressures on Braced Sheeting or Cofferdams 519
14_3 Conventional Design of Single-Wall (Braced) Cofferdams 522
l4_4 Estimation of Ground Loss around Excavations 527
14_5 Finite-Element Analysis for Braced Excavations 530
14_6 Instability Due to Heave of Bottom of Excavation 536
14_7 Other Causes of Cofferdam Instability 539
I 4_8 Construction Dewatering 540
l4_9 Slurry-Wall (or -Trench) Construction 544

Chapter 15 Cellular Cofferdams 548

15- 1 Cellular Cofferdams: Types and Uses 548
t5-2 Cell Fill 552
1 5-3 Stability and Design of Cellular Cofferdams 553
t5_4 Practical Considerations in Cellular Cofferdam Design 563
1 5-5 Design of Diaphragm Cofferdam Cell 565
1 5_6 Circular-Cofferdam Design 568
15-7 Cloverlea f-Co fferdam Desi gn 573
X CONTENTS

Chapter 16 Single Piles-Static Capacity and t9-6

19-7
Lateral Loads; Pile/Pole Buckling 575
19_8
l6_l Introduction 575 t9-9
t6-2 Timber Piles 582
16-3 Concrete Pilos 584
l6-4 Steel Piles 589
Chapter 20
16-5
Corrosion of Steel Piles 592 20-l
Soil Properties for Static Pile Capacity
t6_6 592 20-2
l6-7 Static Pile Capacity 593 20-3
16-8 Ultimate Static Pile Point Capacity 598 20-4
l6-9 Skin Resistance Capacity 602
16-10 Static Pile Capacity-Examples 610 20-5
16-1 1 Piles in Permafrost 616 20_6
16-12 Static Pile Capacity Using Load-Transfer Load-Test Data 620 20-7
16-13 Tension Piles-Piles for Resisting Uplift 622 20_8
16-14 Laterally Loaded Piles 623 20-9
16-15 Buckling of Fully and Partially Embedded Piles and Poles 632

Chapter 17 Single Piles-Dynamic Analysis 638

l7 -l Dynamic Analysis 638 A
t7-2 Pile Driving 638 A-1
l7-3 The Rational Pile Formula 643 A-2
l7-4 Other Dynamic Formulas and General Considerations 647 A-3
l7_5 Reliability of Dynamic Pile-Driving Formulas 654 A.-4
t7-6 The Wave Equation 656 A-5
r7-7 Pile-Load Tests 663
r7-8 Pile-Driving Stresses 665
B
t7-9 General Comments on Pile Driving 668
B-1
B-2
Chapter 18 Pile Foundations-Groups 671 B-3
18-1 Single Piles versus Pile Groups 671
l8-2 Pile-Group Considerations 67t
1 8-3 Efficiency of Pile Groups 673
18-4 Stresses on Underlying Strata 676
I 8-5 Settlements of Pile Groups 683
18-6 Pile Caps 687
t8-7 Batter Piles 690
I 8-8 Negative Skin Friction 690
18-9 Matrix Analysis for Pile Groups 696
. ',i

Chapter 19 Caissons Including Drilled Piers 705

l9-.1 Types of Caissons 705
19-?' .Open-End Gaissons 706
19-3i . Closed-End, or'Box, Caissons 7tt
l9-4 - Pneunatic Caissons 715
l9-5 Drilled Caissons r 717
 CONTENTS Xi

19_6 Bearing Capacity and Settlements of Drilled Caissons 720

19-7 Design ol Drilled Caissons 725
19_8 Laterally Loaded Caissons 729
19_9 lnspection of Drilled Caissons 730

Chapter 20 Design of Foundations for Vibration Control 732

20-1 Introduction 732
20-2 Elementary Vibrations 733
20-3 Forced Vibrations for a Lumped Mass 738
20-4 Approximate Solution of Vibrating Foundation
Theory of Eiastic l{ali-Space '143
20_5 Lumped-Mass Solution of the Vibrating Foundation 749
2A_6 Soil Properties Elastic Constants 757
20_'/ Coupled Vibrations 759
20_8 Effect of Piles to Reduce Foundation Vibrations 760
20-9 Other Considerations for Machinery Foundations 761

Appendixes

A General Pile-Flammer and Pile Data Tables 764

A-1 H-Piles 764
Pile llammers 765
Sheet Piles
768
A-4 Pipe Piles 774
A-5 Prestressed-Concrete Piles 7',|2

B Selected Computer Programs 773

B-1 Beam, Lateral- and Sheet-Pile Finite-Element program
114
B-2 N{at Program 780
B-3 Three-Dimensional Pile-Group program '786

References 787

Indexes
Name Inder
Subject inder
 PR.EFACE

This edition is the latest in the contiuuing prcrcess r_rf producing an up-to-da.te
compendium of methods ancl procerJures fcr the analysis and riesign of iounda-
tions. As in the eallier eelitions ttre primary focus is on interlacing structural
elements with the r.rnderlying soil. This is where the rnajcr locus of loundation
engineering lies in boih the ar.rthor's opinion arrd that ci many others. Engineer-
ing r:f darns, fiils, and ernbankmenis, aneJ llow of water in scil masses may more
properly fall under the generili category ol geotechnical engineering. In some
cases the latter considerations nray be major lactors in designing or constructing
a lounclation: therefore. some background material on several of these topics hai
been included.
Most engineers now lscognize that it is not possible or very practicai to
identily foundation engineering as soil mechanicsiproperties with structural en-
gineers designing the lbundation elements. A foundation engineer must be versed
in troth the geotechnical aspects of sclils as rvell as the structurai trehavior pro-
duced by the often ccmpiex foundation-soil interaction. T'he latter statement
reflects the general design philosophy contained in this text.
I have undertaken a fairly extensive revision; however, none ol the chapter
titles have been changeci and in most cases the section headings have been
retained. chapters 2. B, 9, and 16 have been almosi totally rewritten, with very
substantial rewriting undertaken in chaps.3.4. 10. anci 11. This was done to
produce a more logical sequencing of topics and to include new methodology
which was in transition when the second editron was being rewritten. The ma-
terial is about 80 percent SI to refleci both the general trend in textbooks and the
anticipated status of SI for rnost of the useful life of the book.
In many cases there is no "unique" design equation/methodology and one
or rnore ol several alternatives tends to be prelerred by certain engineers or in
geographical areas" I have attempted to prcsent those alternatives where
they
seem to be widetry enough used to warrant the text space. where it was practical,

xil!
XTV PREFACE

examples are analyzed using one or more of the alternatives so the reader obtains
both familarity and an opinion about the procedure. In several examples a "feel"
of a probable answer is produced by use of the alternatives-a common engineer-
ing office practice where the input data are uncertain----either as a direct com-
putation or as an average from the several alternatives. I have attempted to
include realistic example (and home) problems for the reader, with the examples
being somewhat less edited. About 50 percent of the home problems are new, and
more answers are included than in the earlier editions.
Several methods such as the footing on slope, grid analysis of mats, and the
sheet and lateral pile solutions using the finite-element method have been com-
pared via examples with the solutions of others or with alternative methods. This
has been done to illustrate that these new methods are adequate. In passing it
should be noted that the finite-element solution contained herein for beams, sheet
piles, and lateral piles is extremely widely used. It is the author's opinion that the
simplest solution which produces a satisfactory and economical design is pre-
ferred. Solutions which require esoteric mathematics to produce miniscule com-
putational refinement in a mathematical model based on soil data which are
uncertain at best are not very practical. Many solutions of this type do not get
further than the pages of a technical journal and others soon disappear from
engineering practice after a short time.
I have included about 560 references so that almost every topic can be
researched in depth. I have tried to avoid using obscure references which could be
obtained only with great difliculty by the average user. Most worthwhile material
eventually gets published in some form by ASCE, ASTM, TRB, CGJ, at a spe-
cialty conference, or in the proceedings of the ICSMFE, which are not very
diffrcult to access. I have retained the use of the list of publication abbreviations
(above included) at the beginning of the bibliography to reduce its size. It is
hoped that no significant work has been omitted; however, in the interest of
space, not all the work on a given topic is cited. Generally the most recent or
those works with the best bibliography coverage were included. I hope also that I
have not offended the junior authors of coauthored references by the use of "et
al." when there are more than two authors.
I wish to express appreciation to the many users both in the United States
and abroad who have written or called with comments or constructive criticism
or simply to make inquiry about a procedure. I should also like to thank those
who took part in the McGraw-Hill user survey to provide input for this revision
and include: Jack Bakos of Youngstown State University; William Baron of
Clemson University; William Gotolski of Pennsylvania State University; and
Roy V. Snedden of the University of Nebraska. I would also like to thank the
final manuscript reviewer William Baron of Clemson University.
Finally I should like to acknowledge the considerable contribution of my
wife Faye, who helped as usual with the typing and the myriad other operations
to produce the manuscript.

Joseph E. Bowles
FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
 CHAPTER

ONE
INTRODUCTION

I-T FOUNDATIONS-DEFINITION AND PURPOSE

All structures designed to be supported by the earth, including buildings, bridges,
earth fills, and earth, earth and rock, and concrete dams, consist of two parts.
These are the superstructure, or upper part, and the substructure element which
interfaces the superstructure and supporting ground. In the case of earth fills and
dams, there is often not a clear line of demarcation between the superstructure
and substructure. The foundation can be defined as the substructure and that
adjacent zone of soil and/or rock which will be affected by both the substructure
element and its loads.
The loundation engineer is that person who by reason of experience and
training can produce solutions for design probiems involving this part of the
engineered system. In this context, foundation engineering can be defined as the
science and art of applying the principles of soil and structural mechanics toge-
ther with engineering judgment (the "art") to solve the interfacing problem. The
foundation engineer is concerned directly with the structural members which
affect the transfer of load from the superstructure to the soil such that the
resulting soil stability and estimated deforrnations are tolerable. Since the design
geometry and location of the substructure element often have an effect on how
the soil responds, the foundation engineer must be reasonably versed in structural
design.
A number of practical considerations are a part of the engineering of a
loundation:

1. visual integration of geologic evidence at a site with any field or laboratory

test data.
 2 rouNoerroN ANALYSTs AND DESTGN

2. Establishing of an adequate field exploration and laboratory testing program. the order oi l
3. Design of the substructure elements so that they can be built-and as econ- connects mate:
omically as possible. factor of sever-,r

4. Appreciation of practical construction methods and of likely-to-be-obtained the soil ma1 be

construction tolerances. Stipulation of very close tolerances can have an enor-
mous effect on the foundation costs. 1" Shallo* ftr *r.
depth is gen;:
These several items are not directly quantifiable and thus require a considerable Deep found":
application of common sense.
A thorough understanding of the principles of soil mechanics in terms of Any struct -.

stability, deformations, and water flow is a necessary ingredient to the successful rI1 & $9Ofl€tr1r- s

practice of foundation engineering. Of nearly equal importance is an under- gravity is a r.'i-;.

standing of the geological processes involved in the formation of soil masses. It is retaining stru.:-
now recognized that both soil stability and deformation are dependent on the Typical it-r;:
stress history of the mass. It has been common until recently to associate founda-
tion engineering solely with soil mechanics concerns, leaving the interfacing el- 1. Foundations
ements to the structural (or other) designer. Current trends are to recognize that 2. Foundation.
foundation engineering is a systems problem and cannot be nicely com- trial equipnr;
partmentalized as some persons would prefer. Readers may determine the validity 3. Foundation.
of this statement as they progress through the text. retaining st:,.
The science of soil mechanics and its relationship to geological processes has 4. Foundatir--r-.:
bines, gene:,.
progressed considerably over the past fifty years. However, because of the natural
trol)
variability of soil and the resulting problems associated with testing, which will
be elaborated upon in Chap. 3, the design of a foundation still depends to a large
5. Foundation
bridge abur:
degree upon "art," or the application ol engineering judgment. A subset of this
sheet-pile st:
application is the assessment of the tolerable risk associated with the foundation.
The primary focus of this text will be on analysis and design of the interfac-
Foundatrc:.
ing elements for buildings and retaining structures and those soil mechanics
principles particularly applicable to these elements. These interfacing elements eral other trpe.
include both near surface members such as footings and mats and deep elements
such as piles and caissons. Retaining structures of concrete (commonly termed
retaining walls) and metal (as sheetpiling) are considered in later chapters. Soil 1-3 FOUND {
mechanics principles include both stability, including soil water effects, and defor-
mation analyses. Soil stability can often be enhanced by various improvement A building fou:..
techniques, the most common being compaction, and several of the more popular torily and be s:,.:
of these methods will be briefly considered in Chap. 5. their intended . -
usually have :-
structures not;1 :
generation, anc
1-2 FOUNDATION CLASSIFICATIONS
clear plants rec-,.
Foundations lor structures such as buildings, from the smallest residential to the
The other foLrn.
rrery sensitive tc,
tallest high-rise, and bridges are for the purpose of transmitting the super-
structure loads. These loads come from column-type members with stress inten-
More recen:
designs where si
sities ranging from perhaps 140 mPa for steel to 10 mPa for concrete to the
made. One mi-sh
supporting capacity of the soil, which is seldom over 500 kPa but more often on

t .* I lca-
F
 INTRODUCTION 3

the order of 200 to 250 kPa. The reader can readily note that this interface
connects materials whose differences in useful engineering strength can vary by a
factor of several hundred. The transmission of these large superstructure loads to
the soil may be by use of:

1. Shallow foundations-termed footings, spread lootings, or mats. Foundation

depth is generally D < B (see Chap. 4).
2. Deep foundations-piles or caissons with D > 4 to 58 (see Chaps. 16 to 19).

Any structure used to retain a soil or similar mass such as grain, coal, or ore
in a geometric shape other than that occurring naturally under the inffuence of
gravity is a retaining structure. Any foundation not classed as shallow, deep, or a
retaining structure may be termed a special foundation.
Typical loundation types are:

1. Foundations for buildings (either shallow or deep)

2. Foundations for smokestacks, radio and television towers, bridge piers, indus-
trial equipment, etc. (either shallow or deep)
3. Foundations for port or marine structures (may be shaliow or deep and with
retaining structures extensively used)
4. Foundations lor rotating, reciprocating, and impact machinery, and for tur-
bines, generators, etc. (either shallow or deep and may require vibration con-
trol)
5. Foundation elements to support excavations or retain earth masses as for
bridge abutments and piers, or retain grain, ore, coal, etc. (retaining walls or
sheet-pi1e structures)

Foundations for buildings are extremely numerous; foundations for the sev-
eral other types of superstructures are constructed in somewhat lesser numbers.

1-3 FOUNDATION SITE AND SYSTEM BCONOMICS

A building foundation must be adequate if the structure is to perform satisfac-

torily and be safe for occupancy. other foundations must be adequate to perform
their intended lunctions in a satisfactory and safe manner; however, buildings
usually have more stringent criteria for salety and performance than other
structures-notable exceptions being nuclear-plant flacilities, turbines for power
generation, and certain types of radio-antenna equiprnent. Foundations for nu-
clear plants require extremely rigid design/performance criteria for safety reasons.
The other foundations support extremely expensive machinery which is often
very sensitive to small soil deformations.
More recently, and after loss of lile from several avoidable failures, dam
designs where soil is the principal construction material are being more carefully
made. One might note that more principles of soil mechanics and geology apply
4 r'ouNoartoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

to earth dams than to the majority of foundation engineering problems. In addi- What is the I
tion to the stringent criteria of the superstructure, instability and water flow equately ?

through the base soil are serious considerations. A further area of concern is the 5. Is suflicient m
inevitable deformation of the base soil and subsidence in the superstructure (dam foundation al
fill material). Careful attention to the occurrence of the latter deformations can It may be necr
allow the designer to avoid a base crack in the dam and the resulting piping are affordable
failure, or a crest crack and the associated overtopping failure. 6. What is the :

Almost any reasonable structure can be built and safely supported if there is design an elat
unlimited financing. Unfortunately, in the real situation this is seldom, if ever, the design that thr
case, and the foundation engineer has the dilemma of making a decision under 7. What is the er
much less than the ideal condition. Also, even though the mistake may be buried, listed last, thr
the results from the error are not and can show up relatively soon-and probably engineers hav
yers, doctors.
before any statute of limitations expires. There are reported cases where the
foundation defects (such as cracked walls or broken mechanical fixtures) have and painters.
shown up years later-also cases where the defects have shown up either during
construction of the superstructure or immediately thereafter' If the foundr
Since the substructure is buried, or is beneath the superstructure, in such a cepting a higher
configuration that access will be difficult should foundation inadequacies develop ary financial ben
after the superstructure is in place, it is common practice to be conservative. A lawsuit, the clier
one or two percent overdesign in these areas produces a larger potential invest- parties. Thus, or
ment return than in the superstructure. may not producr
The designer is always faced with the question of what constitutes a safe, The foundat
economical design while simultaneously contending with the inevitable natural pose, probable v
soil heterogeneity at a site. Nowadays that problem may be compounded by land thods, and consl
scarcity requiring reclamation of areas which have been used as sanitary landfills, client/owner's ne
garbage dumps, or even hazardous waste disposal areas. Still another com- be done with a
plicating factor is that the act of construction can alter the soil properties con- public and the or
siderably from those used in the initial analyses/design of the foundation. These Considering
factors result in foundation design becoming so subjective and difficult to quan- bility insurance 1

tify that two design firms might come up with completely different designs that attempts to redr
would perform equally satisfactory. Cost would likely be the distinguishing fea- obtained from se
ture for the preferred design. discussion (and
This problem and the widely differing solutions would depend, for example, having the founc
on the following: fied engineers for

1. What constitutes satisfactory and tolerable settlement; how much extra could,
1-4 GENERA]
or should, be spent to reduce estimated settlements from say 30 to 15 mm ?
2. Has the client been willing to authorize an adequate soil exploration pro-
gram ? What kind of soil variability did the soil borings indicate ? Would
A foundation m
requirements suc
additional borings actually improve the foundation recommendations ?
J. Can the building be supported by the soil using
a. Spread footings-least cost. 1. Depth must t
b. Mats intermediate in cost. the foundatior
c. Piles or caissons several times the cost of spread footings. 2. Depth must b
4. What are the consequences of a foundation failure in terms of public safety ? thawing, and
 TNTRODUCTION 5

What is the likelihood of a lawsuit if the foundation does not perform ad-
equately ?
5. Is sufhcient money available for the foundation ? It is not unheard of that the
foundation alone would cost so much the project is not economically feasible.
It may be necessary to abandon the site in favor of one where foundation costs
are affordable.
What is the ability of the local construction force ? It is hardly sensible to
design an elaborate foundation if no one can build it, or if it is so different in
design that the contractor includes a large "uncertainty" factor in the bid.
'7
what is the engineering ability of the foundation engineer ? while this factor is
listed last, this is not of least importance in economical design. obviously
engineers have different levels ol capability just as in other professions (law-
yers, doctors, professors, etc.) and in the trades such as carpenters, electricians,
and painters.

If the foundation fails because of any cost shaving (in reality implicitly ac-
cepting a higher risk), the client tends to quickly lose appreciation for the tempor-
ary financial benefit which accrued. At this point, facing heavy damages and/or a
lawsuit, the client is probably in the poorest mental state ol all the involved
parties. Thus, one should always bear in mind that absolute dollar economics
may not produce good foundation engineering.
The foundation engineer must look at the entire svstem: the building pur-
pose, probable service-life loading, type of framing, soil profile, construction me-
thods, and construction costs to arrive at a design that is consistent with the
client/owner's needs and does not excessively degrade the environment. This must
be done with a safety factor which produces a tolerable risk level to both the
public and the owner.
Considering these several areas of uncertainty, it foliows that risk and lia-
bility insurance for persons engaged in foundation engineering is very costly. In
attempts to reduce these costs as rvell as produce a design which could be
obtained from several engineering firms (i.e., a "consensus" design) there is active
discussion (and the practice has already been undertaken in several areas) of
having the foundation engineer subrnit the proposed design to a board of quali-
fied engineers for a "peer review."

I-4 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF FOUNDATIONS

A foundation must be capable of satisfying several stability and deformation
requirements such as:

t. Depth must be adequate to avoid lateral expulsion of material from beneath

the foundation-particularly for footings and mats.
Depth must be below the zone ol seasonal volume changes caused by freezing,
thawing, and plant growth.
6 nouNparroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

3. System must be safe against overturning, rotation, sliding, or soil rupture Table 1-l Foundatior
(shear-strength failure).
4. System must be safe against corrosion or deterioration due to harmful materi- Foundation tyPe
als present in the soil. This is a particular concern in reclaiming sanitary
Spread footing, wall ioo
landfills and sometimes for marine foundations.
5. System should be adequate to sustain some changes in later site or construc-
tion geometry, and be easily modified should later changes be major in scope.
6. The foundation should be economical in terms of the method of installation.
7. Total earth movements (generally settlements) and differential movements
should be tolerable for both the foundation and superstructure elements.
8. The foundation, and its construction, must meet environmental protection
Mat foundation
standards.

1-5 FOUNDATION SELECTION

Pile foundations
The different types of foundations shown in Table 1-1 will be taken up in some Floating
detail in later chapters. It will be useful, however, at this point to enumerate the
several types and their potential application. Where groundwater is present, it is
understood that if the depth is below the depth of the footing (or excavation) it
will not be a problem. If groundwater is within the construction zone, it must be
removed by pumping down the water table, using grout or concrete curtain walls,
steel shells, or other means as appropriate.
When groundwater is removed, or when construction is below the water Beartng
table such that the groundwater may become polluted, approval of appropriate
governmental agencies is generally involved to minimize the environmental ef-
fects.

Caisson (shaits 75 cm
in diameter) general
1-6 SI AND FPS UNITS ing or combination
ing and skin resistan
This textbook will use both Foot-pound-second (Fps) and SI units. The SI units
will be both those generally accepted and "preferred usage." Problems will be Retaining walls, bridl
ments
either SI or Fps-there will be no intermixing. In the'text either set of units may
be used but the alternate system units will not be included in brackets as is
commonly done in a number of publications. This method of usage will help the
Sheet-pile structures
reader in the transition from Fps to SI by requiring concurrent thinking in both
sets of units.
Preferred usage will entail a number of mass and pressure units. The reason
is that most soil laboratory equipment lasts for years (scales, pressure gages,
calipers, etc.) and few laboratories (even in SI countries) have this equipment in
true SI units.
In this text we will define density as a mass unit [kg/m3, kg/cm3, or g/cm3
and lb/ft3 (pcf)). Unit weight is a force unit and in units of pounds orkips/ft3 or
kilonewton/m3 1kN1m3;. The SI unit of kilonewton will be used for most if not all

Table l-1 Foundation types and typical usage
Foundation type
Spread lootrng. wall lootings
Mat loundation
Pile foundatrons
Floating
Bearing
Caisson (shaits 75 cm or more
in diameter) generally bear-
ing or combination of bear-
ing and skin resistance
Retainrng walls. bridge abut-
ments
Sheet-prle structures
Use
Individual colunrns. walls.
bridge piers
Same as spread and wall foot-
ings. Verl heavy coluntn
loads. Usuallv reduces drfler-
entlal settlements and total
set tleme n ts
In groups (at least 2) to carrl
heavy column. wall loads:re-
quires pile cap
In groups (at ieast 2) to carry
heavy coluntn. wall loads: re-
quires pile cap
Larger column loads than ior
piles but eliminates pile cap
by using caissons as coluntn
extension
Permanent retaining structure
Temporarr retaining stntclures
as exca\ations. \\alerlronl
slructures- coflerclarrs
INTRODUCTION 7
Applicable soil conditions
Anl conditrons *here bearing
capacity is adequate for
applied load. May use on
single stratum: firnt laler
over solt layer or sofl lar,er
over firnr laver. Check
immediate, dilferential. and
consolidation settlements
Cenerallr bearing r alue
'oil rs
less than lor spread loorings:
over one-half area of build-
ing cor.ered by individual
footings. Check settlements
Poor surlace and near surface
.oils. Soilr ol high bearrrrg
capacitl' l0-50 m below
basement or ground surface.
but by distributing load
along pile shalt sorl strengtit
is adequate. Corrosive soils
nrav require r:se ol tinrber or
concrete pile rnaterial
Poor surlace and near-surface
.orl': .oil oI high bearrng
capacitl (point bearing on) is
8 50 m belo* ground sur-
la ce
Poor surface iind near-surlace
sorl:: .orl ,'f IriBlr hc;rrirrg
capacity (point beanng on) is
8 50 nr below ground sur-
lace
Anr typc olsojt. but a specified
zone (Chaps. 1 l. l2) in back
of *all usuallt of controlled
bacl'fi11
Anr soil: $aterliont structure
nrar require spccial allov or
corrosiorr protection. Coller-
rlarrs require control of fill
rnalerial
8 nouNoauoN ANALysIS AND DESTGN

soil quantities. This is because the newton is too small and the meganewton is always, it is a me
too large (except for steel and concrete stresses). "tonne" and repr
Using kN will give soil pressures such as intergranular and bearing capacities
in kN/m2 (kilopascal, kPa). In the Fps system we have correspondingly the
pressure unit of kips/ft'? (ks|. 1.7 COMPUT,
A conversion factor set which is very useful to remember is that to convert PRECISION
mass density in g/cm3 to kN/m3 or pcf

I glcm3: 9.807 kN/m3 (actually 9.80655 but rounded) The pocket and r

14 digits of accur
I glcm3 :62.4 pcf tities whose inpr
1 ksf : 47.88 kPa (say, 50 kPa for general use). percent of the nu
versus computed
The unit weight of water is 62.4 pcf or 9.807 kN/m3, and has a density of 1 g/cm3 author has atteml
or 1000 kg/mt. Soil will normally vary from ate value (when i
input to check tt
Fps: 90 to 130 pcf computed answer
SI: 14 to 21kN/m3 aware that types
ticularly in mispla
Note: ll the unit weight y is reported to 0.1 pcf, then one should report to The text user
0.01 kN/m3 for comparable accuracy. problems to 0.1 r

The Fps units of load in tons and pressure in tons/ft2 has been rather widely occurred. There r
used in the past both in the field and for certain laboratory tests. This was and the author I

because the widely used European unit of I kglcm2 is very nearly I ton/ft2 (see polating. General
Table 1-2) using the 2000-lb ton. This text will use only kips, pounds, and computational di
kilonewtons for these units, primarily for consistency. The reader should carefully marily for proced
note the source and context when the "ton" unit is used. Sometimes, but not aware of this unde

Table 1-2 Useful SI and metric factors* for convert-

ing Fps units

To convert from To Multiply by

inch centimeter (cm) 2.54

square inch square centimeter (cm2) 6.45160
cubic inch cubic centimeter (cm3) 16.38706
ina cm4 41.62314
kilogram force, kg, newton (N) 9.80665
pound force, lb, kg, 0.45359
kip (kN)
kilonewton 4.44822
kglcm2 kN/m, (kpa) 98.0665
kip/in'z(ksi) kN/m, (kpa) 6894j157
lb/in'z(psi) kglcmz 0.07031
tonfft2 kglcm2 0.97653
foot . kip kN . meter 1.35582
kcf kN/m3 15i.09762

+ Using latest (1980.) ASTM factors in conversions.

 rxrRooucrrox 9

always, it is a metric ton of 1000 kg. In some literature

the metric ton is spelled
"tonne" and represents the long toiof 2204lb.

I.7 COMPUTATIONAL ACCURACY VERSUS DESIGN

PRECISION

The pocket and desktop calculators, and digital

computers, compute with 10 to
1.4. digits of accuracy. This gives
a fictitiously high precision to cimputed quan-
tities whose input values may have a design p.."irion
percent of the numerical value used. The readei
ouf *ithn 10 to 30
should be aware of this actual
versus computed precision when checking the
example data and output. The
author has attempted to maintain a checkable precision
by writing the intermedi_
ate value (when a pocket calculator was usedj to
the precision ihe user should
input to check the succeeding steps. If this intermediate
value is not used, the
computed answer can easily differ in the 0.1 position.
The reader should also be
aware that typesetting, transcribing, and typing errors
inevitably occur, par-
ticularly in misplaced parentheses and misreading
3 for g, etc.
The text user should be able to reproduce most of
the digits in the exampre
problems to 0. 1 or less unless a typesetting (or
other) error-has inadvertently
occurred. There may be larger discrepancies if the
reader uses interpolated data
and the author used "exact" data ]ro- u computer printout
polating. Generally this will be noted so that the
without inter_
reader is alerted ol potential
com.putational discrepancies. The example problems
have been included pri_
marily for procedure rather than numeiical accuracy,
and the user should be
aware of this underlying philosophy when studying
them.
 soil mechanics pr
tions.
CHAPTER
The practice
TWO when K. Terzagh
"Erdbaumechanl
SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION onward, and witl
tion engineering
ENGINEERING
1

that there is not I

the currency tend

principles of the I
Much labori
reported in geott
done on samples
produce samples
in geological agi
often not produc
practice does nc
environmental pl
generally too titr
ever, constitute a
field predictions
its geologicalll
2.1 INTRODUCTION which have suffi
are reliable. test r

No construction material has both engineering and physical properties which are to field performa
more variable than the ground. These properties vary both laterally and verti- Several prot
cally and often by largJ orders of magnitude. Those properties of
particular
cluding:
interest to the foundation engineer include:

ratio' 1. Recoverl ofu

t. Strength parameters (stress-strain modulus, shear modulus, Poisson's
friction)
2. Small quantit
cohesion, and angle ofinternal
3. Limitations c
2. Compressibility indexes (for deformation/settlement) sonnel)
3. Permeability
4. Gravimetrii-volumetric data (unit weight, specific gravity, void
ratio, water
Itis not diffrcult
content, etc.)
the practice of
being used in th
Someknowledgeaboutthesepropertiesallowstheengineertomakeesti
appear to the ca
mates for:
The proper
engineer have a'
1. Bearing capacity
information to i
2. Settlements includin$ both the amount and rate
as one-story loa
3. Earth pressures (both vertical and lateral)
store, office, and
4. Pore pressures and dewatering quantities
necessary inforr
latively shallotl'
Not all engineering properties of the soil are of equal importance in the design
of a given foundation. This review chapter will emphasize those mation would n
and construction
10
 CHA\-ICS IN FOUNDA ION ENGINEERING I I

soil mechanics principles most applicable for the analysis and design of founda-
tions.
The practice ol foundation engineering was largely empirical until 1925,
when K. Terzaghi, often called the "father of soil mechanics" published his book
"Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage." From this point
onward, and with the years from 1950 onward being especially fruitful, founda-
tion engineering has developed into a more rational approach. This is not to say
that there is not still a large element of "art" and empiricism in the practice, but
the currency tendency is to rely much more on laboratory testing and recognized
principles of the behavior of elastoplastic solids than was done earlier.
Much laboratory work in the area of soil behavior has been done and
reported in geotechnical literature in recent years. Most of this work has been
done on samples prepared under ideal conditions in the laboratory. This tends to
produce samples which are rather homogeneous, uniform, and generally lacking
in geological aging so that those properties of anisotropy and cementation are
olten not produced. A few laboratories attempt to reproduce anisotropy, but the
practice does not seem to be widespread at present. Reproducing aging and
environmental processes in the laboratory to obtain natural cementation effects is
generally too time-consuming to be practical. Tests on laboratory samples, how-
ever, constitute a large part of the data base on which empirical correlations and
field predictions are made. when one takes into account the actual soil makeup,
its geologically obtained properties, and the difficulties of obtaining sampies
which have sufficiently small amounts of disturbance that the resulting test data
are reliable, test data on laboratory prepared samples may bear little resemblance
to field performance.
Several problems are involved with laboratory testing or field samples, in-
cluding:

1. Recovery of undisturbed samples

2. Small quantity of samples relative to the volume of soil invoived
3. Limitations on laboratory test equipment (and sometimes of qualified per-
sonnel)

It is not drfficult to see that "engineering judgment" will play a significant role in
the practice of foundation engineering. The term engineering judgment is not
being used in this context to give dignity to a "guess," regardless of how it may
appear to the casual observer.
The proper application of engineering judgment requires that the foundation
engineer have available a site profile, soil property data, and suffrcient geological
inlormation to arrive at a safe, economical, and practical decision. In cases such
as one-story load-bearing wall construction used for buildings of the department
store, office, and service station type where the soil is relatively homogeneous, the
necessary information may comprise only the boring logs lrom four or fir,e re-
latively shallow exploratory borings. For a 10-story building the necessary infor-
mation would normally have to be more. where a 100-story building is involved,
12 nouNoarroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

the amount of information would be very considerable and might cost on the 2-3 SOrL VO
order of 0-5 to 1 percent of the total construction cost. It should be obvious that
in any of the examples cited it would be helpful if the foundation engineer had The more coml
provided recommendations and/or designs for previous projects near the current in the following
site. used in the follo

Void ratio e. Tl
given volume ol
2-2 FOUNDATION MATERIALS

The foundation engineer is concerned with the construction of some type of

engineered structure on earth, generally above any water surface-but it may be
beiow as for marine structures located under bodies of water, or rock. The earth Porosity n. The
is composed of a mixture of rock and soil, the latter being weathered or degraded may be express€
rock. frater in varying amounts is found in the pores, or voids, of the soil and in
more limited quantities in the cracks and pores of the rock. Air is also present in
many of the void spaces but usually is not a significiant factor in foundation
design. Water content u
Rock will be defined as that naturally occurring material composed of min- weight of soil so
eral particles so firmly bonded together that relatively great effort is required to
sepaiate them (ie., blasting, heavy crushing, or ripping forces). Soil is defined as
naturally occurring mineral aggregations which can be readily separated into
elemental particles and in mass form contains numerous voids. These voids Unit density p.
contain air, water, or organic materials in varying quantities. The elemental soil values are the si
particles are formed from the decomposition of rock by mechanical (air, ice, wind, but preferred us
and water) and chemical processes.
Soil deposits can be described as residual or transported formations. A resid- Unit weight 7 (i
ual soil foimation is .one which has been formed at the current location by corresponding v
decomposition of the parent rock. A transported soil is one which has formed at is
one loiation and has since been transported by wind, water, ice, or gravity to the
current site. The terms residual and transported must be taken in the proper
context, since many of the current residual soils are formed (or are being formed)
from transported soil deposits of earlier geological periods. In many cases these Commonly used
earlier deptsits have indurated to become rocks, and later uplifts have exposed
this mateiial (both rock and compressed soil) to a new onset of weathering. Areas
in which these processes are ongoing include the Appalachian mountains'
Piedmont regions, and much of the Plains area of the United States. Similar
areas exist on other continents.
The initial reason for classifying soil deposits as transported or residual was
that the latter soils tended (but not always) to have better engineering properties
of strength and deformation. In this context it may be preferable to apply the
classification of "transported soil" to a deposit of relative recent (geologically
speaking) age and produced from the activity of recent glacial, windborne (loess),
la)
and (including ongoing) water action. A number of geological survey maps are
available to locate areas where there is a high likelihood of encountering a Figure 2-1 (a) Weigl
expressed in terms ol
transported soil deposit.
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION
ENGINEERING I3
2-3 SOIL VOLUNIE AND DENSITY
RELATIONSHIPS
The more common soil definitions
and mathematicar relationships are presented
in the following sections. Figure:-r
iilustrates and defines a number
used in the following relationships of the terms

Void ratio e. The ratio of the volume

of voids Z, to the volume ol soilds V,
given volume of material, usually in a
."p..rr.a u, a decimal.

o:4 (2-1)
4
Porosity ir. The ratio of the volume
ol voids to the total volume V, of a soil
may be expressed as a percentage mass:
or a decimal.

n:4' V, (2-2)
Water content w. The ratio.cif the
weight of water Wn in a given soil mass to
the
weight of soil solids IZ, in the ,urn.
*ir, expressed as a percentage.
"nd
,':Yo,
W"
1nn
(2_3)
Unit density p. The ratio of mass per
unit of volume. In the Fps system
values are the same as unit the
but preferrecl
weight f;i"*;;;. The SI system gives units of kolm3,
r.rsage units are gii.m, o, t.,tirirl .

unit weight 7 (as distinct. from density). The

corresponding volume with units
ratio or the weight of soil to the
or iorce per unit volume. The general
expression

,4
^,':W,
(2-4)
Comnronly used units are pcf, kcf, or kl,{1m3. Drl,unit weight is based
on using the

f 11 f--.-l r r{s
-a I -F-r
JT
s
L
q, lI
,' I . r
r:\
lrll
l.f q,
I
\.>l
l
l
+iJ
;]
-:t #
I
J-:
t3 -+J
iT -L+ P
rt-
l:i vs lil
I
s -i
\5 $1
.'l jr-l i+
Yi
J]

--i t
lb)
Figure 2-l(c) weight,'vorume.eiationships
for a soir mass;1b) volumei,void relationships;(c)
expressed in terms of weights volumes
and specific grauirf.
14 rouNoerroN ANALYSTs AND DESIGN

weight of soil solids I,7, in Eq. (2-4). The saturated unit weight is obtained when Now dividing throu
I,7, is based on a state when all the soil voids are filled with water. of Eq. (2-a) obtain tl

Degree of saturation S. The ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of
soil voids and expressed as a percentage.
A useful relationship
s -v*v" x 100 (2-s)
From Eq. (2-6):14"..
A "saturated" soil as obtained from beneath the water table may have a com- FtomV,:1+ewe
puted S of95 to 100 percent. Substitution: W* - I
Obtain from Eq. (2-(
Specific gravity G. The ratio of the unit weight of a material in air to the unit Take G- : 1.00
weight of distilled water at 4'C. No serious error in soils work is introduced at
the usual laboratory temperature ranges of 15 to 25'C. The average specific
gravity of a mass of soil grains G" is computed as
With some additioni
^' - w,lv" w,lv,
tr-
W*IV.
),"
(2-6)
ln ln
In this equation 1l- : unit weight of water, usually taken as 1.00 g/cm3.
These six basic definitions/equations are suflicient to develop any needed
volumetric-gravimetric relationships for soil mechanics problems. For example, a and
useful relationship between the void ratio e and porosity n can be obtained as
follows (see Fig. 2-1b).
Since the volume values are symbolically given, let the volume of solids
I/": 1.00 and from Eq. (2-l) directly obtain e: V,. Placing these values on the
left side of Fig.2-1b gives 4: I + e. Making the indicated substitutions into Eq.
(2-2), obtain
Example 2-1 A cob
subjected to laborat
percent; G" : 2.6O: i
n:4:'
v, l+e (2-7) was placed in a ,i00
reader should note tl

This equation can be directly solved for e to obtain

Rseurnro
n
(2-8)
l-n 1. The wet unit wei_el
2. The dry unit weigl
From Fig. 2-la one obtains the total weight of soil by inspection as 3. Void ratio e and p
W,: W+ W (2-e) 4. Degree of saturatir
5. Dry-bulk specific 1

From the definition of the water content the W* is obtained as wW", and by
substitution we obtain SoruroN Step 1 Tl

ry:W*ww"
Solving for W",
w.
W^:
" -'---_l-
1+w
(2-10)
 SOIL MFCHANICS IN FOUNDATION
ENGINEERING 15
Norr i11'idrng throueh,by
: Eq (2-4.) obtain th*e very]he
t"olal volume ( and using the unit weight definition
ur"fut ..tatlonr-t ii io, O.y unit weight as

,o,r:ffi (2-11)
A useful rerationship for a
sarurared soir(s : 100 percent) can be obtained:
From Eq. e-61: W* vnl*Gn
=
rrom V,: I + e we have ( : 1.00
and V*: Vu: e
Substitution.. W : o^,
;;;;il 1::";' {;,:, il: f,,* v,, G, : *
Take G. : 1.00 (negligible error), :
7. 1.00, and use Eq.(2_3)to obtain
e : wG" (for S : 100 percent)
(2-12)
With some additional manipulations
one can obtain

":FG"
and
70., - &-G"
1+e (2-13)

/*",-9rlz(1 ar)
1+e (2-14)

Example 2-l A cohesire soil sncni-^- ,r-^-

:: fi"i.l :' "'T'.;:, ,l:'l;,;iiff f : ?;i T' f,Ti; :. i::" ffi,Tfl ;:;
r;"*.;il :.,TJl
determine
lll"rli:$';';'i;fl*J" "" "oo'"',-"ii..::: l"irl,,a sampre weighing 224.0 g
reader shourd;,;;;.";,.:?i3i::i#*
i?1^"#.",ili'"','"oii'.i,"-i'i'it'1"J"",ui".. ,r,.
Rtqurneo

L The wet unir weisht

2. The drv unir u.iJlt
3. Void rario unJ-porori,,
" ,
4. Degree ofsaturation S
5. Dry-bulk specific gravity

SolurroN Step 1 The wet unit weight is directly

obtained as

^. t'*", 224.0
- 500 _ J8,
__ L898 g crnr

: 1.898 x 62.4: 11g.5 O"p

: 1.898 x 9.807 : 19.61 p117._:
16 rouruoerroN ANALysrs AND DEsrcN

Step 2 The dry unit weight is obtained using Eq. (2-11): cementatlon proc
laboratorv sarnPlr
totY:
rt-. _:118.5 96.7 pcf quite lar-ee. Il thi
I+ 0.225
amount of ol.erde
18.61
: 15.19 kN/m3 different lprobabl
,rr: l- Orerconsolidatio
Step 3 The void ratio e and porosity n require some volume computations as follows: rent stress state i
present overbur'i
v": + : t:n-tJ\t^: : 0.5e6 cm3 (or rt3, m3) element in the s
G" )- 2.6q1.0)
consolidatodl if rl
4 : 4 - 4 : 1.000 - 0.5e6 : 0.404 cm3 the present on€
historl
: v' :o'404 : o.tll -seologicai
" 4 0.596 able imPortan.-:e
cohesionlcs s.--ih
,:+:ry: 0.404 (or 40.4 percent) materials.
4tm -;

Step 4 To find the degree of saturation S it will be necessary to find the volume of water The overct-n-*.i
in the voids. The weight of water l/. is the difference between the dry and wet weights;
therefore, consolidation Pre:;ll

1.898
w": l'898 - t 0 349 g 1in 1 cm3 of soil)
":
From Eq. (2-6) obtain V* : W* when using g and cm3;therefore,
Preconsolidatitrxl i3
has since eroded a
s:3 r 100::# x 100:86.4 percent
produced in a-kern
4 0.404

Step 5 The dry bulk specific gravity is obtained as (dimensionless) Pre5ent mat CtrrnLrfl
rery high ualu* C
r, 1.89811.225
man)- preconsoh'lal
C,::::::
" )., :1.549
1.00
burden. -A.knosl ail
consolidated tu-o vc*l
ca5e. the Precon-rcr i
propertis different
proprerties are ai!.,J i
2-4 MAJOR FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES OF SOILS -i. Formation of rri
via n'ater. tend i

There are a number of factors which affect the engineering properties of soils. ratios. OYer a Pr
Among the most important are the following: is develope'd wh:
produce pardcla
1. Natural cementation and aging. A specific soil structure is obtained (loose, lateraill' bttt
u< c

dense, unstable, etc.) when a soil deposit is formed. Environmental factors deeper the elerne
including leaching, temperature cycles, and organic activity may produce a
very stable structure through natural cementation of particle contacts. This This deposirior
can occur in the lower part ofthe A horizon and into the B horizon ofresidual Over geological tkl
deposits but is of principal importance in transported soil deposits. Both sand strainl is producer
and loess deposits can achieve considerable stability from the aging and surroundin-e soil Pr
 SOIL MI]CHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
17

cementation process. Note that while the individual grain

effects (and on small
iaboratory samples) can be very smail, the cumulative
effect in a mass can be
quite large. Il this effect is not identified in an exploration
program, a rarge
amount or overdesign can result andf or the mass response
wiil be considerably
different (probably safer) from that anticipated.
I- o'erconsolidation. A soil is said to be normally consoridated
(nc) if the cur_
rent stress state is the largest to which the mass has
been subjected; ie., the
present overburden_ (soil column) pressure p"
is the maximum pressure on an
element in the soir mass. The soil is said to
be overconsoliiated (or pre-
consolidated) if the compression behavior is as if
a column of soil larger than
the present one has compressed the soil element at
some time during the
geological history of the mass. The concept
of preconsolidation is of consider_
able importance lor cohesive soils but is not given
much consideration for
cohesionless soils-possibly because it is not easy to measure in the latter
materials.

The overconsolidation ratio (ocR) is defined as the

ratio of the pre-
r'onsolidation pressure p. to the present overburden pressure
po:

n
OCR:A (2-1s)
n

Preconsolidation can be obtained from a greater

depth of overburden soil which
has since eroded away. It can also be
iroduced from the shrinkage stresses
produced in alternate wet-dry cycles over period
a or time. chemical agents
present may combine with the wet-dry
cycles over georogical periods to pro-duce
tery high values of apparent overburden pressure.
It is probabre that about as
many preconsolidated deposits exist from shrinkage
cycles as from eroded over_
burden. Almost ali cohesive soil deposits in arid
and semiarid regions are pre_
consolidated to some extent because of the extremes
in wet-dry cycles. In any
case, the preconsolidation effect is to produce
a more dense soil with settlement
properties different from those from normally
consolidated soils. shear-strength
properties are also different, as qualitatively
shown inFig.2_17.

3. Formation of transported soil deposits. Transported

soir deposits, particularly
via water. tend initially to produce somewhai ioose
deposii, *itt rarge void
ratios. over a period of time as subsequent deposition
o""u.r, an overburden
is developed which produces vertical ,t..rr., on
a soil element. These stresses
produce particle displacement and elastic strains.
The soil attempts to displace
laterally but is confined by the surrounding soil. It
should be evident that the
deeper the element, the more pronounced this
effect will be.

This deposition effect produces a soir whose density

increases with depth.
over geological time spans the soil ceases to readjust
,o ih"t a steady state (zero
strain) is produced, with the overburden producing
a vertical stress and the
surrounding soil providing an exact compensating
lateral stress on an element.
 18 rouNoerroN ANALysrs AND
DESIGN

state condition is termed the

l$:.:TJr K, or at_rest condition, where K, is ]-5 ROLTI\E I
o't'
K - The follo*ing tests
ov inless stated othen
In this stress state both and o', are effective stresses. The
.o1
normally consolidated deposits value of Ko is ress in
t"han when ocR > 1. Generally -{nerberg Limits
OCR greater than 4 or 5 ii may Ko { 7, but for
U, f .O o. ,o_ewhat larger. The Atterberg lirnit
when site conditions change, ttre soii goes
stress state. During the transitiin
from the Ko stress state to a new to determine x.hen
from the existing ," #* ,i*dy_state il r r or nonplastic p
tion the soil stresses are very complex " condi_
and difficult to analyze.
- In the in situ K, condition the soir
t*v u" no,nog.n.ou; (same materiar) but
rs setdom isotropic (has same prop".,i.r'b"rh;;;;;;;il'#
most. if nor ar, cases the soir verricalry). In
is unirotropi.iilffiffi.J01Ji".,,.,
meability are differeni in the verricar-anJiaterar and per_ is the arbitrarv rar
soil tends to be stratified and directions. A, ;il very reast the The shrinkage limil
ln.r.ur., m A.nsity with depth.
{-rl mass volume tak,
4' rntact or fissured crays. The term "clay,'is The liquid and
used to describe any cohesive soil
deposit with sufficient cray pr.r*,-iii, citf index is connn
formation of cracks or fisrur",
drying p."0""". Jiintur" with the internal frictit-rn anc
can be troubresome for both
;; ,# block slippage can occur. These
soils The liquidirl in
neta rampirng. and
torv srrength tesrs the fissures can testing. In labora_
a.nn'. iui".. pi;;;;;;;'orl"du".
'aboratory fictitiousry
low strength predictions. In ti;,
rrr*."".,.*hen the potintial slip block
confined or bridged by the toui.J-ur"u, is
the fissures may be of much ress
rmportance. A greater potential
for
jointed) clays during construction. strength ."oucdon existl in fissured (or
opening un .*"uuuiror^-,.a""., the can be used to e:rr
burden pressure p, so.that,th. over-
fi;;;;;
enter these openings with a resurt
enlarge. nuin','ur.. * humidity shock (the natura.l r
strength. An "intact" clay, as
oi-lotl:"t* ,h":"r"r-;;; reducingcan its
be the result of pile ,

the name impries, ii *irilr, iri.. orfissures

and joints' Intact clays tend "r.
to u. i"r-ary consolidated (ocR : 1), since
shrinkage cracks are an indication
thai dryi.rg ,t..rr", h-*,Ii' oeueloped,
yill some apparent preconsolidation
- soil water' Soil water. being produced.
5' is a major rn"il. t foundation design
standpoint of construction problemr from the
strength. It is a factor in boih
ui] or its aaveise enJJf'on the shear
and cohesive soil deposits. water
"oh"rioni.r,
effects in cohesionress. so's incl.a.
p.""rJi"g surface tension which may
low verrical cuts, making i* oini*ii allow
high and convertinq the-mass
i"'lo-'u., unress the water content is
a-a aa' a

,r fluid (termed liquefaction) under

shock-load conditiJns *19n " "i**,
s- roo p.r*rr. Water effects in cohesive soils
incrude changes in prasticitv ls *t

content' Shear strength is

G"ft";;d-;; stiffening) from changes in water
iffected by the presence of water
softening (or stiffening) ana_markedly via j
atso Jy
causes (load increase or ";;;;", in pore pressure from external
decrease, to*"rrrrg-of water
table, pumping, etc.). Figure 2-2 (c) Graphical
e occurs at$ater conlent
 S(xL L{ECHANICS IN F(--TUhIDAIION E}.,IGINEERING I9

2-5 ROUTINE LABORATORY TESTS

The following tests are those most commonly usecl lbr for^rndation design work
unless slated otherwise.

Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits are routine laboratory tests fcrr arbitrary moisture contents
to determine when the soil is on the verge of being a viscous fluid (iiquid limit
u,t_) or nonplastic (plastic limit w"). The plasticity index 1p,

IP:wr-wP
is the arbitrary range of water contents (Fig. 2-2u) lor which the soil is plastic.
The shrinkage limit w, is that water content beyond which no further reduction
of mass volume takes place with further drying.
The liquid and plastic limits are widely used for soil classification. The plasti-
city index is commonly used as a correlation factor to estimate the angle of
internal friction and settlement parameters.
The liquidity index defined as

Ir: (2-t6)
'ilt - wp

can be used to estimate the in situ state. Il Ir> l, the soil may liquefy under a
shock (the natural water content is above the liquid iimit). A sndden shock may
be the resuit of pile driving or even heavy equipment operating in the vicinity.

t
I

q)

e
o /.<
' -l'robob
)

e
3o
V scous
l:l u,d

Woter conieni w, percent

(")

Figure 2-2 (a) Graphical significance of liquid and plastic limits; (b) no further reduction in void ratio
e occurs at water contents below shrinkage limit n".
 _r---
I
I

20 rouNuarroN ANALysrs AND DESTGN

Specific Gravity G"

Specific gravity G" may be determined in a laboratory
test with moderate diffi-
culty. This test is not often performed, since the specific gravity
does not have a
wide range of values for most soils, as indicated
below. where €^ r,',
€min.'i
en
Soil G"
Holtz (1973
Gravel 2.65-2.68 gravelly soils wi
Sand 2.65 2.69 for sandy soils is
Silt, inorganic 2.62-2.69 The relative
Clay, organic 2.59.2.65 tion under eartt
Clay,inorganic 2.69-2.75
Finn et al. (1971
It is the au
while using a ur
A value of 2.67 is commonly used for cohesionless soils and The reason is tl
a value of 2.6g to
2.72 for inorganic cohesive soils. The specific gravity for Eq. (2-18).
i, n..al to compute the I
void ratio in consolidation studies and sometimis author's labora
to compute unit weights.
number of timer
Unit Weight y
unit weight y is fairly easy to evaluate for a cohesive soil by trimming
and placing it in a container of known volume
a block
and measuring the water necess_ The maximum
ary to fill the container. If the work is done rapidly
so that tie sample does not from all tests w
absorb water, a reliable value can be obtained-if
ihe averag, oi ,.u..ut trials is take the existinl
used.
It is very difficult
to determine the in situ unit weight of cohesionless depo_
sits, since undisturbed samples are diffrcult to recover.
Estimated values of unit
weight-are commonly used for these materials
based on field e"ptoration tests (see
chap. 3). Tables 3-2 and.3-3 give a range of values for A second possil
unit weight which may be
used in the absence of laboratory data. It should
be evident that a ..loose,, soil
has a smaller unit weight than a.fdense" soil.
unit weight is necessary to compute the present overburden pressure
consolidation studies and to estimate ihe net intrease for
in u""ring ;ressure which These computa
can be allowed at some. depth in the ground. It is Chapter 3
also needed to-compute lateral 1

pressures against retaining structures and

to make estimates of skin resistance for in experiment 1

piles.
or obtain a unil

Relative Density D,
Water Conten
Relative density is sometimes used in cohesionless
soils to describe the state This is a routit
condition. Relative density may be defined as paction tests. c
from exploratic
€, - €^in
u,:
n
.oll-i- Q-17)
The natura
max c min the water table
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 2I

^1,
D,: - | ^i, ^'y'

^u* (2- 18)

7-u* - 7-i. "ln

where €*u*, )'.in :

void ratio and unit weight of soil in loosest state
€min, ?max :
void ratio and unit weight of soil in densest state
€n, ^in: existing void ratio and unit weight

Holtz (1973') reports that relative density determinations can be made on all
gravelly soils with fines (-No. 200 sieve)less than 8 percent. The fines limitation
lor sandy soils is between 12 and 16 percent.
The relative density D, is used by some agencies to identify potential liquefac-
tion under earthquake or other shock-type loads [Durham and rownsend (1973),
Finn et al. (1971)1.
It is the author's opinion that the D. test (or criterion) is almost worthless
while using a unit weight value is a good quality-control criterion and practical.
The reason is that it is very difficult to determine the three unit weights required
for Eq. (2-18). For example, a coarse, well-graded sand (SW) was tested in the
author's laboratory (with the sand replaced and remixed each time) a large
number of times, yielding the foliowing:

7-u^: 120 Pcf- 3 Pcf

Imin: 97 pcf * 3 pcf

The maximum unit weight was 120 pcfl; the - 3 pcf means the average value
from all tests was 117 pcf. values have been rounded to l pcf for simplicity. If we
take the existing value 7n : 110 + 2 pcf, what is the range of D,?

D': 108- 100(117)

n7 * roo (logt-:
o5t

A second possibility is

D': 112-r00ilr7)
Ir7 - roo (l14-:
o'74

These computations give a range of D, of 74

- 5l: 23 percent.
Chapter 3 gives a method of indirectly determining D" in situ. Bowles (1978)
in experiment 18 illustrates a simple laboratory procedure to either compute D,
or obtain a unit weight for quality control.

Water Content p
This is a routine laboratory determination as part of the Atterberg limits, com-
paction tests, compression tests, shear tests, etc. Il it is made on soils obtained
from exploration borings, it is the natural rnoisture content rvN.
The natural moisture content w" for a saturated soil is useful in preclictrng
the water table location and the location ol a perched water tabie. This value can
22 r'ounoarroN ANALysrs AND DESTGN

be used together with the Atterberg limits (wp and wr) to estimate if the soil is
preconsolidated. A soil which has been preconsolidated is at a higher density Sr
(lower void volume) than a normally consolidated soil. In normally consolidated
inorganic clays the liquid limit is generally close to the natural water content. In
overconsolidated material which has a higher density, the wry value must of
necessity be less and so, if closer to the w" than to wr, is an indication of
preconsolidation. It necessarily follows that the closer wry is to wp the larger the
OCR is in qualitative terms. This procedure should be used with discretion,
however, since many marine deposits and deposits underlying marsh areas
exhibit large OCRs in the upper zones with wN near or even exceeding w1 [see
Ladd and Foott (1974)and Koutsoftas (1980)1.

Grain Size l

:
The grain-size-distribution test (see Fig. 2-3\ is used for soil classification, al-
though for much foundation analysis the soil classification is based on a visual :
inspection, supplemented by methods indicated later. The engineer is usually
concerned only with whether the soil is gravel, sand, silt, or clay, or sandy clay,
silty sand, etc., where the second term is the predominant material and the first
indicates the filler; for example, sandy clay is a clay with some sand present. This
type of visual classification can, with some exercise, be determined quite reliably
by one of the following procedures or tests:

1. To differentiate between gravel and sand, samples of each type of material can
be prepared to include jars of fine, medium, and coarse sizes if the material is
to be further subdivided and can be kept in the laboratory. The engineer
simply makesh visual comparison.
2. To differentiate between fine sand and silt, both materials may appear as dust
when dry. By placing a spoonful of the soil in a test tube of water and shaking,
sand or silt can be detected, since the sand settles out in 1| min or less,
whereas the silt takes 5 or more minutes to settle (i.e., water clears). One can
observe relative thickness of the sediments for subclassification, as silty sand,
etc.
-t, To differentiate between silt and clay:
a. One moistens a spot on a soil lump and rubs a finger on it. If the rubbed
spot appears smooth, the material is clay, but if it appears scratched, it is Frylns:--l ,.c larr
silt or silty.
b. 'Ihe dispersion test is made by mixing the material in water in a test tube
and observing the time for the water to clear. Silt usually takes 10 min or
less, whereas clay may take several hours or more.
c. Mix a small quantity of soil with water to form a plastic ball and place it in
the palm of the hand and shake horizontally with jerking movements. If the
material is silt or predominantly silt, the surface will become wet and shiny
since water travels through silt particles relatively easily and the inertia
 SOII- MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 23

U.S. British (B.S.) German DIN French

Sieve no- mm Sieve no. mm Sieve no. mm Sieve no. mm

4 4.76

l0* 2.00 8* 2.051 34* 2.000

20 0.841 16 1.003 31 1.000

30 0.595 30 0.500 s00 0.500 28 0.500

361 0.422 4001 0.400 27+ 0.400

40r 0.420
50 0.291 52 0.295
60 0.250 60 0.251 2s0 0.250 25 0.250

80 0.11'7 85 0.178 160 0.160 23 0.160

100 0.149 t00 0.152 125 0.125 22 0.125

200 0.074 200 0.076 80 0.080 20 0.080

210 0.053 rin 0.05 3 50 0.050 18 0.050

i Breakpoint between sand and gravel.

i Use for Atterberg Limits.
G)

r00

t^^
'oobU
t
i60
o
c
:;40 We groded soil
Poor y groded
o (uni{orm) soi
b20
d

0
l0 1.0 Dts D,o 0.1
Groin size, mm
(b)

Figure 2-3 (a) Various standard sieve numbers and screen openings (b) grain-size-distribution curves

lrn
 24 rouNo.q,rroN ANALysrs AND DESTGN

forces cause the water to move to the surface. clay, on the other hand,
shows no change. Table 3-3 giv
d. crushing of dry clay lumps is relatively dilficult, whereas silt lumps break these classific:
quite easily. The founr
e. clay can be rolled out into small threads, whereas silt is much more diffi_ for assistance.
cult to roll into small threads and generally requires much more water. system of Tab
silty sand, lor
Grain size is of considerable importance in seepage and soil-drainage prob- plasticity, CH
lems. "st!ff," and "1
encing these c
same type of
2.6 SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN FOUNDATION DESIGN much informi
could exist in
It is necessary for the foundation engineer to classify the site soils for use as a design proper
foundation for several reasons: Other ten
classification
1. To be able to use the data base of others in predicting forundation per- report to the <
formance.
2. To build the geotechnical engineer's data base in the ..art" application of
design. 2-7 SOIL C
3. To maintain a permanent record which can be understood by others should
Identifying na
problems later develop and outside parties be required to investigate the orig-
or types of ro
inal design.
follows:
Normally the unified soil classification system (Table 2-1) with slight modi-
1. Bedrock. R
fications is used in foundation design work. For example, in much foundation
izontally ar
work it is academic whether a sand is well or poorly graded, but its density and
depths. If e
the presence of gravel are of considerable interest. whether a fine-grained cohe-
from igneor
sive soil is actually a clayey silt rather than a silty clay is not as important as
metamorphi
identifying its strength and settlement characteristics.
great heat
In foundation work the following terms are commonly used for cohesionless
chemical ac
soil deposits:
but the intr
and may cr
Loose
geologic hi
Medium
faulted. Var
Dense
mation, esp
Table 3-2 gives additional subdivisions with quantifications based on using field (1965), both
exploration data. Noting that these terms are both subjective and comparative, 2. Boulders. S
one should avoid using an excessive number of subdivisions. Similar subjective rock, usualJ
terms used for cohesive soils are: than bouldr
to5mmmi
Very soft 3. Gravel. Cor
Soft maximum t
Medium tured, bank'
stiff containing
Hard mm (pea si
particle adh
 SOIL ]\{ECIIANICS IN TOI]ND"4TX{)N F]NGINEERING 25

Table 3-3 gives additional subdivisions trut, again, with the subjective nature of
these classifications a large number of subdivisons should tre avoided"
The foundation engineer relies prirnariiy on a written clescription of the soil
for assistance. Where a soil may simpiy ela-ssity as a SM or CH in the Uni{ied soil
system olTable 2-l,the geotechnicai engineer would say "Reddish-brorvn, clense,
silty sand, low plasticity, SM" or "Gray-blue stiff clay with trace af sand, high
plasticity, CH." The coloring and other distinguishing features such as "dense,"
"stiff," and "trace of sand" are self-explanatory, but note the ease ofcross refer-
encing these data to the next job the engineer might have in this area where the
same type of material is encountered. The terms SM and CH would not convey
much information alone, and it is altogether possible that another SM or CH
could exist in the same boring at a different depth with very different foundation
design properties (i.e., loose, gravelly, very dense, less silty, soft or hard, etc.).
Other terms given in the next section may be used in the identification and
classification of the soil at a site for foundation suitability and in preparing a
report to the client on general findings and recommendations.

2-7 SOIL CLASSIFICATION TERMS

Identifying names, some of which are local in nature, are assigned to certain sizes
or types of rock or soil formations, of which some ol the principal ones are as
follows:

1. Bedrock. Rock in its native location, usually extending greatly both hor-
izontally and vertically. This material is generally overlain by soil of varying
depths. If exposed, the outer portions may become weathered. Bedrock varies
ftom igneous rocks, generally the hardest and formed from molten magma, to
metamorphic rocks formed from metamorphizing sedimentary rocks under
great heat and pressure, to sedimentary rocks formed as a combination of
chemical action and pressure from overlying soil deposits. Rocks may be solid,
but the interface with the overiying soil may be much lractured and eroded
and may contain voids from several weathering processes. Depending on the
geologic history ol the area, the rocks may be much fractured, flolded, and
faulted. Various textbooks on geology should be consulted for further infor-
mation, especially concerning particular areas [e.g., I-egget (1962), Thornbury
(1965), both with extensive referencesl.
2. Boulders. Smaller pieces of material which have broken away from the bed-
rock, usually 250 to 300 mm or more in dimension (Table 2-2). Pieces smaller
than bouiders may be called cobbles (50 to 75 mm minimum size) or pebbles (3
to 5 mm minimum size).
3. Gravel. Common term used to describe pieces of rock from about 150 mm
maximum to less than 5 mm dimensions. May be crushed stone when manufac-
tured, bank-run grauel when excavated from a naturally occurring deposit and
containing finer material, or pea grauel if it has been screened to sizes 5 to 3
mm (pea size). Gravel is a cohesionless material; that is, it does not possess
particle adhesion or attraction.

[ili
 oo
0
!*
I
I

*'g I
9o o-
^d
lEd
| .F-
oo
ko
6a
d
:' :!
o ILog: ts o!.
o
aO
.=.o s-
o q ooq
o > c\ od
'
o ={, ' (tl
!s 9m
_6
I
tio
< 5, UO FJ
:! 3
€ '--o
I o -
q >tl]' \la gE =,o
;-o- Ex o
trN
6 ^l o = a : E
q
J
q
lt
a
o
t_ IH
I
U
I

a
lr lt q r
U
:t l\f
<d
t- E .; .9
< <;
,4

!E
o 6
I a- I
1<a
9, d -\f o
d I q,E nc!
b0 OE -Od
o q3 o0 !! 60
d ,- o ob0 O
e8l,
'= g 6l)
b0
@

o
]E
| -\
I bO! I :*
I tr\
da
bt)
'!
oo c
@!
c\
@.:
o do o
tr
Eo
3A bt
!q aa
o
o o/
-o LE ..oo Po
l! tl a= il o.= o .=
J
U z io i t, z
Determine percentages of sand and gravel from grain-size curve.
Depending on percentage offines (fraction srnaller than No.200 sieve size).
coarse-grained soils are classified as follows:
Less than 5 percent GW. GP, SW, SP
More than 12 percent CM, GC, SM, SC
5to 12 percent Borderline cases requiring dual symbolsf

.U;
a
$
o d o ^O
a
o\ o €!

t't s>
o
:! c_= o0tr c
oo3
b0;
,;= '
c) o Y.o a=6
-o;o
:Jq
H9>Y.; -; -
=
E oG- 6:: ";= Y o;'=
cl ol o o Es
bo? ob= - 'do ca
6= E;so=
- ! \i E >

Ea ijo- i:qo =
D! d> o U- >rc oo> c -oO -!e:to e
c! '6E >= 9c Ld
>.; ': .9=--=!
th o. =L-
o il= o o0O 6 o0o
>\
dtr -Ho?i- =
I F (a)
O A U) O tb9.E:
oG A;
i
:
'o= '
cl
o.o
3-o E (,
I 0: o 2 a *(J
I
O J
(A
0 a
i
2
ct
I .
sravels
L lean
I I
Grarels with fines
L lean
,
sands I I
Sands with fines
(APPreciable (AnRreciable
a rlitrt. or"no nn..r I il-irtte
' or no nn.rt |
' I
amount of fines) amounr of fines)
O
I
Crar els Sands (Liquid lrm;
D (More than half of coarse fraction is (More than half of coarse fraction is

I
larger than No. 4 sieve size) smaller than No. 4 sieve size)
(\t
q)
E o Coarse-gri rined soils
cl More than half of material larger than No. 200 sieve size)
F ts

26
 *-' c

O
O ='
'vb
O F
G.

(.)
;.a
e
@ tr-
c)
f\
;s
-e
LN
0
{.:
(.)

.E
9; ) "a

.s
SA
C)
.,tr c
() o
a ;:,

€!
c)
a!
*.)
,- :.b4
oJ
€e
OOO
SON
xapu ll t lsl ;
'ca
;{
T.i a
s-*
U=a

p.*3
o Oa '-i!
c .9 ! -
.iE 52 E : = oo6
-E!6n
'lvE
sZ }:- bb
= 8E; !, ; ! s -J :
);
;H^X3 -rir:
L: d'o
z
-': ^= *E-":
A'a :E
Lr=='--)==!O
zi|, ir -a- ,Z: 44
ac=,7+,2'=':=
i I -o ;= e =;, , a o :2 , J; ) u - L
ob9a;: :"Fa^':
&;i": I'i
E Sotd ,it-6
5EF,tt ='-,
=
::s:
:j6:
&-r:is i :i:;oid ::
!EE E=
:*5 rrt
-;i
-
- LLc
3c;; - b
tr 3€i i'lo
ib:l
a- j. 3Li ='L
5Z !=;
='J" ;E
=j,a,o --

vr
'__i
=- ii
QO -
>!-67,
tr d,.; M
Silts and clays Silts and clays (Liquirl ll ighiy
z- d;
(Liquid linrit less than 50) limit greater than 50) olganic U! ? IJ
soils =.1 r b
co5:
v.a1i
Fine-grained soils
(More than hall of material is smaller than No. 200 sieve) -.F
3L)

)f
28 nouNoeuoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGT*

A12O3 . 3H2C
Table 2-2 Usual size range for general soil classification ness of appror
terminology water, and ml
between clay
Material Upper, mm Lorver, mm Comments
part for the hi
+ 75 morillonite clz
Boulders (or cobbles) 300
'15 1< No. 4 or No. 10 sieve ther clay mine
Gravel
Sand 2-5 0.074-{.05 No. 200 sieve or less active than m
Silt 0.074-{.05 0.006 potassium ior
Rock flour 0.006 Inert
0.001 Particle attraction montmorillon
Clay 0.002
0.001 of the kaolin 1
Colloids
clay minerals.
quantities ol
chlorite, and t
4.Sand.Mineralparticlessmallerthangravelbutlargerthanabout0.05to0.0T4 material in w
mm.Maybefine,medium,orcoarse,dependingonthesizeofthemajorityof interparticle a
the partilles. sand is a cohesionless material; however,
if it is damp or moist,
cohesion. which disap-
ite are the mo
the surface tension of the water may give an apparent
certain localer
pearswhenthematerialdriesorbecomessaturated.Sandisafavorablecon- with certain
struction material. It has excellent bearing capacity if confined.
r
Unconfined
pavements, etc., and reported by C
medium to fine sand will flow from beneath foundations,
and by wave or Chicago, Ill.. I

ihi, p.o".r, can be accelerated by water flowing through

any retaining and others. L
stream action eroding it. since waier flows easily through sand,
as silts, clays, or been extensiv
structure for water itust contain nonsand materials such gley (1965)1.
mixtures of both. Excavations in sand will stand on slopes of about 1Il to
illustrated in
1.5H or less. Excavations steeper than this are potentially unstable'
0'074 mm maximum to 7. Terms which
5. Silt. Mineral particles ranging in size from 0'05 to a. Adobe. Ac
if it contains appreciable quantities
0.002 to 0.006 mm-It is caileiorganic silt
b. Cqliche. A
if no organic materials are present' Silt
of organic materials, and inorganic silr ates and u
particle attraction and adhesion, and may
usual'iy exhibits some cohesii, or c. Glacial rill
also have apparent cohesion,which is lost upon drying' 6slsrally the cohesion
through the mass' gravel, silt
in silt soils is due to the presence of clay particles dispersed
will give significant clay charac- North A-n
often as little as 5 to 8 percent clay particles
material unless countrier
teristics to a silt. Silt is generally not a very good foundation usually us
dry or highly .o-p."rrJd into a sedimentary rock (siltstone). It is normally
material, it is diffrcult to usually us
loore und quite compressible. As a construction
too wet is must chec
compact uniess the water content is carefully controlled.-Material
of compaction equip- Moraines
likely to weave (sometimes termed bull,s liver) ahead
side the gl
ment. if formed
currently take
6. Clay. Mineral particles smaller than silt size (most authorities area, for e
clay particles ai sizes 0.002 mm or smaller). If the particles are smaller than
d. Gumbo. A
about0.001mm(1,um),theymaybeca|ledcolloids.Theclayparticllesare e. Hardpan.
complex hydroaluminum silicates (AtrO.'nSiO2
'kHzO' where n and k are
is a term for the firm depot
numerical values of molecules attached). Montmorillonite
most common mineral of the montmorillonite group, and is the most active of f. Loam. A.n

particle consists of a gibbsite (approximately, g. Loess. At

the identified clay minerals. The
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 29

A12o3 ' 3Hro) mass sandwiched between two silica sheets for a total thick-
ness of approximately 10 A (angstroms). This material has a strong affinity for
water, and may take on as much as 200 A of water for a total of 4d0 A
between clay particles. It is this affinity for water which accounts in a large
part for the high shrinkage and swelling characteristics (activity) of the monl-
morillonite clays. The usual thickness of water is probably 10 to 100 A. Ano-
ther clay mineral, illite, the most commonly occurring of the illite group, is less
active than montmorillonite, since the adjacent silica layers are bonded with
potassium ions, which provide a stronger bond than the water bond of the
montmorillonite mineral. A third clay mineral, the most commonly occurring
of the kaolin group, is kaolinite (Al2o3 ' 2sio . 2H2o), the reast active of the
clay minerals. Some other clay minerals are bentonite, which contains large
quantities of montmorillonite and is highly active, halloysite, pyrophyltiie,
chlorite, and uermiculite. Clay is also defined as a cohesiue material, that is, a
material in which the particles tend to stick together from a combination of
interparticle attractions and water effects. Kaolinite, illite, and montmorillon-
ite are the most commonly occurring clay minerals. clays tend to be named in
certain locales. For example, London clay is a clay found in London, England,
with certain characteristics, Boston blue clay from Boston, Mass., has been
reported by casagrande and Fadum (1944) and others. chicago blue clay from
chicago, Ill., has been extensively studied by peck [see peck and Reed (1954)]
and others. Leda clay found in large areas of ottawa province in canada has
been extensively studied and reported [crawford (1961), Soderman and
eui-
gley (1965)1. Typical profiles of the Boston, Chicago, and London clay are
illustrated rn Fig. 2-4.
Terms which tend to be localized:
a. Adobe. A clayey material found notably in the Southwest.
b. caliche. A conglomeration of sand, gravel, silt. and clay bonded by carbon-
ates and usually found in arid areas.
c. Glacial till or glacial drift. A mixture of material which may include sand,
gravel, silt, and clay, deposited by glacial action. Large areas of central
North America, much of canada, northern Europe, the Scandinavian
countries, and the British Isles are overlain with glacial till or drift. Drift is
usually used to describe any materials laid down by the glacier. Till is
usualiy used to describe materials precipitated out of the ice, but the user
must check the context of usage, as the terms are used interchangeably.
Moraines are glacial deposits scraped or pushed ahead (terminal), or along-
side the glacier (lateral). These deposits may also be called ground moraines
if formed by seasonal advances and retreats of a glacier. The chicago, Ill.,
area, for example, is underlain by three iclentifiable ground moraines.
d. Gumbo. A clayey or loamy material which is very sticky when wet.
e. Hardpan. This term may be used to describe caiiche or any other dense,
flrm deposits which are excavated with diffrculty.
f. Loam. A mixture of sand, clay, silt; an organic materiar; also called topsoil.
g. Loess. A uniform deposit of silt-sized material formed by wind action. often

fr
30 t ouNoluoN ANALYSTS AND DESIGN

(o)Chicogo Later uPl

exposed tl
sond a grovel fill silt-clay n
sond & grovel
sondy, groy
inorgonic silt orgonic sill claY laYet
E-stifl cloy crust usually sc
verv sofi blue cloY
'w1,34-507. med. "blue" or yellow cloy
wl, 26 - 5O7"
wt'42-52"k brown cloy b. Black cort
w;. 22 - 25 "k
qu < 32kPo w1, 25 - 40 7o fall is 50(
20 2o l.ritt., become t
so,fl lo med. biue cloY soft "blue" cloy wL' 50 - 80 o/"
wL' 30 - 35 7' wL, 30- 50 % wP'18-25% and ver]'
w*, 20 307. wp. t8 - 22 "h ||N'20-25'k-
wN,20-50% qu j 50-200 l(Po Australia
qu ' 25-l0o kPo
30 c. Laterites.
)lue cloy heavy ra
s'tiff 1o very slitf qu' 2oo-4oo kPo color. Tt
20 blue cloy '& '-l
"^l the subst
w, , 25- 30% hord pon
*[. te-zzz I
lstiffer and rain
qu ' l0o - 400 kPo
bedrock
sloty shole
aluminut
hord grcy cloy
w,. < 2Oo/o
uble in t
*""' e - tsz 50-65m soils are
qu > 400 kPo
found il
lands.la
east Asi:
Figure 2-4 Typical soil profiles at locations indicated. Values for soil properties indicate order of d. Residual
magnitude to be used for design.
-not of rocks
States e:
Southea
found along the Mississippi River, where damp air rising affects the density
RockY t
of the air transporting the material, causing it to deposit out. Such deposits
areas of
are not, however, confined to the Mississippi Valley. Large areas of Ne-
braska, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana are covered by loess deposits. Large e. SaProlit,
areas of China and Russia (Siberia) and some areas of Europe are covered Soil is t
with loess deposits. Loess is considered to be a transportedsoll. soil deP
h. Muck. A thin watery mixture of soil and organic material. describx
i. Pest. Partly decayed organic matter;may be contaminated with soil. f. Shale.
pressed
8. Other terms used in soil classification:
general
a. Alluuial deposits. Soil deposits formed by sedimentation of soil particles
from flowing water; may be lake deposits if found in lake beds; deltas at the or siltst
mouths of rivers; marine deposits if deposited through saltwater along and Accord
on the continental shelf. Alluvial deposits are found worldwide. For exam- rock in
ple, New Orleans, La., is located on a delta deposit. The low countries of of quar
Holland and Belgium are founded on alluvial deposits from the Rhine be gror

River exiting into the North Sea. Lake deposits are found around and compa(
beneath the Great Lakes area of the United States. Large areas of the excaval
Atlantic coastal plain, including the eastern parts of Maryland, Virginia, the sometil
Carolinas, and the eastern part and most of South Georgia, Florida, South require
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas consist of alluvial deposits. pressu
These deposits formed when much of this land was covered with the seas. combir
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 31

Later upheavals such as that forming the Appalachian mountains have

exposed this material. Alluvial deposits are fine-grained materials, generally
silt-clay mixtures, silts, or clays and fine to medium sands. If the sand and
clay layers alternate, the deposit is a uarued clay. Alluvial deposits are
usually soft and highly compressible.
b. Black cotton soils. Semitropical soils found in areas where the annual rain-
fall is 500 to 750 mm. They range from black to dark gray. They tend to
become hard with very large cracks (large-volume-change soils) when dry
and very soft and spongy when wet. These soils are found in large areas of
Australia, India, and Southeast Asia.
c. Laterites. Another name for residual soils lound in tropical areas with
heavy rainfalis. These soils are typically bright red to reddish brown in
color. These soils are formed initially by weathering ol igneous rocks with
the subsequent leaching and chemical erosion due to the high temperature
and rainflall. The collodial silica is leaching downward, leaving behind
aluminum and iron which become highly oxidized and are relatively insol-
uble in the high-pH environment (greater than 7). well-developed laterite
soils are generally porous and relatively incompressible. Lateritic soils are
found in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, many of the Caribbean is-
lands, large areas of Central and South America, and parts of India, South-
east Asia, and Africa.
d. Residual soll. Soil formed in place by mechanical and chemical weathering
of rocks. This soil is found over much of the Eastern part of the United
States east of the Appalachian mountains. It is also found over much of the
Southeastern United States and large areas located in the Ozark and
Rocky mountains. It is also found on most islands of the world, in large
areas of South America, Australia, and parts of Europe.
e. saprolite. Still another name for residual soils formed from weathered rock.
Soil is often characterized by soil particles to large angular stones in the
soil deposit. Check the context of use to see if the term is being used to
describe laterite soils or residual soils.
f. Shale. A fine-grained, sedimentary rock composed essentially of com-
pressed and/or cemented clay particles. It is usually laminated from the
general parallel orientation of the clay particles as distinct from claystone
or siltstone, which are indurated deposits of random particle orientation.
According to Underwo od (1967), shale is the predominant sedimentary
rock in the earth's crust. It is often misclassified;layered sedimentary rocks
of quartz or argillaceous materials such as argillite are not shale. Shale may
be grouped as (1) compaction shale, and (2) cemented (rock) shale. The
compaction shale is a transition material lrom soil to rock and can be
excavated with modern earth-excavation equipment. cemented shale can
sometimes be excavated with excavation equipment but more generally
requires blasting. Compaction shales have been formed by consolidation
pressure and very little cementing action. Cernented shales are formed by a
combination of cementing and consolidation pressure. They tend to ring

F
 32 nouNoerroN ANALYSIS AND DESTcN

when struck by a hammer, do not slake in water, and have the general 1. This is the i
characteristics of good rock. Compaction shales, being of an intermediate 2. The value i,
quality, will generally soften and expand upon exposure to weathering for the triar
when excavations are opened. Shales may be clayey, silty, or sandy if the
composition is predominantly clay, silt, or sand, respectively. Dry unit Several inr
weight of shale may range from about 12.5 kN/m3 for poor-quality com- liest, and proi
paction shale to 25.1 kN/m3 for high-quality cemented shale. consolidated ;
Figure 2-3a displays the most commonly used numbered sieves and their silos):
openings in millimeters. Figure 2-3b displays typical grain-size distribution curves
for a well-graded and a poorly graded soil. Note that it was necessary to use a
hydrometer analysis to obtain the grain sizes smaller than 0.074 mm. A sieve
anaiysis together with the Atterberg limits would be used with Table 2-l to
which has beer:
classily a soil.

2-8 IN SITU STRESSES AND K, CONDITIONS where @' : s1'g

For norm.
The K, soil state was defined in Sec. 2-4 as being an equilibrium steady-state
condition ofzero lateral and vertical strains.
Alpan (196-r :,
A soil state with no horizontal and vertical strains has no shearing stresses (in percentl as
on these planes and the normal stresses are principal stresses. Any new stress
conditions imposed on the soil element use the K, stress ratio as a starting point
(see Fig. 2-5).
Experimenta.
It is extremely
difficult to measure K, in situ; however, Chap.3 presents
resulting in i:.;
several methods which give results ol varying degrees of accuracy. There are two
very good reasons why one should be able to ascertain K, with some degree of
accuracy.
The val;.'

o tol
oh
po no, l
yi
Po l
-
qh a 461_
,,
co
pc
. nool
I

o 421

.,.1_
i

Figure 2-5 Qualitative representation for soil stresses for OCR : I (normally consolidated, nc and O 38^!-
34 1

OCR > 1. Note that the limiting equilibrium fcrr a normally consolidated soil is o, < on
.

+ila
-
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 33

1. This is the in situ reference state for changes in load conditions.

2. The value is needed for laboratory testing to reproduce the in situ stress state
lor the triaxial test.

several investigators have proposed approximations for Ko. one of the ear-
liest, and probably the most widely used, is that of Jaky (1948) for normally
consolidated cohesionless soils (and for agricultural grains stored in bins and
silos):

r(":ffi l+2l3sin@') (2-te)

which has been simplified to

Ko:l-sin@' (2-20)
where /' : effective angle of internal friction of the material.
For normally consolidated clay Brooker and Ireland (1965) proposed
K, :0.95 - sin @' (2-21)
Alpan (1967) relates Ko for normally consolidated clays to the plasticity index 1,
(in percent) as

K" : 0.19 * 0.2331og Io e-22)

Experimental (and intuitive) evidence indicates that Ko increases with the ocR,
resulting in the following approximation:
Ko,ocn : Ko,n" x OCR' (2-23)
The value of the exponent n may be obtained from Fig. 2-6 for sand. The

050

048

446 r-1 + --l

a 044

042

040

o 3834L
i8 aA A) AA 4o Figure 2-6 Exponent n for sands.
+' lAfter Alpan(1967).)
 34 nouNoltoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
anG tl l
value of n for cohesive soils can be obtained from the author's rearrangement of
Alpan's (1967)plot to obtain
n:0.54 , 1g-I,t28r (2-24)
B1 \':,:
More recently wroth (1975) reanalyzed a number of soils reported in the
literature by others and proposed as a best fit
Insert::.;:
K, : OCR X K,.n" -1(OCR - l) (2-2s)

T:r:
where p, : Poisson's ratio in terms of effective stresses. Wroth
(1975) also pro-
Pro b r
lightly (ocR < overconsolidated ":.
posed a curve for p' versus 1, (in percent) for 5) IeaS!r: i: :
soils which has been reduced to equation form by the author to
give canna. ::
thar- l. -
F' :0.23 + 0.0031p (2-26)

There is a unique relationship between Poisson's ratio and Ko for normally

consolidated soils. From Hooke's generalized stress-strain relationship of
Eq'
(2-52) and taking the strain sz : 0.0, we obtain
oz-!6r-FOt:o 2.9 SOIL
Let o2 - 6t: Koo, and solving for Ko obtain
u
fi,: I _l
Thus if Poisson's ratio lt is known, we should be able to estimateKo or estimate
p if we have an approximation for Ko.
From u ruruiy of the literature, several general observations about Ko can be
made:

1. K, tends to be higher for finer than for coarser soils'

2. K, will be larger for loose cohesionless soils and smaller {''
3. K, tends to decrease with an increase in overburden pressure po '

4. Ko is larger when the soil is overconsolidated.

Example2-2CompareK,bytheseveralapproximatemethodsgiveninthissectionbothfora
nor-ully consolidated clay and for the clay with OCR : 5'

Other data o' :2s'

1o : 2o Percent

Sor-utroN By Brooker and lreland's Eq. (2-21)'

K, = 0.95 - sin 25' : 0.53

By Eq. (2-22),
K":0.19 + 0.233 log 20 : O'49

:
When the OCR 5, the values of K, maY be:
By Wroth's Eq. (2-24), estimate
p' : 0.23 + 0.003(20) : 0.29

'xr ts_!F-
 SoIL MECHANICS IN FoUNDATIoN ENGINEERINc 35

and obtain

o.29
K"" : 5(0.49) ------:-:- {5 - ll : 2.45 - 1.63 : O.82
I O.29

By Alpan's equation, obtain n by Eq. (2-24) as

n - 0.54 x 10 2ol281 : 0.46

Inserting this value of n into Eq. (2-22), obtain

K,:0.49(5)0.46:1.03
The user must now apply some engineering judgment to decide what value to use for K".
Probably K, : 0.5 is satisfactory for the normally consolidated condition. In the OCR state it is
reasonable to assume that K, is in the vicinity of 1.0, and taking into account that the ocR
cannot be precisely determined and 1o cannot be determined to a routine accuracy much better
than 20 * 4, a possible best estimate of K, is

1.03 + 0.82
K, : 0.93
,-:

2-9 SOIL WATER-SOI HYDRAULICS

water in soil adversely affects cohesive soils by reducing the cohesion by soften-
ing, and may cause bulking of cohesionless soils depending on the amount of
water present. If sufficient water is present to develop pore pressure [changes in
water height in a piezometer tube (see Fig. 2-7a)f there may be a marked re-
duction in the o' tan @' component of the shear strength.
Permeability is the facility for water flow through a soil mass. It is a major
factor in soil drainage, well water supply, and construction dewatering.
A1l natural soil deposits contain free water in their voids. After prolonged dry
periods the amount of water may be quite small near the ground surface; how-
ever, immediately after a rain the voids may be nearly filled. In their upper zone
the natural water content w" and soil strength are transient phenomena.
At nearly all points below the soil mantle there is a zone of flowing water
called the water table. The soil below this point is saturated; however, individual
samples may have trapped air bubbles and produce s slightly less than 100
percent. The water in this zone is flowing under a hydraulic gradient from a
higher to lower energy level. The water level in a series of piezometers inserted
along the direction of flow will define the hydraulic grade line. Above the water
table is a capillary zone (s- 100 percent) where the voids are also nearly filled
with water. This water is held in place by surface tension between water mole-
cules and soil grains and is not free to move. The water in this zone produces an
increase in the effective weight of the soil. The depth of water below the water
table produces a buoyant effect on the submerged soil.
very considerable adverse effects on the soil can be produced by the pore
pressure in the free water zone. Note, however, the water either in the capillary
zone or from other sources may become a flow zone if the existing void ratio is
 36 nouNoarroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

using Archi

Vl/r= surchorge, ps| It is us

t when I t
- i'h. so ::
T
71
5< 100 percent
FS=l f,=f,
+ __r___-___ -t\t Copillo ry
FS>l f,>f,
Tz 5=lOOpercent h2
zone h, FS <l f,. fn
+
5 = 100 percent
J h,
t = hl = octuol hydrculic
. g rodient
-, = crltrcol
\\-e c"--.

I
T3
zc='/7n pressUre;S:
.A qrodient

l")
r

I
h.
f,l= rdf cos
_)2
rv+- vvw- 4 nc/*
L 4fcosa
'rc - --j-j*
o \\'here :13
Rearra: g:
.

E-.
L,,:

Figure 2-7 (a) Soil/water relationships for effective and pore-pressure concepts; (b) critical hydraulic
gradient and concept of safety factor against a "quick" condition; (c) computation of height of
capillary rise in a capillary tube.

sufliciently reduced that there is an excess of water for the remaining voids.
Water cannot flow instantaneously; so any excess pore water will exist for some
time under a highbr energy potential (or pressure).

Effective Pressure
The pore water (also called neutral) pressure reduces the total pressure on a plane
to an effective value. Effective (or intergranular) pressure is defined as the pres-
sure between the individual grains in a mass. This pressure and friction coefflcient
produces a portion of the shear strength of cohesive soils and all the shear
strength of cohesionless soils. The nominal effective pressure is based on total
load area since the actual grain contact area is indeterminate'
Referring to Fig. 2-7 a and neglecting any shear resistance along the sides of
the unit area, one can obtain the nominal effective pressure o' at the surface of
the water table as
o' - yrhl + y2h2: q Psf or kN/m (") Perm er: r

Note that the capillary zone water directly affects y2 and "wet" unit weights : -.. -.'
are used for both yr andy2.
The effective pressure at point ,4 (below the water table) can be computed

1t-.= __-:-*--:=-}-
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 37

using Archimedes' principle as

o':e*Tzht-l*ht (b)
It is usual practice to define the submerged or buoyant unit weight :
T, r"ut
- ?w, So that Eq. (b) with ?.ut : l: is rewritten
o, : Q
_f ^l,hz (c)

we can obtain a general expression relating the effective pressure to

the pore
pressure using Eq. (b) and taking ywh3: u;

Q*lzhz:o'*u (d)
o:o'+u
:
where the total pressure o q -t lthz.
Rearranging and solving for the effective stress,

o':o-u (2_27)
Equation (2-27) can be rewritten to include the effects of changes
in u as
o':o-(u+A,u) (2-27 a)

, Equation (2-27a) indicates that in increasing the neutral pressure (+au) the
effective pressure is decreased by the same amount. If the n.utrul pressure
is
sufliciently increased, the effective pressure reduces to zero; i.e.,
the soil will, if
granular, possess no shear strength. This condition is referred
to as a..quick,,
condition, and conditions for its occurrence may be approximately
evaluated as
follows.
From Fig. 2-7b, equating the upward and downward pressures at point
A,
(h, - L)y* * Lt"ut -t W 1(downward) : (h + h2)y. (upward)
(r)
For F :1 and with the surcharge W 0 in Eq. (e) the hydraulic gradient
hlL is a critical value i" . For this case ":
, y' G--l
' l* 1+e (2-28)

G" for sand is approximatery 2.65, and for the practical ranges
in e from 0.3
to 1.0, l. ranges from 0.8 to 1.25. considering the several uncertainties involved,
it
is common to approximate i" : 1.0.

Permeability
Flow ol soil water, for nonturbulent conditions, has been expressed
by Darcy as
u:ki (2-2e)

F*,
 38 t out roarroN ANALysIs AND DESIGN

where I : hydraulic gradient hlL, as previously defined

/< : coefficient of permeability as proposed by Darcy, length/time
Table 2-3 lists typical order-of-magnitude values for various soils. The quan-
tity of flow q is

a: kil volume/time
Two tests commonly used in the laboratory to determine k are the constant-
head and falling-head methods. Figure 2-8 gives the schematic diagrams and the
equations used for computing k. The falling-head test is usually used for k < 10- s
m/s (cohesive soils) and the constant head for cohesionless soils.

Capillary Water
capillary rise in a soil can be estimated from the equation for h. shown on Fig.
2-lc.
This equation generally overestimates the height of capillary rise consider- Figure 2-8 S;:
ably because the soil pore system is not regular. Few laboratory observations of permeamete :.
capillary rise have been found to exceed 1 or 2 m.

tion results
Flow Nets net. One se :
The flow of water through soil under an energy potential can be mathematically metric hea;
expressed by a Laplace equation as The flos n;
otherwise. i
k,*+
ox-
/," *:
0y'
o the Lapla.'e
one is like,',
where /c,, k, : coefllcients of permeability parallel to the x, / axes, respectively
Seepag;
h : energy potentiai
The above equation is for two-dimensional flow, which with appropriate axis
rotation will apply to most seepage problems. A graphical solution ol this equa-
where k :
LI_
t1
-
Table 2-3 order-of-magnitude values for permeability k, based on description of
ht.11,:
soil and by Unified Classification, m/s
v'=
l--
100

Figu:e
Clean gravel Clean gravel and Sand-silt
GW. GP sand mixtures mixtures
which *il- :

GW, GP SM, SL, SC how muci: ;

SW, SP much exca',
GM For c::
[e.g., \\-u , ,'

t\.'ffi.i
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 39

dh
I
-r
, al h,
,'2

{
hr-
O
hz .l I

+
-t\ u 5

! * .u collected
O 'tn time I I l)/ tolina o
--7772777-tl
lo) lb)
Figure 2-8 Schematic for permeability determination. (a) Constant-heat permeameter;(b) falling-heat
permeameter.

tion results in families of intersecting orthogonal curves which are called a flow
net. One set of the curves represents equipotential lines (lines of constant piezo-
metric head) and the other set intersecting at right angles represents flow paths.
The flow net consists of squares of varying dimension if k, : k, and rectingles
otherwise. In general, for reasonably homogeneous soil a grapirical solution of
the Laplace equation provides seepage quantities which are at least as correct as
one is likely to obtain for the coefficients of permeability.
Seepage quantity from a flow net can be computed as

Q:kHUwt
ll7
(ft3 or m3 in time r) (2-30)

where k : transformed coefficient of permeability

ryhgn k" * k, and so the re-
sulting flow net consists of squares, k : ,/k_k, in uniti of H and t
H: differential heat of fluid across system
flI ,lla: numbers ol flow paths and equipotential drops, respectively, in system
W: width of seepage flow
+_
l- time base (1 hour, 1 day, 1 week, etc.)

Figure 2-9a illustrates a flow net for one side of a cofferdam-type structure
which will be of most interest in this text. we may use the flow net to estimate
how much drawdown may be allowed on the construction side of the wall or how
much excavation can be performed before the construction side becomes ..quick. "
For other seepage problems the user is referred to any text on soil mechanics
[e.g., Wu (1976), Bowles (1979)].

rtr
 40 rouNoerloN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Total pres. -
Static po:: r

Excess pc::

Since o >

2-10 CO\S

The primarr
are genelalit'
formed to c'r
consolidaticn
ratio OCR ;,
" undisturbec
eters rangrng
and 30 mm
reduce test tr:
the same .:.
relative effe::
mm (2.5 inr. .
Tub;
effects.
sample Pr::
The c..:..
the sample ,:
laboratorl ::
5'16)(+)2)t ){8640o'= 2a5n3/da, IrN and th. :
2 to
' computed.
lb) The ltr::.
as illustra:e:
Figure 2-9 Typical flow nets as used for sheet-pile or cofferdam structures. (a) Single sheet-pile percent cc:: -
or other wall too far to influence net; (b) double-wall cofferdam as used for bridge piers, etc.
and the p:-:
consolidair i :.
Example 2-3 From Fig.2-9a assume the following data: The pr.:,
Il:6.0m k,:ky:4x 10 5m/s the start li :
This mar :=
- kN/m3 (sand)
i'"", 19.80
value ol D ..
Distances: AB - 2 m, BC : 2 m, CD : 1.5 m, DE : 1m

Rreurnro (a) Flow quantity/day per meter of wall 1. Select a :-:

(b) Effective pressure at point C 2. Select a s:,
nr: 4'1)' Also with tailwater at the dredge line
3. Obtain ::.
SorurtoN (a) Flow quantity (estimate
H:6+2:8m. 4. Plot thr:

Q:kH\*t-4, ro-'ta(S)trxs6 4oo): 14.2 m3lday The D

n,t

-o-o -:laf
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 4I

(b) Effective pressure at C.

Total pressure at C: o :2(19.8) : 39.6 kpa
Static pore pressure at C : u: 2(9.807) : 19.61
Excess pore pressure ar C : Lu: *(8)(9.g07) : 9.g1
o' : o - (u + Lu): 39.6 - 29.4 : l0.2kPa
Since o'> 0, the soil is not.,quick."
ilI
2-10 CONSOLIDATION PRINCIPLES

The primary and secondary consolidation settlements of saturated cohesiue soils

are generally estimated using consolidation theory. A consolidation test is per-
formed to obtain a compression parameter for the amount of settlement and a
consolidation parameter for the settlement rate estimate. The overconsolidation
ratio ocR can also be determined from this test. The test is performed on an
"undisturbed" sample which is placed in a consolidation ring available in diam-
eters ranging from 45 to 115 mm (1.8 to 4.5 in). The sample height is between 20
and 30 mm (0.75 and 1.5 in); 20 mm is the most commonly used thickness to
reduce test time. The larger-diameter samples give better parameters, since about
the same amount of disturbance is developed ror any size sample, with the
relative effects less for the larger samples. The most common test diameter is 64
mm (2.5 in), since this best balances the costs of sample recovery and disturbance
effects. Tube diameters larger than I6 mm may result in a premium charge for the
sample-particularly if a larger borehole must be made.
The consolidation test proceeds by applying a series of load increments to
the sample and recording sample deformation at selected time intervals. Sufficient
laboratory data should be obtained to allow computation of the water content
wr and the specific gravity so that the void ratio at any time interval can be
computed.
The load-deformation data are plotted on either a semilogarithmic plot or.,r4
as illustrated in Fig.2-10. The purpose of these plots is to obtain the time at some
percent consolidation. The /ro value (time at 50 percent) is most commonly
used,
and the procedure for obtaining it is to obtain the dial reading at 100 percent
consolidation Droo and the dial reading at the start of the test Do.
The procedure for finding D6 is to either use the actual initial dial reading at
the start of the test or, if the initial curve is parabolic, find the apparent value.
This may be necessary, since one cannot plot log time at r : 0. The corrected
value of Do is lound as follows;

1. Select a time /1 in the parabolic portion.

2. Select a second time t, : 4tt in the parabolic part.
3. Obtain the offset between t, andtr.
4. Plot this offset distance above /1 to obtain Do.

The Dlee value is obtained as the intersection of tangents drawn to the

JI
 o --c!
Y oEo ! midcurve ar
N N < O€:
6 il c.i .9 9tr r o terpretation
fI R
r -\
I iEeE
-u{ o { o.
zones. some
9-o !: .! <^l o^ o
E ; -a 'E^ o The D.1
-.N-',iX@r^l
d
@
IJN
\) l
N o
l I
iN
Uil.,,
n E
o D166. This r
-1
i:.ta (d
N@-oo^(ll
-' X O O - Y ^
'-/---
Gl
'L
:\@:
I -@
.=^'6S 9 HL':. ;
i {\\
-q the time axis

)H
p --=;+- a O
--/'/ t_l
-t
o N
O The .r,r
lol oi dial reading
's t5i o o
points. This
OO O d
OOA 6{
O NO @ E located (see
;6NN. N" NN .o-
N ..t
^iNN
,. I 0urpoar 1ot6
^i o a second str
,_oL (€
intersects tht
€ reading Do rr
(.) intersects the
d
tro which is
methods, bu
method is m
when Dno is
.E
c)
semilog plot
E
.\ E
Oo
m
E
oO I
I - Od

=o X.o
o. _l<
The Coeffici
bo O\ <lo
dto U^3
c ON -to
\ l- The rro data
Eo llll :lo EL
ol! o5
(h
-9 - I ol ,O
ol I N d ^O
9.e N
il =lNl
cjl lo +lN
I

\o Xl -l *O
t:
J ,=
t.--l
I
:I
dl
N
6i c where
-b e?
f.r-:-l
l=n I
il\o
!d)
11 o-
E
i-:
H:
I o F.l
lo 5l 'bl N
e6
It! 1l 910
'i I y'
Lr I E;
lurwg=09,r - -o.
Sa Case I of Ta:
percent cons.
9r
q!
N Oo
@
N. aA
N
il
q The ser e:
A= on the voic :
vg
rlo
Nl tr usually ver\
OOO O
o<N
NN\
o
N.
oL! curve can be
ciNN N 0!- is an exercrse
r* r-oI r 6urpoel lotg
estimating he

42

'-qrt--
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 43

midcurve area and the end portion as shown on Fig. 2-10a. considerable
in-
terpretation is necessary if the curve does not exhibit a pair of identifiable tangent
zones. Sometimes an increase in vertical scale will improve the tangent
locations.
The Dro (or other percent consolidation value) is obtained from Ds and
Dtoo. This value projected to the settlement curve ailows one to obtain t5r) from
the time axis.
.r4 method is plq used to obtain rro. This method involves plotting the
dial reading versus t/time with a straight line estimated for the first several
points. This line is extended to the abcissa, and a point 15 percent larger is
located (see Fig. 2-l0b). Through this point and the intercept ofihe ordinate axis
a second straight line is drawn. when the dial reading versus
,,4ili
intersects this second line, the De6 value is obtained. The apparent initial"u.u. dial
reading Do is obtained where the initial straight-iine part of the settlement curve
intersects the ordinate axis. with Dro and Ds values it is easy to obtainDro and
/5e which is most commonly used. values of rro shourd compare by the two
methods, but in real soils large differences are sometimes obtained. The
v4irne
method is more rapid, since the test for that load increment can be terminated
when De6 is found; however, if secondary compression is to be estimated, the
semilog plot should be used.

The Coefficient of Consolidation c,

The rro data are used to compute the coefficient of consolidation cu as

-' -T,H' (2-31)

ti

where I : time factor (see Tab1e 2-4)

H: length of longest drainage path for a particle of water; in the labora-
tory it is the half sample thickness when drainage is from both faces
/r : time for I percent consolidation to take place fr6 is usually used

Case I of Table 2-4 is usually assumed in the conventional laboratory test. For
50
percent consolidation Eq. (2-31) becomes

0.t97H2
(2-3ta)
r 5()

The several load increments give separate values of c, which can be plotted
on the void ratio or strain versus log p curve shown in Fig. 2-lla. The plot is
usually very erratic because of changes in void ratio, temperature, and S. The
curve can be smoothed somewhat by using a small vertical scale-beyond this it
is an exercise in engineering judgment to determine the value of c, to use for
estimating field settlements. The time for a given settlement to take place in the

rr
44 rouNolrroN ANALYSTS AND DESTcN

Table 2-4 Time factors for indicated pressure distribution 3. Extend

4. This int
tr a/
Case I
The value
0 0.000 0.000
overburder
10 0.008 0.048
0.090
20 0.031
7.po=p,t
30 0.071 0.1 15
40 0.126 0.201
2. po> p,.
50 0.197 0.281 3. po < p,.
60 0.281 0.371
70 0.403 0.488 The reader
80 0.567 0.652 The ar
90 0.848 0.933 pression irt
t00 a/, .L
the straigh
segment. e
Ccse I Cose Ia Cose n (Fig. 2-11r.
[*-1 F"'-'l
_w W
L_]
'v,') d where the i
The pl
pressure ril
Pore-pressure distribution lor case I Pore-pressure distribution made appr
usually assumed lor case Ia lor case II
[raylor (19a1])l
1. Extend
about [,

field is obtained as a rearrangement of Eq. (2-31) to obtain 2. In some

of the s.
7,H,, Fig.2-1
Li -
cv the true
3. In some
4. At the r:
Primary Consolidation Settlements in step i
5. The slo;
Primary consolidation settlements occur during the time of an excess pore-
pressure gradient caused by a stress change in the stratum of interest. At the end
We m,
of primary consolidation the excess pore pressure is very nearly zero and the
stress change has gone from a total to an effective state. Additional settlements
termed secondary compression (or consolidation) continue for some additional
time. These will be considered in a later section.
The in situ
The sharp break in the e versus log p or € versus log p curve is used to
estimate whether the soil is preconsolidated. Casagrande (1936) proposed the
method shown in Fig. 2-lla to determine a value of p" . Steps in the method are:
and the ch,
1. Determine by eye the sharpest curvature and draw a tangent"
2. Draw a horizontal line through the tangent point and bisect the angle a thus
produced.
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 45

3. Extend the slope ol the curve to intersect the a bisector.

4. This intersection point is at the preconsolidation pressure of the in situ sample.

The value of p. obtained from this plot is compared with the existing effective
overburden pressure p" and Lf:

L po a p. (* about 10 percent), soil is normally consolidated.

2. p" > p" , sample may have excessive disturbance.
3. po < p., soil is preconsolidated; OCR : p, f p..IJse p. to define soil state.

The reader should note that po, pc are effectiue sfresses.

The amount of primary consolidation (settlement) is estimated from a com-
pressiott index c, or compression ratio ci which are obtained frorn the slopes
of
the straight-line part of the plots shown in Fig. 2-l1.rf there is no..straight-line"
segment, engineering judgment must be applied to obtain an equivalent ,,slope"
(Fig.2-12).
L,e Ae
f '
-
IoE Pz lPt
-" __- log prlp,
a

where the terms are identified in Fig. 2-11.

The plot of void ratio (void
- ratio at the end of a local increment) versus log
pressure may require correction for sample disturbance. This correction can
bi
made approximately as follows (Fig. 2-11o, Fig. 2-l2a):

1. Extend the straight-line portion until it intersects the void ratio abscissa at
about 0.4.
2. In some manner obtain the initial void ratio of the in situ soil. The void ratio
of the sample is a rebound value (too high) and, from the curve as shown on
Fig. 2-11, is too low. Use these boundary values with w" and G" to estimate
the true value.
3. In some manner determine the in situ overburden pressure po.
4. At the intersection of po and eo extend a straight line
to inteisect point located
in step 1.
5. The slope of step 4 is the corrected value of C" .

We may deflne the coefficient of compressibility as

L,e
4..:
"Lp- (a)

The in situ porosity (see Fig.2-13) is

n-- V, H,. e- (b)

4 Ht l+eo
and the change in porosity is

Ae-
a,n: L: a,e (c)
I+eo

F
46 nouxoerroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

r05
.[ --
t0
wnt=37Q6'L
aarI
o = ll.9{ 189) + 7{198-a8l
'Pa-Pa
oro l-

Corrected,
.Cor recied :
o
;0rs
IC:
l -..
15
- 0.779 0 ^ ,1^
q)
l----v4L1
' loq lU
::
Y a7
o
-o Remolded,
=.r.[
o
.-_ a73-435 , aaA
log l0

I 9 .r,I
-
\ g

,,rl
6 L
E
4
i
2
t0

Pressure, kPo
Figure 2-11 ti
{o)

settlement parameters c" and Ci '

Figure 2-11 Methods of presenting settlement data to obtain
schmertmann (19-t5)l is shown on (a) Data
Method of correcting a normally co'nsolidated clay lafter
ur. ,ho*n on (b)' Slight discrepancy between Ci values due to plotting'
used to plot both curves

From the
Substituting Ae from Eq.(c), we obtain

r,n : ?!L : mu Lp @
l+e"
For a normal
where m, : coefficient of volume compressibility: Pz: P" * Ll
qxeT (e)
mu:
1! s": Lp: E,
From inspec:-
From Fig. 2-13 the settlement AII is by proportion
LH L'e (f)
H l+eo
or LH:muL'PH:eH @) and

where H : total thickness of stratum and e : average unit strain in Fl'

 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 47

kPo ( by eye)
"0
p, kPo e AH mn
1"= 0 1008 0 0
25 1006 0199 0 00r0
50 1000 0080 0 0040
r00 0985 0229 00|5
2a0 0.934 4.737 0.0368
400 0.868 I 394 a a@7
800 0763 244A 0 )220
1600 4639 3675 0 1838
009 3200 0533 4731 0 2365

-, 0 275 A)q
La--:;;;--'U ttJ
g
o
Check,
038 .
l l+1008 ^,oo
" "'

6
9
-'-'d#--* ;-*-- 4
c

E
2 j

Figure 2-l I I.continuedl

From the definition ol C" and EC.U),

CH
: --:- T,"
AH
r+eo -Pt
los (2-32)

For a normally consolidated soil with increase in effective pressure of ap we have

Pz: po * Ap and pr: po and

tu:,c:H
L+eo
los&Jl4 (2-33)
Po

From inspection of Fig.2-13

Le: AH LH
O:
and LH : Ae: C" 16,gb
Pr
48 FOUNDATION ANALYSiS AND DESIGN

and for normal

Settlement
slope of the e r
should be used
log 1 cyc e the amount Ap
s
o compute the vir
-s
o :l The total I
,4=Logicycle=1.0 pt and should be s
"l
-l Consolidatr
'1 "Undisturbed " equations have
quality. The pr,
be improved bi
time settlement

Primary Settle
A number of co
Log p Log p made without tl
(") (b) The settlement
many cases thes
Figure 2-12 Void ratio versus log p curves. (a) General plot for a preconsolidated soil with method
An early ar
shown to correct for sample disturbance using C,. (b) C, is not clearly identified when the soil
structure collapses to produce a sharp break in curve. sensitivity with

LH LH pz
Also - H, l+eo ' "p, where w, is in p
Azzouz et
Equating A11, analysis ol a re:
the following ri e
C.(1 + e")logh:
- Pt C,logb
" Pt
which has a repi
C
/-t _______:_ (2-34)
L-
' --
7+e^
The settlement using Cf is which has a 76 :
Factors far i
D,
LH : C',H log -Pt limit, and speci:
there is a direct :

increase the reli"

I
1- Secondary Conr
I
Secondary consc
1.0 Figure 2-13 Soil relationships for settlement equations. Left
i side is laboratory, right side field relationships.
continuing bel o
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERINC 49

and for normally consolidated clay

AH : C'"H bg?rlA! (2-3s)

po

- Settlement computations for preconsolidated soils are similar except that the
slope of the e versus log p or r versus log p curve between po andp. (Fig.
2-12a)
should be used for a part (or all) of Ap together with p" unil, If p"
ip p"',
* u
the amount Ap' : po+ Lp * p. is used together with p" and either
C" or C," to
compute the virgin compression.
The tota! Arl is the sum of the cornputed settlements along the two
branches
and should be significantiy less than for a normally consolidate-d soil.
consolidation settlements predicted on the basis of the preceding several
equations have been found to be reliable if the laboratory samples
were of good
quality. The predicted settlement rate is generally poo.. ih" raie prediction
be improved by monitoring settlements in the early stages and
.uy
correcting the fieli
time settlement curve using these data.

Primary Settlement Index Correlations

A number ol correlations exist for c. and ci , so that settlement estimates
can be
made without the time and expense of performing laboratory consolidation
tests.
The settlement rate and ocR cannot be obtained from corrllations;
however, in
many cases these are not needed.
An early and widely used correlation for inorganic clays of medium to low
sensitivity with about * 30 percent error was that oi Terzaghi and peck (1967):

C":0.009(wr-10) (2-36)
where w" is in percent.
Azzouz et aL. (1976) list a number of correlations based on a statistical
1nal-vgis
of a very large number of soils. From a study of this list by the author
the following were selected:
C, :0.37(e" * 0.003w. + 0.0004 wu,' _ 0.34) (2-37)
which has a reported 86 percent reliability, and
C"' :0.135(e, * 0.01w1 _ 0.002w" _ 0.06) (2-38)
which has a 7 6 percent reliability.
Factors favoring these equations are the use of the in situ void ratio,
_.
limit, and specific gravity. The in situ void ratio can be computed as
liquid
w,, G" i so
there is a direct relationship between w1,, and eo. The use of both
eo andw; should
increase the reliability and offset the additionai computing effort
involved.

Secondary Consolidation
Secondary consolidation (also secondary compression or creep)
is that settlement
continuing beyond primary consoridation. Secondary
can be the
"omprerrion
 50 rouNoarroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

major settlement component in organic soils but is usually quite small for inor- The effecr
ganic soils. A new K, condition is obtained at the end of secondary compression. stress on the
The slope of the secondary branch (see Fig. 2-1Aa) of the settlement versus envelope of F
log time curve has been observed to be approximately constant for a given soil. can be impos
Based on this observation it is only necessary to take one of the load increments more tests mu
sufficiently long to establish the slope of this branch of the curve. The slope of one can obtair
this branch Co can be computed as

_ LH. Hi
(2-3e)
'o - r, r,
log
From the figu
or, since LHIH t: 6s,
Ae
c" : (2-40)
log ,r,,,
and the secondary settlement estimate is

Ari": HC,togt+!
ll
(2-4t)
I

where l{ : thickness of stratum

Ili : laboratory sample thickness o

AH" : change in laboratory sample height from rr to r, o

saO
12 : some time Af after rt
lr : Soflte time after primary consolidation

Secondary settlement estimates tend to be rather poor but may be preferable

to simply guessing. (o) (r-t t, a, :
I
I

2-1I SHEAR STRENGTH o

o
o
Soil faiiure is a combination of particle rolling and sliding. This mobilizes the 4
shear strength of the soil as opposed to the compressive or tensile strength. The
shear strength involves the soil strength parameters of cohesion c and angle of
internal friction /. The shear strength in terms of total stresses is
(b) Cl,) d r:
s:c*otanS (2-42) +
I

ln terms of effective stresses the shear strength is o

s: c'* o' tan Q', (2-43) o

o
I

where s : shear strength, ksf or kPa

c: soil cohesion, ksf, kPa
d: angle of internal friction
o: total normal stress on shear plane, ksf, kPa

r:4L"::
 SOIL MECH,ANICS IN FOUNI]AII{JN ENGINEERING
5I
The effective stress values are obtained when
stress on the shear surface. E.l],ation (2-42)
: -
o, 6 ,is used as the normal
defines the tvlohr-couromb failure
envelope of Fig' 2-14' This .nu.lop. constitutes
the limiting states of stress which
can be imposed on a soil. In general, since
two parameters are involved, two or
more tests must be performed to evaluate
the envirope equation. Frcm Fig. 2_14c
one can obtain an expression for the normar
stress o'the plane of interest as

",:L+ *T cos 29 (2-44)

From the figure geometry,

20 :90 + a

0 :45 + I
2

t
Mohr's envelope normolly consolldoied
overconsol i do ted
o

o
o
<

lo) Cu triaxiat tesis on NC sort

t

o
O
J

6n1 Cn2 Cn3

Normcl slress o +
(b) Cl drrect sheor iests b ) CtJ tests on OC soi
t

o
Mohr's enve/ope
o
o
I

o3-v ot=Q" +o
1c,l Unconfined compression iesl /9,/ U iesis on NIC soil

Figure 2-14 Mohr's circles and rupture

envelopes for several shear-strength tests shown,

a
 52 rourpa.rroN ANALysrs AND DEsrcN

The deuiator stress is defined as or - o. since this stress difference is the

instant sample load in a triaxial test where the initial cell pressure is o3 . A similar
analogy exists in situ when the stresses on a soil element change from foundation
loads. lf Eqs. (2-42) and (2-44) are solved simultaneously and

_9) l-sin@
""'(4s 1+sin@ Lolerol pr

substituted. we obtain the following two widely used equations for the principal
fr<,
stresses :
\,
6t : ot lan2 (^'.9) *2c ,"' (o' * f) (2-45)
]L

'"" (o'- 9)
oz: or tan2
@-t) -LL
(2_46)

Shear strength of a soil is heavily dependent on the type of test, which may an-
be: w-a
rul:

1. An unconsolidated-undrained (commonly "undrained") or U test

2. A consolidated-undrained (CU) test
3. A consolidated-drained (CD) test
Figure 2-15 La
simple shear tes
These tests can be made using direct shear or direct simple shear (sometimes
called plane strain)and triaxial equipment (see Fig. 2-15) on intact samples which
should be in the same Ko consolidation state as the field. Some organizations Triaxial
identify consolidated-undrained compression tests at the K, state as CK"UC projects. Ert
tests. There is some debate over whether the direct shear test is a plane-strain test ducing the a
andfor how to obtain a test with one principal strain of zero. There is also some 30 to 50 perc
debate over th'e merits of a given test [see state-of-art and summary by Saada et shear tests t
al. (1980) with their many referencesl. IIC and Cl
I he undrarned test rs perlormed by loadrng the sample to tailure wrth drarn- laboratory tr
age outlets closed. A consolidated sample is obtained by applying a consolidation The srn
stress to the sample with the drainage outlet open. When drainage halts and/or tests. In the
no further volume change is measured, the drainage outlet is closed for an un- in an undrai
drained test or left open for a drained test. At the end of consolidation the excess
pore pressure in the sample is zero. An excess pore pressure develops when
loading is applied during a consolidated-undrained test.
All three tests will give about the same strength parameters for dry soils; Consoii,
however, plane-strain tests in dense sands tend to ry' angles 1 to 4' larger than and a me;
triaxial values [Lee (1970)]. When water is present, the parameters depend degree of sa
heavily on the type of test, the permeability characteristics of the soil, the amount ameters @ ;
of water, and stress history. Generally the lowest compressive strength values are form if the
obtained in U tests on saturated soils-in fact the shear strength is zero for both without erc
U and CU tests on saturated sands unless the sample is undisturbed and has crements of
il rneasurable natural cementation. Only a cohesion parameter can be measured in days per sar
U tests for saturated clays. takeltolc

''\*.fl:fl
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 53

o: porous sione
b. rubb€r membrone
c= cell fluld

Loterol pressure b

pressure
(t ronsducer)

+P h

Figure 2-15 Laboratory strength test equipment. (c) Triaxial test; (b) direct shear test; (c) direct
simple shear Iest. lBjerrum and Landta (1966).f

Triaxial extension (cK, uE) tests are sometimes performed for important
projects. Extension tests are made by maintaining the lateral pressure and re-
ducing the axial pressure in increments. Extension test shear strengths tend to be
30 to 50 percent less than from compression tests at the same ocR. Direct simple
shear tests tend to produce shear strengths that are intermediate between cK,
UC and cK,uE tests. Figure 2-16 illustrates several field loadings and the
laboratory tests which best describe the soil strength for these conditioni.
The symbol s, is commonly used for the shear strength obtained from u
tests. In the particular case of triaxial tests on saturated cohesive soils this results
in an undrained shear strength defined as
ot-ol
tr: :'
2
consolidated-undrained tests tend to produce small to nearly true S angles
and a measured cohesion intercept depending on the type of soil and
degree of saturation. If pore-pressure measurements are taken, the effective par-
ameters S' and c' can be computed. These tests are relatively expensive to per-
form il the undisturbed sample is to be reconsolidated to the in situ K, state
without excessive damage to the soil structure. A number of small load in-
crements of up to 24 h duration each may be required. This may take g to 10
days per sample for reconsolidation. A compression test at a low strain rate may
take 1 to 2 days and an extension test twice this length of time.
 54 rouNne.rioN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

conditions (c,
Code, 1 'CKol-JC reproduce K
2. cKoUE
better strengt:
3=c9;s
probable that I
d, ,at y/ performance a
axial and dire,
typically the sa
resulting triari
tests dependrn
failure (see Fig
Strength t;
-----.7--l
II
lt 4rr'" F____r:
ticular the U :
tinely perforn,
L-l \/
\=_-/
ground surfac.
indication ol t:
Zt ate and rainfa.
Tr: 3
the soil can sa:
Ladd (1971 and Johnson (19751'lThe this), the stren
Figure 2-16 Strength tests corresponding to field shear. lAfter
unconfined compression test is commonly used for all cases particularll, tr',
buiiding founc,
angle and cohesion
consolielated-drained tests give the drained or effective @'

c,.Thesetestsrequireastrainratethatissolowthatthestrengthisnot
This Normally Cor
significantly affectid by the small excess pore pressures which
develop.
the test is expensive to
..-qul.eo strain rate is very time_consuming and _very The U test on ,
performed except for special
p.rfor-. Iror these two reasons cD tests are seldom
from CU tests by measuring the
iroblems;the same information can be obtained
pore watsr Pressure. and for CU te.
other factors contributing to the shear strength of a soil include:

1. The effective or intergranular pressure o' (contributes o' tan @)' where d is *
and higher
2. Interlccking of partill.r; ungolut particles give more interlocking Consolidated-c
strength than bank-run sand and gravel (affects $ angle)'
3. Particle packing (unit weight effect)'
(contributes cohesion)'
4" Particie attraction (clay minerals) and cementation i.e., the cohesi!.:
5. Sample quality (disturbance, intact, fissured, etc')'
6. OCR (stress historY)" Overconsolida
test may
7. Strain rate of test. iigh strain rates as in the unconfined compression
give strengths 20 to i0 percent higher than obtained from the in situ strain The U test ,sir;
rate. consolidated s:
8. Laboratory environment and technician skili' and the negatr'.
overburden du:
Isotropicallyconsolidatedtriaxialtestsaremostcommonlyusedinthelab- The CU tes
occurs when
oratory when a project justifies the expense. Isotropic consolidation since negative :
and subjected to some valu-e of cell pressure
the sample is piaced in a triaxial cell from shear dil.
generally does not pro-
and with drainage permitted. This type of consolidation use since simil"
a sarnple aithe end of consolidation which is the same as
in situ becauseKo
duce

i
r{_+.
 ]HANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 55

conditions < o,) are not reproduced. A special triaxial cell is required to
(oo
reproduce K,conditions. It is probable that isotropic consolidation produces
better strength parameters than the unconfined cornpression test. It is also
probable that the isotropically consolidated parameters will not describe the field
performance as accurately as one would like. Anisotropically consolidated tri-
axial and direct shear tests may be used for important projects. In these tests
typically the sample is K" consolidated (consolidated with zero lateral strain). The
resulting triaxial specimens are then tested in either compression or extension
tests depending on the estimated location of the sample with respect to field
failure (see Fig. 2-16).
Strength tests have principal significance on saturated cohesive soils; in par-
ticular the U test represents the "worst case" condition. Strength tests are rou-
tinely performed on nonsaturated soils as the soil borings progress from the
ground surface downward. These tests serve the purpose of giving a strength
indication of these soils at that water content. If the water table does not fluctu-
ate and rainfall is moderate, these tests produce suitable values for design. when
the soil can saturate (and the geotechnical consultant may not be able to control
this), the strength determination should be made on saturated samples. This is
particularly true for dam foundations but may be equally applicable for some
building loundations.

Normally Consolidated Clay (S + 100 percent)

The U test on a normally consolidated clay gir es

and lor CU tests

where @ is usually on the oic;r .;i j io i0.; where S - 100 percent.

consolidated-drained tests (or cU tests with pore-pressure measurements) give
s: o' Ian 6'
i.e., the cohesion intercept is practically zero (see FiS. 2-17).

Overconsolidated Intact Ctay (S -+ 100 percent)

The U test gives a higher strength value than for the same clay in the normally
consolidated state. The difference includes the effects of both increased density
and the negative pore pressures developed when the sample expands lrom loss of
overburden during sample recovery.
The CU test will give higher values if the cell pressure ot < p," andp,"f p,o> 4+
since negative pore pressures will be present either from sample expansion or
from shear dilation on the failure plane. This strength may be unsale for design
use since similar stressing in the field in the presence of water will result in the

F
 56 rouNoeuoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

P6< F61< P62

2-
,4
1
z
/
di Figure 2-r7 eualirative rupture envelopes for three :;;r's circles to produce
rupture line not shown. Note the initial branch of rupture"a-
I line is usually curved for OCR > 1.

Figure 2-18
-'L.nsolidatiol
material softening. If o3 < p'" and p'"lp'o 14+, the pore pressures are likely to be \Lrte that ao.
(+ ) at failure and $ < $'.
When the cell pressure oz ) p", the sample reacts to the application of devi-
obtain thi
ator stress as if the clay is normally consolidated, and in a CD test or CU test to t
seems
with pore-pressure measurements we obtain
and *r lle
s: o' tan 6' undisturbt
p.. Remol
Figure 2-17 illustrates the qualitative Mohr rupture envelopes for a clay at
,s, from th
several OCR values.
:
i Fig. l-18.
T
1
I
using I cc
I
II The s,/p'Ratio
A number of researchers have found a nearly linear relationship between the
Severi
undrained shear strength s, and the effective overburden pressure pi. Normalized \ CTSUS SL]:
behavior is obtained when a parameter of significance divided by another par-
literature.
ameter gives this relationship. Many clay soils exhibit normalized behavior-that
Simons tl
is, sufp'o is nearly a constant with some scatter attributed to normal soil hetero-
geneity and variations in water content. It appears, however, that quick or nat-
urally cemented clays with a high degree of structure do not exhibit normalized
behavior. Ladd et al. (1977) give an extensive discussion of this and other beha-
vior of clays. The scattt
The normalizing parameter for s, is the effective consolidation pressure pi. This r

1o. *'hich
Usually this is taken asthe existing effectiue ouerburden pressure, with the corre-
sponding laboratory value being the effective pressure used to consolidate the
sample to the test state. Figure 2-18 is a normalized plot based on an analysis of
several clays so that the su value for OCR > 1 can be estimated. The clays used to
The scattt
 soIL MECHANIcS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 57

p'= t^ silu ex siing overburden siress

^,,"d!"L
j-l

Exorpe' civen OCR. 6(lreld)

4 ' 204 kPa

I,s,/p))*r.030(Lob)
s,.60[Po(Lob)
Req'd nsi!5,
At aaR. b 8/A . 4
8.4(031.r2
s,. 12l2Aa).24AlPa
'l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I l0
OCR= P /Po'

Figure 2-18 Normalized plot to obtain the ratio of undrained shear strength at some pre-
consolidation pressure to a normally consolidated value for several OCR. lAfter Ladd et al. (1g7n.f
Note that above plot is based on direct simple shear (DSS) tests.

obtain this curve all had high w1, and lrr, but with five clays involved a trend
seems to be established so that the curve might be used for clays with lesser wry
and u)r (less than 50 percent). In order to use this plot it is necessary to obtain an
undisturbed sample for consolidation testing. From the consolidation test obtain
pi . Remold a sample and Ko consolidate it to the present in situ pi state. Obtain
s, from this sample. Now with su, p'o, and p'c one can compute the OCR, enter
Fig. 2-18, and obtain.the ratio BlA. Srnce,4 is known, we can compute B and
using B compute s, at the present OCR as
s,.ocn : B(Pi)

Several equations have been formulated by the author from curves for suf p'o
versus soil index properties for normally consolidated clays presented in the
literature. A relationship between s,fp'o and plasticity index 1o [Bjerrum and
Simons (1960)l is

L:o.qsJr)ttt Ir> 5 percent (2-47)

The scatter is on the order of * 25 percent of the computed value.

This reference also gave a relationship between suf p'o and the liquidity index
/.. which in equation form is

1: o.l8(1r-)- t/' /r > 0.5 (2-48)

Pn

The scatter is on the order of * 30 percent. Karlsson and Viberg (1967) presented
 58 rouNo,c.rIoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The residual an:

a curve relating suf p'o and the liquid limit, which in equation form is ator stress to Pi.':

!: o.oosr" w"> 2o Percent

Po
(2-4e)
In Situ Strength
When the soil i.
The scatter is on the order of *30 percent. The s'fp'" ratio may be computed impossible tc', .-:
from the several equations and an average value used for preliminary design'
If
three equations' consideration should be advisable to us3 .

large differe.r.., ur" obtained from the .

is some debate
given to tests on undisturbed samples.
laboratory' me:l-.:

Unconfined Compression Strength 4" Shear Strength

This is a triaxial test with the confining (cell) pressure at zero gage
pressure. In Laboratorl s:.:'
practice, the triaxial cell is seldom used; rather devices are available to perform number ol cc:, -
and with a length such estimates, Co:::
ihis test directly after trimming the sample ends square
made to use :--: :
ifr"1,tr. fld.iliiois2+.Thetvtohr'scircleplotforthistestisshowninFig'2-l4c' (refer to Era:.:
Three or more tests should be made with a best average
q, obtained to draw a ,

the user tenC. .

Mohr's circle and give
ative. an ethl;. '
{}r Table l--< -:
,1 1
ously'@ is a:-:,
Inspection .': ::
prior to about 1970 this test was always called the unconfined compression test.
it is loose sand , .' :.
Present tendency is to call this an mdrainecl test, but in any case lundrained,-.. r

cornmon to use q, to denote the peak failure stress for this test' Figure i- -
A body of opinion holds that su is too low from the unconfined compression
test. Valuei as much as 60 to 80 peicent of the true value are
commonly reported'
strength reduction, it
Since sample disturbance can aciount for a 20 to 50 percent
These effects may be partly due
would appear some compensating effects occur.
to the negative por. porrru." thi"h develops when a recovered sample loses

overburden and attempts to expand. Also the strain rate in the laboratory test is

higher than the field strain, with the result being a higher measured strength
value.
current practice tends to a widespread use of the unconfined compression
test for all routine soil recommendations. Only when the strength
is very low
are more elab-
and/or the project represents a considerable financial investment
orate soil testing procedu.es used. we might note that u tests are used for most
I

foundation design work as they tend to reflect field loading more accurately.

)/
t,'
Residual Strength I

After soil failure occurs, there is a residual strength remaining in the remolded
material. The remolded material has negligible cohesion remaining but
an angle Figurt
defined
of internal friction @. This residual angle of internal friction can be
as

(2-so)
:: -
s":otand,

]l

4
t
T

$"
I
\''r---t-=alt.={l-
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERTNG
59

The tesidual angle of internal friction can be estimated using the residual
tlevi-
ator stress to plot a reduced Mohr's circle as illustrated in Fig. 2-19.

In Situ Strength Testing

When the soil is extremely sensitive to sampling disturbance so that it is nearly
impossible to obtain a sample that is suitable for strength testing, it may be
advisable to use in situ methods. Several of these are described in chap. 3. There
is some debate at present whether the in situ methods are an improvement over
laboratory methods and whether they are being correctly interpreted.

Shear Strength/Parameter Correlations

Laboratory shear tests are expensive and so are avoided when possible. A
number of correlations exist which can sometimes be used to obtain strength
estimates. correlations should be used cautiously, and if used, attempts should be
made to use more than one set so that as much checking as possible is obtained
(refer to Example 2-2). one of the major drawbacks to using correlations is that
the user tends to be conservative. If the geotechnical consultant is overly conserv-
ative, an ethical question may become involved.
Table 2-5 gives representative values for the $ angle for several soils. obvi-
ously @ is a total stress value for u tests and an effective (@') value for cD tests.
Inspection of this table indicates f : 30 to 34' is a good estimate for any but
loose sand (which is not likely to be used without densification) and @ : g"
(undrained) is a good estimate for clays.
Figure 2-20 is an empirical correlation for { and the plasticity index 1, "

+
la,
I

b Dense
or brittle
:
0

Is
o
o -L-X!

tt\
\- - \-
rur:i u: l9:l:mq

Figure 2-19 Residual soil strength. Stress-strain plot applicable for any soil. Mohr's circle qual-
itatively shown for a dense sand. For "loose" or "soft" soils o-"* may be define<l at a specified strain
(e.g., 20 percent).
 60 rouNoarroN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Table 2-5 Representative values for angle of internal friction $

;.t
lsr
Type of test*

Unconsolidated- Consolidated- Consolidated-

undrained 1 --
ii\
undrained drained n 30
{l CU CD
i
t
it Gravel
Medium size 40-55' 40 55' ";:[\
Sandy 35-50" 35 50'
I
.tI Sand

{
i
:*
s
Loose dry
Loose saturated
Dense dry
Dense saturated
28-34'
28-34'
3546'
1-2' less than
43 50"
43 50'
,.L_
!
dense dry
il Silt or silty sand Figure 2-20 Ct:::..
'j Loose 20-22" 27 30" mately 80 percen, .
Dense 25 30' 30-35' shown. fDnra./r ,':
Clay 0' if saturated 3 20' 2M2" Wolle (1977).1

* See a laboratory manual on soil testing for a complete description of these tests,
e.g., Bowles (1978).

2-13 STRESS

Stress paths a:, ,

2-I2 SENSITIVITY AND THIXOTROPY better insight :r-.:
number of rr ai,
A considerable portion of the shear strength ol a cohesive soil can be lost on (1964, 1961t r,:
j remolding or other similar disturbance. Sensitivity is defined as the ratio
nates defined :.
d
undisturbed compression strength _
{tI .- _
-1 eu
rt - remolded compression strength
,, ,
- q, remolded (2_51)

{1
{ where q, is the maximum compressive strength from an unconfined compression The stress cof::l
'i test. The remolded sample should be at the same water content as the original.
:i Most clays are insensitiue, with S, ranging from 2 to 4. A sensitiue soil has
I values from 4 to 8 and an extrasensitiue soil has S, > 8. Marine and lake soils and subtractir,g
j
with high natural water contents often have no measurable remolded strength.
I
Remolded clays with S, < 16 usually regain a significant portion of the orig-
gives
inal shear strength with elapsed time. This regain of strength with time is termed
thixotropy. Piles driven into a sensitive clay with thixotropic properties may and dividing r:r::
initially have a very low load capacity. A substantial load capacity may develop
in several hours to I or 2 months. In these cases load tests should be delayed to
allow the strength to stabilize. Remolded quick (S, > 16) clays tend to recover Adding and cr',::
very little of the original strength in reasonable time lapses on the order of under
4 months [Skempton and Northey (1952)].
 SOII- MECHANICS IN F{]T]NDA"|ION ENGINEERING 5I

330
0
O
O
\
\'\.*-\ o ----=---': -- I 5tlnCo.d dev.rtr.rr
T \- tD
{r 2t)
---'-*
I
-\-\.- lilrno ded clo./s.
l
l(_

L
I

-- 1 r I -.. r L_ _-_- _,_ l_

o l0 -
2C- 3(l 4r:) 50 61, /-a ,3,0__J9a r00
lp, ::e.c.etI

Figure 2-20 Correlation between r,6' ancl plasticity rnder 1o for noimally consoli.lated clays. Approxi-
mately 80 percent of data falls within one standard der.'iation . Typical extreme scatter values are
shown [Dafa.lrom sereral ,sorrces. DM-7. Ladtt et al. \]977)" Bierrurn und Simons (]960), Kanjo awi
Wolle (1977 1.f

2-13 STRESS PATHS

Stress paths are sometimes used to plot changes in stresses on a soil. Sometimes a
better insight into soil behavior can be obtained using stress paths. There are a
number of ways to plot stress paths, but the simplest is that proposed by l-arnbe
(1964,1967) and Lambe and whitman (1979). T'his method uses p and q coordi-
nates defined as

o1*03 6t-ot
,: q:
, 2

The stress coordinates p, q rnay be either total or effective stress values. since

6't:6t-tl

and subtracting o's : 6s * u

gives 6\ - o'z: 6t - oz

and dividing through by 2, it is evident that

q:q
Adding and dividing by 2, we obtain

p':p-u

F"*,"
62 nouNrnauoN ANALysrs AND DESTcN

Thus, the use of effective stress coordinates simply shifts the p,qplot along the x
3. Point C is the
axis by the magnitude of the pore pressure. The p, q coordinates are the origin
and radius of the Mohr circle, respectively.
4. Point D is obt
decreasing the
The stress path for a triaxial test and effective stresses is idealized in Fig.
2-21. Figure 2-2la is the conventional Mohr circle representation of the sample
5, That part of t
horizontal axi
under some cell pressure o" and deviator stressAol such thatK, conditions are
obtained as shown by the K,line. This line is obtained as
Frgure 2-2lc
g*l-K" improve readabil
p' 1+Ko Figure 2-22a

The Ko line should pass approximately through the origin for normal consoli-
dated soils. If the above qlp'ratio is for failure stresses, the locus of points defines
the Ky line. In general, K, falls below the Mohr-Coulomb rupture envelope and
the K, line is below the Ky line. The latter is obvious since Ko is an equilibrium
in situ stress state and K, is a failure state.
Figure 2-2lb is a set of Mohr circles and corresponding p', q coordinates
from a triaxial test as follows: and

1. Begins with a confining cell pressure o, and p', q coordinates p': o; and Stress paths for t
a :0. shown in the figu
1 Point B is the p', q coordinates for some Ao1 stress increment.
Test 6r c.

I 470
2 lt76
3 118
4 470

For:

TestI:Initial cr
constant vert
CtrC3 eral pressure"
2 Test 2.. Initial cr
6r c3
pressure : 4-
2
Test3:Initial cr
eral pressure
Test 4: Initial cel
and hold let
pressure).

The stress pa
(c) as follows:

Figure 2-21 (c) Coordinates of a point on stress path ; (b) stress path for a series of Mohr circles for a
single test; (c) stress path of (b) drawn without Mohr circles.
1. Take point -.1 I
for any load in
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDAT'ION ENGINEERING 63

3. Point C is the p', q coordinates for a larger Aor.

4. Point D is obtained by holding the major principal stress o1 at some value and
decreasing the cell pressure until failure occurs.
5. That part of the stress path A, B, C is always inciined at an angle of 45' to the
horizontal axis.

Figure 2-2lc is the same stress-path plot using only the p, q coordinates to
improve readability.
Figure 2-22a displays the relationship between K, and the iine as follows:
@

a
tan P lan Q

: tan p: sin d
m+p
a
and c:
cos @

Stress paths for the four basic triaxiar tests are shown on Fig. 2-22b. TheK, iines
shown in the figure are obtained from the following data:

Test o1 a., kPa

1 470 118 294 176

2 I 176 470 823 353
3 118 470 294 - 176
4 470 t176 823 353

For:

Test I : Initial cell pressure:470 kpa. Decrease lateral pressure and

maintain
constant vertical pressure : 470 kpa (compression test with decreasing lat_
eral pressure.
Test 2; lnitial cell pressure :470 kpa. Increase vertical pressure
with lateral
pressure : 470 kPa (standard compression test).
Test 3: Initial cell pressure :4l,0 kpa. Decrease vertical pressure
and hold lat-
eral pressure constant (extension test decreasing vertical pressure).
Test4.'Initial cell pressure:470 kpa. Increase horizontal prrrrurc to r176
kpa
and hold vertical pressure constant (extension test wlth constant vertical
pressure).

The stress path for a consolidation test can be established (refer to Fig. 2-231
as follows:

1. Take point ,4 as the state ol effective stress at the end of primary consolidation
lor any load increment.
64 r'ouunauoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

sf

I
I
(o) j-
I

I
sl'
(o) Relotionship between K1 line ond f line
:

(b) -'/

Figure 2-43 tor St

\lohr circle: tl 'a

67891011 13 14 and the oort

-l o x l00,kPo
-2

-3 a= 70
n= 200 These c.-r-r,r
-4 ton
7A : u.J):
^^- s n+
15 ' 200 The rqr
-5 +.sin-]035=205. load incrm
, = --4==l5,"eo aiso the ::rq-r

(b) Stress poths {or the 4 bosc trioxiol tests

Figure 2-22 Stress paths..

.{fter pr:er
Suddenly apply the next load increment. Until drainage can occur after some prssure l

time elapses, there is no change in volume and correspondingly no increase in

any sheiring stress including the maximum value q. Thus, q : (or - o3)12 is
unthanged, causing the diameter of the circle to be unchanged but displaced
to the right an amount equal to the change in vertical pressure' In the case of and

saturated soil Aol : Au according to consolidation theory' The lanrr 1

3. As drainage occurs, the pore pressure decreases and the Mohr circle of interona]:.r-l:
effective stress increases as indicated at some elapsed times by circles C and D. consoh&-:mu
Circle D is the effective stress state when primary consolidation under this load
horizoc--a-. or
time: CC s
increment has occurred. 18,j.-i. n6.-< u'

Example 2-4 A normally consolidated clay soil with Ko : 0'95 - sin { : 0'56 is consolidated in
an oedometer (consoiidation) test. At the end of primary consllidation under a 50 kPa total or 50 prue:
load, the principal stresses (neglecting any ring-side friction effects) are
Lriie ,U
o'r :50 kPa o3: Kool:28 kPa origin ai r =
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERINC 65

.r x iOO kPo

Figure 2-23 (c) Stress path for consolidation test from load increment 50 to 100 kPa plotted on a
Mohr circle: {61 same plot using p. 4 coordinates.

and the corresponding p, 4 coordinates are

p, :39 q:q': 50-28 :11kPa

2
These coordinates plot polnt,4 on the Mohr circle as shown inFig.2-23a.
The next load increment of Lplp :1 gives a total stress on the sample of 100 kPa. This
load increment, at I : 0, moves circle ,4 horizontally a distance of 100 - 50 : 50 kPa (this is
also the instantaneous pore pressure) to circle B with p, q coordinates of

(50+50)+(28+50)
p- : 89 kPa (also 50 + 39)
2

q:11 as before

After primary consolidation is complete, the effective pressure o', is equal to the initial total
pressure:

o'r: 100 kPa

6\: Koor: 56 kPa
and p' :78 and q - q' :22 kPa
The latter p, q coordinates represent point D ol Frg. 2-23. Curve C is at some arbitrary
i intermediate consolidation stress state. Line ABCD represents the total stress path of the soil in
consolidating under the 50-kPa load increment. Line AD represents the effective stress path. The
horizontal distance between AD and BCD represents the excess pore pressure at some instant in
time; CC' is the excess pore pressure at a time when the total stress path is at p, q: point C
(83.5, 16.5) with a value

Au : 83.5 - 58.5 : 25 kPa

or 50 percent of the excess pore pressure has drssipated.

Line AD is a segment of the K, line for this soil. If this line is extended, it will intercept the
origin at p:q:0, since the clay is normally consolidated and at the beginning ofthe test

-\.*,,...
66 r,ouNoarroN ANALySIS AND DESIGN

: q: 6t: 6t: 0. The sloPe of this K, line is

Table 2-6 Typit
P
stress-strain mo
^ 1-Ko
1anfi1- Field values depend
' l+K" density, etc.

2-14 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Soil

The stress-strain modulus (also modulus of elasticity), shear modulus, and Poiss- Clay
on's ratio are the principal elastic properties of interest. Both the stress-strain Very soft
modulus E, and Poisson's ratio 1t are of use in evaluating foundation settlements. Soft
They may also be used to back-compute the modulus of subgrade reaction k". Medium
Hard
The shear modulus G is used in soil dynamics problems to compute amplitudes
Sandy
of vibrations.
Glacial till
The stress-strain modulus is computed as shown in Fig. 2-24a. Typical value
Loose
ranges for several soils are given in Table 2-6. Dense
Poisson's ratio pr is defined as the ratio of lateral strain s3 to longitudinal Very dense
strain s1 when the applied stress is uniaxial (Fig.2-24b) or Loess
Sand
p:: o3ol (a\ Silty
Loose
Typical p values for several materials are given inTable 2-7. Dense

Sand and grarr

Initiol tongeni modulus Loose
Depends on Dense
b
/, wr ond o3
Shale
Silt

t't'...--s..ont modulus
b

.;o Table 2-7 Tn*

O
*5 a€ Type of soil

noncyclic tesi
Clay. saturatec
Stro in, e Stroin, e

(o)Stress-slroin modulus Clay. unsatu:a:*

Sandi clai
Silr
b Sand (den:e
Coarse i\La-lc:
I
k. = jif, Use nil o Fine-grar::c
lao 'tongenl or
L Rock
ck:_< )I
secont line

Loess
Def ormolion, S

Ice
(b) Poisson's rotio, p (c)Modulus of subgrode reoclion Concrete
Figve 2-24 Elastic properties of soil
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 67

Table 2-6 Typical range of values for the static

stress-strain modulus E" for selected soils
Field values depend on stress history, water content,
density, etc.

E"

Soil Mpa

Clay
Very soft 50,250 2-15
Soft 100-500 5,2s
Medium 300 1000 I 5-50
Hard 1000-2000 50-100
Sandy 500-5000 25 250
Glacial till
Loose 200-3200 10-153
Dense 3000-15 000 144-',720
Very dense 10 000-30 000 478-1440
Loess 300-1200 t4-5'.7
Sand
Silty i 50-450 7-2t
Loose 200-500 tv24
Dense 1000-1700 48-8 1

Sand and gravel

Loose 1000-3000 48-144
Dense 2000-4000 96-t92
Shale 3000 300 000 144 14 4N
Silt 4H00 2-20

Table 2-7 Typical range of values for Poisson's ratio p

Type of soil

Clay. saturated 0.4 0.5

Clay, unsaturated 0.1 0.1
Sandy clay 0.2 0.3
Silr 0.3 0.35
Sand (dense) 0.2 0..1
Coarse (void ratio : 0.4 0.7) 0.1 5
Fine-grained (void ratio : 0.+0.7) 0.25

Rock 0.1-0.4 (depends somewhat on

type ol rock)
Loess 0.i 0.3

Ice 0.36
Concrete 015

F
68 rouNoertoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The modulus of subgrade reaction is defined as the ratio of stress to defor- The result is rle
mation as shown on Fig. 2-24c. The units of k" are the same as unit weight. large number "':
The shear modulus G is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. It {i.0. q'e fini :ha:
is related to E" and ,u as
be interpretec :.r
This tlpe o: an:-
--sE"
lr :
," 2(l+p) -
(b)
produce
Equali,,-r i-
la:g:: :

The shearing strain e" is the change in right angle at any corner of an element as
values. This .s a
in Fig. 2-24b such that E,-often :oa i:
The inri;-t --

€" : sogle BCD - angTe B'C'D' (c) reasons :

Another concept occasionally used is the volumetric strain, defined as

1. Soil is elas:r;
AV l. There is isi r
e,: 7 @) 3. The larges: r
"
Or S€CanI rr,:,j
The volumetric strain was used to plot strain versus log p of Fig.2-llb. The bulk
modulus E, is defined as the ratio of hydrostatic stress to the volumetric strain e ,: In spite :f :
commonlv usec
_?-l+rr __8"
F'o:ic ri:3(15 te) This ma1' re f, -::i
stress ler.el n:::
Since G and E6 cannot be negative, Eqs. (b) and (e) set the limits of pr as tain E,.
A numbEr ::
-1(pS0.5 louf and Ste u e::
Itappears that the range of pr for soils is 0 to 0.5. Saturated soils have p - 9.5 initial tangenr =
and dry soils have # -0. level about h'": :t
Hooke's generalized stress-strain law in terms of principal strains e and this method is s.--:
stresses o can be written in matrix notation as The mer:.:':
modulus r.alue f,
e: Do (2-52)
and frequencr:s -
where the matrix D contains Poisson's ratio as E, and G. Th: ir
\d I 2 3
value. The dlra:
Both the s:::.

D:
I -u -p
t. Method c: I
2 -p -p 1
pression. er.:::
3
-p -p Confining ;e,.
confinine prrsi
For the CD or CU triaxial test with a cell pressure a3 and the deviator stress Aol 3. Overcons,,.llca
acting, we have 4. Soil densitr
5. Water conten:
-t
:; (a,o1 - 2po3) (2-s3) fractures ai lu..;
', 6. Strain rate ei
If we plot the stress-strain data and draw a smooth curve through the points, 2 or more cr.n
we should be able to solve Eq. (2-53)forE" and p bytaking Aot and er at closely and Whitman
spaced intervals so a linear variation can be assumed in the tangent modulus E". 7. Sample distu:L
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 69

The result is the tangent modulus and pr for that stress level. If this is done on a
large number of closely spaced points and the initial value of e, is very close to
0.0, we find that Poisson's ratio exceeds 0.5 at very small strain values. This can
be interpreted that most of the stress-strain curve is in the plastic range of strains.
This type ofanalysis also verifies that both E" and p are stress-dependent.
Equation (2-53) indicates that the unconfined (o. :0) compression test will
produce larger axial strains e1 at the same stress level compared with triaxial
values. This is why the unconfined compression test produces smaller values of
E"-often too small by a factor of 4 or 5.
The initial tangent modulus is most often used for E" " This is for several
reasons:

1. Soil is elastic only near the origin.

2. There is less divergence between all piots in this region.
3. The largest values are obtained-often three to five times larger than a tangent
or secant modulus from another point along the curve.

In spite of these several shortcomings for E" the value along the curve is
commonly used in finite-element analyses based on the computed stress level.
This may require that the problem be iterated several times until the computed
stress level matches the stress level that was used on the previous cycle to ob-
tain E".
A number of investigators [Leonards (1968), Soderman et al. (1968), Makh-
louf and Stewart (1965), Larew and Leonards (1962)l have proposed that a better
initial tangent modulus is obtained by cycling the deviator stress to some stress
level about five times and then failing the sample. The initial tangent modulus by
this method is somewhat higher than on the first cycle.
The method just described is to obtain a static (or resilient) stress-strain
modulus value. Cyclic tests where the cycles are in terms of low-amplitude strains
and frequencies in the range of f to 10 Hz are used to obtain dynamic values of
E" and G. The dynamic stress-strain modulus may be two to ten times the static
value. The dynamic moduli will be considered in more detail in Chap. 20.
Both the stress-strain modulus and Poisson's ratio are heavily dependent on:

1. Method of performing the compression tests (unconfined, confined, com-

pression, extension, U, CU, or CD).
2. Confining cell pressure o. . E" tends to increase nonlineai'ly with an increase in
confining pressure.
3. Overconsolidation ratio OCR.
4. Soil density-E" increases with particle packing.
5. water content of soil-lower water contents tend to higher values. Brittle
fractures at low strains occur at low water contents.
6. Strain rate-at low strain rates the modulus value can be lower by a factor of
2 or more compared with the value obtained at a high test rate [Richardson
and Whitman (1963)1.
7. Sample disturbance.

F,-,
 70 r'ouNperroN ANALysts AND DESTcN

The stress-strain curve for all soils is nonlinear for all except a possible short
segment near the origin. Kondner (1963) proposed that the stress-strain curve
(Fig. 2-25a) could be represented by a hyperbolic equation of the form

o1-63:
a*be
which could be rewritten with Ao, : ot o. in linear form as
'e :a+be (2-s4)
Lo,
The left side of Eq. (2-5q can be computed for various values of deviator stress
and the corresponding strain to make a linear plot as shown in Fig. 2-25b.
Extension of the plot across the discontinuity at s + 0 gives the coefficien t a, and isotropy has 1

the slope is b. while Kondner proposed this procedure for clay soils, it should be only in more
applicable for all soils with similar stress-strain curves [see Duncan and chang Yong and Siir
(1e70)1. Yamada and I
The following empirical correlations may be used to estimate E" for cohesive range in streni
soils: respect to the
to see hon. an:
Normally consolidated sensitive clay :
on the inter:e
plane.
B": (200 to 500) x s, (2-ss) Nonhomc
Normally consolidated insensitive and lightly overconsolidated clay :
maSS contamin
in the depth ..
6": (750 to 1200) x s, (2-s6) with depth ai'i
Heavily overconsolidated clay usually noniint
infinite, hcm..!
. E": (1500 to 2000) x s, (2_57) convenience. T
Several equations will be presented in the next chapter using in situ testing which more realisticai
may be used for both cohesive and cohesionless soils to compute 8". AnisotrtrF:
since elastic pr
the stress-stra:r
2-15 ISOTROPIC AND ANISOTROPIC SOIL MASSES are required ,,i

assume s!'mm.:
An isotropic material is one in which the elastic properties (E" and p) are the same
in all directions. The elastic properties for anisotropic materials are different in
the different directions. A material is homogeneous when the physical and com-
_!
positional properties such as y, void ratio, clay, and silt or clay content are the -C +-
same throughout the volume of interest. I]_
|l_
Almost all naturally occurring soil deposits are anisotropic and nonhomoge- t_|
L-J
neous. The anisotropy is produced from a combination of particle placement - l/
I -_-
during deposition/formation (also called geometrical or inherent anisotiopy) and o.O"
su,
from overburden pressures. In natural soils this commonly results in horizontal
bedding planes having both strength and elastic properties different for samples An sotr::. -:-
stressed perpendicular and parallel to the bedding planes. This property ofan-
5u: unc-3 -:l
i- r
i:
lst

i.{

;iT-:*.if-,ffy ?.q.rr
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 7I

,/ ln
b= ton ? Figure 2-25 (c) Usual stress-strain
-t
-s -
plot hyperbolic-curve approxi-
o
mation; (b) transformed stress-
ouli: -L
strain representation of
b stress
strain-gives approximate linear
curve as shown. fA;fter Kondner
(1e63).1

isotropy has been known for some time [Casagrande and Carrillo (1944)], but
only in more recent times have attempts been made to quantify the effects [see
Yong and Silvestri (1979), Law and Lo (1976), Arthur and Menzies (1972), and
Yamada and Ishihara (1979)1. Figure 2-26 illustrates anisotropy and the possible
range in strength which occurs when the stress orientation is at some angle with
respect to the bedding plane. This figure should also be compared with Fig. 2-16
to see how anisotropy can qualitatively affect in situ shear resistance depending
on the intersection angle between the bedding plane and the potential shear
plane.
Nonhomogeneous deposits are produced from particle packing versus depth,
mass contamination during deposition, and lenses or strata of different materials
in the depth of interest. The increase in particle packing and confining pressure
with depth always produces a stress-stfain modulus increase with depth *tri"t is
usually nonlinear. It has been common, however, to assume a soil mass is semi-
infinite, homogeneous, and isotropic, even in layered deposits, as a computational
convenience. The current state-of-art is such that a soil mass can be somewhat
more realistically modeled than this, albeit at some additional time and expense.
Anisotropy is an important consideration in finite-element analyses of soils,
since elastic properties are input parameters. Where two elastic constants define
the stress-strain relationship [Eq. (2-52)) of an isotropic material, five constants
are required when a homogeneous soil is deposited in layers so that one can
assume symmetry about a vertical axis. A soil deposit which meets this criterion

o>0 a.90'
sua suh

Anisotropy rclrc R. srr/su6

,_6 - s.. [1.1R - l)cos2o I
Figure 2-26 Undrained
sr= undro ned sheor slrength (see obove for orrenioi on) strength for anisotropic soils.
72 nouNoartoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

anisotropic mater
is termed cross-qnisotroplc. Strictly, a soil is not cross-anisotropic because of a
depth variation, but this is a simplification which may not introduce serious
computational errors. This simplification has the effect of reducing 21 elastic
constants of the general case to 7.
The seven elastic constants for a cross-anisotropic material (actually only five
are independent) are defined as follows (the xz plane of isotropy is horizontal and
the y axis is vertical):

Ev : stress-strain modulus in the vertical direction

EH : stress-strain modulus in the horizontal plane, the plane of isotropy
l.tr : E"lt, when the applied stress is o,
ltz : e*l% when the applied stress is o, I

Fz : qle" when the applied stress is o,

GH : shear modulus in the horizontal plane
Hence, the D ma:
GY : shear modulus in the vertical plane

EH
But Gs: p)
2(t +

l-tz
and
Ev
=F'
EH
(a)

So the five elastic constants for a cross-anisotropic material are Gr, Ey, En, Irr
and p2. A more detailed discussion on cross-anisotropic behavior of soil deposits
can be found in Bhatacharya (1968).
The generalized Hooke's law for cross-anisotropic material takes the follow-
ing form:
Thus l*-.r p"
necessarr tL-r int'
ox ov oz [Chowdhurl 19
^ EH ''E, ' EH
ov 1. Perform a :e:
ox oz
U.,:- sample q-l:h ::
" E, ''Eo -lLt-'"EH (b) l. Plot the dei:a
o" ox ov 3. Plot the cer:;
"EH "EH ''E, from the a.q:a-
Ttu t, Tr" -1. Compute S
rxy Ixz
T

IYz '{
GV GH Gv
5. Perforrn a pl;
with ahe pian
: : : paralnel to iht
For problems of plane strain (when t" T"" yy" 0)
5. Plot steps I a:
EH -. Compuue n f
6": Ftox + F, o, (c) 'i
E, _:

E. Test a >arnpl
Substituting Eq. (.) in Eqs. (b), using Eq. (a) to obtain p3, and noting that isarnplc mat
1,":ly":0, the following form of the generalized Hooke's law for cross-
 SoIL MECHANICS IN FoUNDATIoN ENGINEERING 73

anisotropic material in plane strain is obtained:

e": Ao" I Bo,

er: Bo, I Cou

l-u
rxy
Gv

where
l-u1 ^ -Ltz- Ftlz
F
EV

(d)
^ 1-nu4 EH
Ev Ev

Hence, the D matrix for plane-strain problems of cross-anisotropic materials is

\o 2 3
t\
1 A B 0
D: 2 B C 0 (e)

1
3 0 0
Gv

Thus for plane-strain problems of cross-anisotropic materials it is only

necessary to know the four parameters A, B,
c, and Gy, which can be determined
[Chowdhury (1972)] as follows:

1. Perform a set of plane-strain triaxial tests with a constant cell pressure on a

sample with the plane of isotropy horizontal.
2. Plot the deviator stress vs. axial strain.
3. Plot the deviator stress vs. lateral strain. The lateral strain can be computed
from the axial strain and volume-change measurements.
4. Compute : llB : slope of curve of step 3.
l/C : slope of curve of step 2.
5. Perform a plane-strain triaxial test with a constant cell pressure on a sample
with the plane of isotropy vertical such that the direction of plane strain is
parallel to the plane of isotropy.
6. Plot steps 2 and3 above to obtain a second set ofcurves.
7. compute: 1/B : slope of curve of step 3 (should check reasonably with
step 4).
1lA: slope ofcurve ofstep 2.
8. Test a sample with the plane of isotropy inclined at 45. to the horizontal
(samples may be difficult to obtain except from a test pit).
74 rouNpe.rtoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

9. Plot the deviator stress vs' axial strain' The slope doldt of the curve is related 2-i Dala were obtained
to G, by the following equation:

Gv: 4/slope (f) Limiting

-(A+28+C) 7-* 18.0r

l.i. 14.7-
: 16'97 (arera€
Thus the four constants required to solve the plane-strain problems of cross- ?ri.ra

anisotropic soil can be obtained from three sets ofplane-strain triaxial tests; one
set of tests is on soil samples with the plane of isotropy horizontal; the second
set
Required: Compute t::
is on samples with the plane of isotropy vertical; and the third set on is samples
Answer : 60 to !-: ;
with the piane of isotropy 45" inclined to the horizontal. Effective or total stresses
2-8 A consolidatio: :-
may be used as appropriate, but all values should be consistent. Since the value
ring diameter : 6-1 rr :
of Gn is particularly critical [Raymond (1970)], all four constants A., B, C, andGv weight of the soil c:i; ,
mus; be;orrectly determined if one wants to consider the cross-anisotropy of the Required: (a) Initia- ::-:
soil. If the correct evaluation of each of the four constants is not possible, the soil Partial Ans\\t'
"

should be treated as an isotropic material. 2-9 The in situ ;, : ---

gave s, : 80 kPa \\'i::
.4nswer. s, : l- ; ;

2-10 The in situ :i:::

PROBLEMS pressure Pi : ll-r- i'P:
Estimate the in s:t- ,,
(Nofe: Select partial answers are purposely not identified') 2-ll Estimate I', .:: i
i-t e soit has a unit weight of 20.54 kN/m3' For G":2'68 and w: 12'5 percent' find: yo',' void 2-12 ACU tria\:", ::!:
ratio e, porosity n, and degree of saturation S.
Partial answer :0.305, 76.1 Percent
2-2 A soil has a unit weight of 122'5 pcf. lf G : 2"70 and the soil is saturated' find: 7a'r ' void
ratio e'
" Test No
porosity n, and water content w.
P ar tial' 67, 28'4 Percent
answ er : 0.7

2-3 A soil has an in situ void rario eo-- 1.87, wr:600 percent, and G":2'75' What is7*.' and S? 1 !.
2 ,:'
What kind of "soil" might have this unit weight?
Answer : 15.04 kN1m3 1eS.8 pcf t. S : 88.3 percent
3

is 14'71
2-4 A sample of saturated clay has a mass of 1853.5 g arld 1267.4 g dry. The dry unit weight
void ratio (c) specific gravityG,; and (d) wet unit weight for
kN/m3. What is (a) wet unit weight;(b) e; Required: Fini : .:: :
S : 50 percent ? Comment on the type of clay this might be' Partial ,i'1: ^:-
you say this
2-5 Redo Example 2-1 if the sample weighs 236.0 g. All other data are the same. Would 2-13 An unco:-i:-:- ::
is a "saturated" soil? data obtained: I- = , ,'.
Required: \\-ha: ":: ':'r
pieces
2-6 Classification tests were performed on a light-brown sandy soil which visually has several
of gravel larger than 6 mm. The following laboratory data were obtained: Partial tn:":'
2-14 A CU tna\::. 'ri:

Sieve No. Percent passing

Test No
4 98.0
40 36.5
1 i
20.8
2 :'.1
200
3 r-l
wr: 33'2 wo: 22'6 Percenl

Required: Total ::; :i

Required: Classify this soil Partial ar's^;- :
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 75

2-7 Dala were obtained from a relative-density test using information from six laboratory tests:

Limiting 7 Average y, kN/m3

t-"- 18.07 17.52

?.;n 14.77 15.56
^16s: 16.97 (average from two tests)

Required: Compute the range of D, .

Answer :60 to 83 percent

2-8 A consolidation test was performed on a sample with initial dimensions of Il : 20.00 mm and
ring diameter : 63.00 mm. At the end of the test the sample height was 14.30 mm and the oven-dry
weight ofthe soil cake was 95.63 g. The G" ofthe soil solids is 2.66.
Required : (a) Initial and final void ratios e , e 1 ; (b) total sample strain e
"
Partial Answer :0.735, 0.285
2-9 The in situ pi : 200 kPa. A consolidation test gives p: : 500 kPa. A U test on a field sample
gave sr : 80 kPa. What is the expected strength of a normally consolidated laboratory sample?
Answer : su: 37 kPa
2-10 The in situ effective preconsolidation
pressure pi is 450 kPa. The in situ effective overburden
pressure p'" - 200 kPa. The s, for a normally consolidated laboratory test on remolded soil is 55 kPa.
Estimate the in situ s,.
2-11 Estimate K" and $' for the soil of Prob. 2-6. What is an estimate for K, if p,"lp,": 4?
2-12 ACU triaxial test ona Q-c soil yielded the following data:

Test No. o", kPa Aor, kPa

1 80 120
2 160 170
3 240 . 2ffi

Required: Find @ and c

Partial answer : c : 36 kPa
2-13 An unconfined compression (U) test was performed on a cohesive sample with the following
data obtained: L: 110.0 mm;diameter: 50.0 mm, AL : 8.0 mm; pru,,u.. :0.133 kN.
Required: What are the soil parameters?
Partial answer : c : 31.4 kPa
2-14 A CU triaxial test was performed, with the following data obtained:

Test No oc Lo, Aa. kPa

I 100 238 36
2 200 307 108
3 300 389 197

Required: Total and effective stress parameters

Partial answer : 6 : 15' ; 6' : 41"
?6 rouNPertoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

2-l5PlotthedataofProb.2.14usingap,qdiagtamforboththetotalandeffectiveStresses,andfind
the soil parameters. Test load. kPa Sorl \
2-16PlotExample2-4inSec.2.|3andverifythatthenextloadincrement(200kPa)willfallonthe
consolidation intervals.
K, line. Show the effective uf,J ;; prr.ru.., fo. several intermediate 0
sample with the following data:
2-17 A cu direct shear test was performed on a 50-mm-square 8
16
32
64
Test No. P,, kN P,,, kN
140
280
1 0.05 0.043
560
2 0.20 0.061
0.096 680
3 0.30
1020
2040

Required: Plot the data and find c and @

\\a
Partial answer : Q : t3'4'
test'
2-18 Given the data ofTable P2-15 from a consolidation G"
eo

Required for each assigned load increment: LHt

LHr
1. Plot dial reading vs. log time and find fto '
item
2. Plot dial reading vs. u4,n"d tro, and compare with Soil
1.

II : in (at beginning of f, tonlftz load), and kN,,m3 -:

3. Assume two-way drainage and the initial
0'800 7.",, l,<

compute c,and C'-

i Compute fron', ;, i:,:
:
Pattial answer : For j ton/ft2: tso : l'2 (log)' 1'6 min;c'
0'0257 in2/min
layers of soft clay underlying the site Figure P2-19 Soil \: ,
2-lg Three consolidation tests were performed on separate sand; soils No. i. -i. .:-:
-
p2-19). Th" ,u"|"oil ;e're consolidated irom an initial II : 20.00 mm in a 63'0-mm-
(refer to Fig.
diameter ring. The following data were obtained:
Required: Plot e re:.-t :
Plot e versus log t ;-:u:
log p curve. Use ;::: :
Table P2-15 Dial readings (x 0'0001) remaining valuc oi :
Partial ansver S:
\:,.
Time, min l tonlftz ltonlft2 l ton/ft2 !:--
21 88 2t2'7 2-20 For Fig. Pl-ii : :

0 2240
2r19 h' - 0.25 m. rrhat is ::. ::
0.25 2234 2180
2r13 Answer : lar [t.Ji ::
0.50 2230 2r72
1.0 2227 2t62 2105
2.0 2222 2t53 2094
4.0 2218 2144 2083
2139 2073
,! I
8.0 22t3
16.0 2208 2135 2062
2204 2r32 2055 T--
30.0
60.0 2200 2r3t 2050
120.0 219',l 2130 2w1
240.0 2193 2129 2M6
480.0 2190 2128 2045
2188 2127 2044
1440.0
 SOIL MECHANICS IN FOUNDATION ENGINEERING 77

Void ratio e

Test load, kPa Soil No. 3 Soil No. 5 Soil No. 7

0 405 1.195 1.151

8 395 1.190 1.140
I6 393 1.187 1.135
32 1.390 1.180 1.130
64 1.385 l.t'7 5 1.105
t40 1.380 1.125 1.080
280 1.360 1.050 1.060
s60 1. 180 0.925 0.965
680 1.1 10
1020 0.925 0.760 0.805 229-
2040 0.725 0.625 0.680

tlL 77.0% 53.0% 69.0%

24.0 26.0 24.0
G" 2.74 2.70 2.66
eo 1.3 8 1.18 1.12 (as wrG")
LHt 0.0832 mm 0.04s6 0.1023 (o 8 kPa)
LHt 5.6550 mm 5.1936 4.3794 (0 2040 kPa)

Soil 1 2 3 4 56 7
kN/m3 15.72
7.,,, 18.31 t8.62 * i 8.73
* Compute from eo and G" given above.

Figure P2-19 Soil No. 1, organic silt and clay; soil No. 2, medium dense
sand;soils No.3,5, andT,clay; soils No.4 and 6, thin silt seams.

Required: Plot e versus log p curves as assigned and find C" , p'" , p'", and comment.
Plot e versus log p curve for soil assigned and find Ci and compare computed and C" from e versus
log p curve. Use sample height and definition of Ae together with given values of AH to compute
remaining values of e.
Paftialanswer: Soil 3: C,=O.77 p',:137.3 C'"=0.32
Soil 5: C. : 0.53 p,.: 161.2
Soil 7: C" = Q.Jg p'": t91.9 p,, :250
2-20 For Fig. P2-20: (a) Estimate lr at which the sand would be expected to become "quick";(b) if
h' - 0.25 m, what is the effective pressure at ,4?
Answer : (c) 0.45 m; (b) 1.95 kPa

Figure P2-20.
78 rouNplrtoN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

2-21 What H in Example 2-3 will produce a "quick" condition

at C?
Answer:H:14.3m
a smooth curve through the points and
2-22 Plotthe assigned triaxial test data of Prob. 5-14' Make
(2-53)' Note the stress and strain level
starting with a strain : 0.d; E" and p using Eq'
"o-p*'
wherepiseither>0.5ornegative.cunyoudrawanyconclusionsaboutthesecomputations?
assigned triaxial test data ofProb. 5-14 and obtain d,
2-23 Plot the
what is f in this test? EXPLOR\T

3-1 D_{T{ REQI

-s::::::
- l;-i

IniLrr-n3:l-::- :
Infonna:r;,r: :: "
on the a-- : ', , :,: