Latest Assinment of FOTS

FOTS LAB REPORTS
Submitted by: Khawaja Daniyal 2017-MC-19
Submitted to: Farhan Qureshi
Course: Fundamentals of Thermal Sciences (MCT-214L)
Date: May 14, 2019
Department of Mechatronics and Control Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
MCT-214L: Fundamentals of Thermal Sciences SPRING 2019
LAB 01: Calibration of Bourdon Pressure Gauge
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to use dead weight gauge tester to calibrate Bourdon Pressure Gauge.
Apparatus:
▪ Bourdon pressure gauge

▪ Weights
▪ Plunger
▪ Mobil oil
▪ Gauge tester
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
A dead weight tester apparatus uses known traceable weights to apply pressure to a fluid for
checking the accuracy of readings from a pressure gauge. A dead weight tester (DWT) is a calibration
standard method that uses a piston cylinder on which a load is placed to make an equilibrium with an
applied pressure underneath the piston. Deadweight testers are so called primary standards which means
that the pressure measured by a deadweight tester is defined through other quantities: length, mass and
time. Typically, deadweight testers are used in calibration laboratories to calibrate pressure transfer
standards like electronic pressure measuring devices.
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Definition:
“Bourdon tube pressure gauge uses a hollow elastic and curved tube to measure pressure of a fluid.”
OR
“Bourdon pressure gauges are used to measure high pressure that is above atm whereas vacuum gauges
measure to low pressure. Compound gauges can measure both high and low pressures.”
Where,
Pressure is normal force per unit area
Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously acted on by any magnitude of shear stresses on it.
Shear stress is created whenever tangential force acts on a substance.
Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi.
Types of pressure:
1) Absolute (measured from absolute zero)
2) Local (exerted on us by our atmosphere)
3) Gauge (measured by instruments)
➢ In most engineering calculations, pressure is measured relative to local pressure which is called
gauge pressure.
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆
➢ For negative pressure (less than atmospheric pressure).
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆
Why use pressure gauge?

Monometers are not suitable for measuring high pressures i.e. 10-15 bars, that is why we use pressure
gauge.
Construction and working:
It is composed of a bourdon tube and a pinion. It has elliptical cross section. It is connected to a pressure
vessel. Pressure is transmitted by Pascal’s law (when pressure is applied, it is transmitted equally). A
bourdon gauge consists of a bourdon, sector gauge and pinion. Bourdon tube is elliptical in cross section
and hence is flexible and strong. When gauge is connected to a pressure vessel, the fluid pressure is
transmitted to the bourdon tube and the tube is deflected proportional to the intensity of pressure. The
pointer is mounted on the pinion axle which rotates accordingly on the dial of gauge. The pointer is
mounted on the pinion axle which rotates accordingly on the dial of the gauge.
Pressure Calibration:
It means to check the accuracy of irregularity of a measuring instrument. Continuous usage of gauges,
wear, tear and excessive loading may cause error in their measurement which must be calibrated.
OR
Comparison of output of a device used to measure pressure with that of another pressure measurement
device on pressure measuring standards.US standard atmospheric pressure equation is:
𝑩𝒛
𝑷𝒄 = 𝑷𝒊 (𝟏 − )
𝑻𝒂
Where,
Ta = Room Temp. = 25 C = 298.15 K
β = lapse rate (rate of change of temp. with elevation) for stratosphere = 0.00650 K/m
z = height above sea level = 224 m (for Lahore)
R = General gas constant = 268.9 J/Kg
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g = 9.81 m/s2
Pi = Loads we apply
Pc = Calibrated pressure
After some calculation;
𝑷𝒄 = 𝑷𝒊 (𝟎. 𝟗𝟕)
The error for this experiment can be calculated by;
𝑷𝒄 − 𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
%𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒄
Procedure:
➢ Dead weight gauge tester is an apparatus use to calibrate the bourdon pressure gauges, lubricating
oil in the apparatus acts as the working fluid through which the pressure is transmitted from the
plunger to the end of gauges.
➢ I tested the accuracy of gauges by comparing the actual the actual pressure of working fluid and
the gauge reading.
➢ As I inserted the plunger in the apparatus, pressure is induced in the oil; the actual pressure is
given as:
P=W/A
Where W is the weight of plunger and A is area of cross section of its stem. Let’s
consider the gauge a reads Pa, then
P = Pa; (the gauge is error free)
P ≠ Pa; (the gauge is faulty)
The error is Pa – P at pressure P.
➢ I determined mean error by taking the mean of Pa, then loading and unloading.
Observations & Calculations:
No. Gauge Pressure Indicated Calibrated Error

of (Pa) Pressure Pressure %
obs. (Pi) (Pc)
loading Unloading Mean

1. 0 0 0 5 4.81 100
2. 10 10 10 15 14.55 31
3. 14.5 15 14.75 20 19.4 23
4. 32 30 31 40 38.8 20
5. 81 81 81 90 87.3 7.21
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Mean percentage error = 36.5 %
➢ Graph of calibrated and mean pressure is given below:
Calibrated and Mean pressure Vs No. of Observation

100
90
80
70
60
50
Mean pressure
40
Calibrated pressure
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of Observations
Comments:
➢ We can conclude from observations & calculations that bourdon pressure gauge is faulty because
of error. If error becomes zero it means our bourdon pressure gauge is not faulty.
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LAB 02: Area Measurement of Regular closed shaped

figures
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to measure the area of regular closed shaped figures using
planimeter.
Apparatus:
▪ Planimeter
▪ Graph paper
▪ Pencil
▪ Scale
▪ Compass
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
A planimeter, also known as a platometer, is a measuring instrument used to determine the

area of an arbitrary two-dimensional shape. Its major application in the thermodynamics lab is to find the
area of actual P-V diagram of the heat engines.
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Where;
T = Tracing point and tracing support
A = Adjustable arm
P = Anchor point
F = Dial or disc
D = Measuring wheel
V = Vernier
Maximum and Minimum reading on disc, drum and Vernier:

Disc:
On disc following are extreme value that are possible in measurement.
Maximum reading: 100 in2
Minimum reading: 10 in2
Drum:
On drum following are extreme value that are possible in measurement.
Maximum reading: 10 in2
Minimum reading: 0.1 in2
Vernier:
The minimum reading on the drum is further divided into ten divisions on the Vernier scale,
therefore the least count Vernier will be:
L.C =0.1/10 = 0.01 in2
Therefore,
Total Reading = (Disc reading) + (drum reading) + (Vernier reading)
Procedure:
➢ First, a square of area 2x2(in^2) is drawn by hand.
➢ Then by fixing the anchor point, the whole area is measured by tracing the outline of the 2-
dimensional shape.
➢ Once the known area is traced, note the revolutions the disk, drum and Vernier scale indicate.
➢ This will give the measured area of the 2-dimensional shape.
➢ Errors can be computed by subtracting the measured area from real known area.
Figure Ac Ap MAPF
𝑨𝒄 − 𝑨𝒑
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑨𝒄
Disc Vernier Drum Area
Square 2.5 0 22 7 2.27 0.8
Triangle 1.2 0 11 8 1.28 1.6
Rectangle 2 0 20 2 2.02 1
Trapizium 2.5 0 24 9 2.49 0.4
Circle 1.327 0 12 8 1.28 3.5
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Comments:
➢ In this experiment a planimeter is utilized to quantify the region of a regular shape, it is finished
by simply following the outer line of the area, starting from the center and to an edge which will
serve as a starting point.
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LAB 03: Linear Conduction along circular bar
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to investigate Fourier’s law for the linear conduction of heat along a
circular bar using conduction heat transfer.
Apparatus:
▪ Heat conduction apparatus

▪ Brass
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Thermodynamics:
“Thermodynamics is defined as the interaction between system and surrounding and depend only on
initial and final states.”
Heat and Mass transfer:
“It deals with what happens during a thermodynamics process.”
Heat Transfer:
“Transmission of thermal energy due to spatial temperature difference.”
Modes of transfer of heat:
1. Conduction (Stationary medium)
2. Convection (Medium is in motion)
3. Radiation (No medium required)
Conduction:
“Heat transfer when a temperature gradient exist in stationary medium (may be solid or liquid).”
Fourier’s Law:
“Rate of conduction heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and heat transfer area and inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.”
𝑸 𝜶 𝒅𝒕
𝑸𝜶𝑨
𝟏
𝑸𝜶
𝒙
𝒅𝒕
𝑸𝜶𝑨
𝒙
𝒅𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨
𝒙
Where,
K = Thermal conductivity of a material (how fast a material conducts)
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𝑊
Unit of K is 𝐾𝑚 (Heat transfer of 1W through 1m length when temperature difference is 1k).
Heat Flux:
“Rate of heat transfer per unit surface area.”
𝑸
𝑯. 𝑭 =
𝑨
𝑊
Unit of H.F is 𝑚2.
Thermal Resistance:
“It is the ratio of chance in temperature and rate of change of heat transfer.”
𝑹 = (𝒅𝑻)/𝑸
Procedure:
➢ Select an intermediate position for the heater power control and allow sufficient time for steady
state condition to be achieved before recording the temperature at all nine sensor points and the
input power reading on the wattmeter.
➢ This procedure should be repeated for other inputs of power reading on the wattmeter which are
5,8 and 10.
➢ After each change sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
➢ Plot the graph of length versus temperatures at different power. It will result in a set of straight
lines having an approximately the same slop dT/dx.
➢ This slope is used to determine the thermal conductivity of the material brass.
➢ Appropriate multiplication factors should be introduced to convert the result to normally accepted
units i.e. W/mK.
➢ Compare the results to typical values of thermal conductivity using tables.
D = 25 mm
A = 490.87 mm2
L = 0.1 m = 10cm
Sensor Placement = 10 mm
No of Heat Temperature Surface Slope Thermal

obs. (Q) (℃) Area 𝒅𝑻 Conductivity
(A) 𝒅𝒙 (K)
𝑾
𝑲𝒎
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1. 5 49 47.5 46.9 46.5 45 38.5 32.5 31.5 30.5 0.000491 -100 101.8308
2. 8 60 57.7 57 56.2 54 45 33 32.5 30.5 0.000491 -153.5 106.2628
3. 10 63.1 55.8 53.2 44.6 42.3 41.8 32.9 32 30.5 0.000491 -200 101.8329
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𝑊
Mean Thermal Conductivity = 103.30 𝐾𝑚
Error % = 6.9 %
Graph of T vs x
70
60
50
40
T(C)
Q=5
30
Q=8
20 Q = 10
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x(cm)
Comments:
➢ As the temperature difference is decreasing uniformly but due to faulty apparatus the readings are
not matching with the ideal reading but it shows that if one measures temperature near the hot
region it will increase and as we go further it will decrease uniformly.
➢ Ideally the graph is linear. The error is due to the contact resistance.
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LAB 04: Heat Conduction along a Composite Bar
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the
overall heat transfer coefficient using conduction heat transfer unit.
Apparatus:
▪ Conduction heat transfer unit

▪ Brass
▪ Steel
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Newton’s Law of cooling:
“Heat transfer is directly proportional to the area and temperature difference.”
𝑸𝜶𝑨
𝑸 𝜶 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
𝑸 𝜶 𝑨(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏)
𝑸 = 𝒉𝑨(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏)
Where,
h = Coefficient of heat transfer
A = 0.000491 m2
For Composite materials:
𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨𝒅𝑻
Where,
U = Overall coefficient of heat transfer
𝑼 = 𝟏/(𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 ∗ 𝑨)
𝑼 = 𝑸/(𝒅𝑻 ∗ 𝑨)
𝑊
And its unit is 𝐾𝑚2.
As we know that;
and,
𝒅𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨
𝑳
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𝒅𝑻 𝑳
=
𝑸 𝑲𝑨
So,
𝑳
𝑹=
𝑲𝑨
There are three portions of the composite material, so;
𝑳𝒂 𝑳𝒃 𝑳𝒄
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = + +
𝑲𝒂𝑨 𝑲𝒃𝑨 𝑲𝒄𝑨
Thermal Diffusibility:
“Ability of a body to store heat is called thermal diffusibility”
It is given by;
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒌/(µ𝒆𝒑) 𝜶𝑸
Procedure:
4W, 10W and 15W.
➢ After each change sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
➢ Plot the graph of length versus temperatures at different power. It will result in a set of straight
lines having an approximately the same slop dT/dx.
➢ This slope is used to determine the thermal conductivity of the material steel.
➢ Appropriate multiplication factors should be introduced to convert the result to normally accepted
𝑊
units i.e. 𝐾𝑚.
➢ Compare the results to typical values of thermal conductivity using tables.
D = 25 mm
A = 490.87 mm2
L = 0.1 m = 10cm
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No of Heat Temperature Utheoretical Utheoretical

obs. (℃) 𝑾 𝑾
(Q)
𝑲𝒎𝟐 𝑲𝒎𝟐
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1. 5 47.1 47.1 43.8 31.1 30.3 29.8 588.7 821.6
2. 8 53.8 53.1 51.9 51 30.4 30.2 636.6 821.6
3. 10 61.8 57.9 57.4 36.4 30.8 30.4 648.78 821.6
Graph of dT Vs x
70
60
50
40 Q=5
T(C)
30 Q=8
Q = 10
20
Linear (Q = 8)
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x
Comments:
➢ Hence, from the graph it can be seen that the different materials have different effects upon
temperature in their thermal conductivity. But the trends are not synchronized due to faulty
apparatus and the sensors are also not working well.
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LAB 05: Effect of change in Cross-sectional Area on

Temperature Profile
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on

temperature profile along a thermal conductor in conduction heat transfer.
Apparatus:
▪ Conduction heat transfer

▪ Brass
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Fourier’s Law is given by;
𝒅𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨
𝒙
For hot, small and cold parts;
𝒅𝒕
𝑸𝒉 = 𝑲𝒉 𝑨𝒉 ( )𝒉
𝒙
𝒅𝒕
𝑸𝒔 = 𝑲𝒔 𝑨𝒔 ( )𝒔
𝒙
𝒅𝒕
𝑸𝒄 = 𝑲𝒄 𝑨𝒄 ( )𝒄
𝒙
And,
𝑸 = 𝑸𝒉 = 𝑸𝒔 = 𝑸𝒄
When equated and solved, we get;

𝒅𝒕
𝑫𝒉𝟐 (𝒅𝒙)𝒔
=
𝑫𝒔𝟐 ( 𝒅𝒕 )
𝒅𝒙 𝒉
Where,
Dh = 25 mm
Ds = 13 mm
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Procedure:
5W, and 10W.
➢ After each change sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions
No of Power Temperature 𝑫𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝒕

( )
obs. (℃) 𝑫𝒔𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒔
(W)
𝒅𝒕
( )
𝒅𝒙 𝒉
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1. 10.2 33.5 34.9 37.4 54.1 54.9 58.3 3.698 0.246
Graph of dT Vs x
70
60
50
40
T(C)
30 P = 10.2 W
Linear (P = 10.2 W)
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
x
Comments:
➢ Hence, from the graph it can be seen that the different cross section areas have different effects in
thermal conductivity.
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LAB 06: Temperature Profile and Radial Steady Heat

Transfer
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study temperature profile and steady heat transfer from radial
steady state conduction through a cylindrical wall.
Apparatus:
▪ Conduction heat transfer unit

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Fourier’s Law is given by;
𝒅𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨
𝒅𝒓
As,
𝑨 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍
𝒅𝒕
𝑸 = 𝑲𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍 𝒅𝒓
Where,
𝒅𝒕
𝑪𝟏 = 𝒅𝒓
𝒓
𝑸 = 𝑲𝟐𝝅𝒍𝑪𝟏
𝒅𝒓
Now, 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒓
𝒅𝒓
∫ 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒄𝟏 ∫ 𝒓
𝑻(𝒓) = 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝒏 𝒓+𝑪𝟐
𝑻𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏 +𝑪𝟐
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟐 +𝑪𝟐
By subtracting above two equations;
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 (𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏 − 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟐 )
𝒓𝟏
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑪𝟏 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝒓𝟐
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
𝑪𝟏 = 𝒓
𝐥𝐧 (𝒓𝟏 )
𝟐
Substituting value of 𝐶1 in equation of heat transfer;
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑲𝟐𝝅𝒍 𝒓
𝐥𝐧 (𝒓𝟏 )
𝟐
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Thermal resistance is given by;

𝒓
𝐥𝐧 (𝒓𝟏 )
𝟐
𝑹=
𝑲𝟐𝝅𝒍
Procedure:
5W, and 10W.
➢ After each change sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady state conditions
L = 30mm
No of Power Temperature 𝑲
obs. (W) (℃)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1. 7 𝒓𝒎𝒎 0 10 20 30 40 50 335
𝑻𝒄𝒐 34.5 34.2 33.2 32.4 31.9 31.9
2. 8 𝒓𝒎𝒎 0 10 20 30 40 50 394
𝑻𝒄𝒐 34.8 33.9 33.1 32.6 32.3 32.9
3. 9 𝒓𝒎𝒎 0 10 20 30 40 50 335
𝑻𝒄𝒐 35.5 34.6 33.4 32.6 32.1 31.6
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Graph of dT Vs x
36
35.5
35
34.5
34
T(C)
33.5 P=7W
33 P=8W
32.5 P=9W
32
31.5
31
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x
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LAB 07: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger under the

condition of Parallel Flow
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to determine the working principle of concentric tube heat exchanger
(Hx) operating under condition of parallel flow.
Apparatus:
▪ Heat Exchanger Apparatus

▪ Concentric tube
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Heat Exchanger:
“It is an apparatus that facilitates the exchange of heat.”
Heat exchange depends on;
1) Material
2) Temperature
3) Movement
Classification:
There are five main types of heat exchanger;
1) Parallel flow heat exchanger
2) Cross flow heat exchanger
3) Shell and tube heat exchanger
4) Plate heat exchanger
5) Regenerate heat exchanger
Where,
Parallel flow heat exchanger has further two types:
a) Parallel
b) Counter flow
And,
Cross flow heat exchanger also has further types:
a) Mixed
b) Unmixed
Heat Transfer:
Amount of heat transfer is given by;
𝑸 = 𝑼𝑨𝒔 𝜟𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
2017-MC-19 Page | 19
Where,
Overall coefficient of heat transfer is given by;
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅
𝑼=
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝜟𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
And,
Log mean temperature difference is;
𝜟𝑻𝟏 − 𝜟𝑻𝟐
𝜟𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 =
𝜟𝑻
𝐥𝐧 (𝜟𝑻𝟏 )
𝟐
𝜟𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝑯,𝒊𝒏 − 𝑻𝑪,𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜟𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝑯,𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻𝑪,𝒊𝒏
Efficiency is given by;

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅
Where,
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝑪 𝑪𝒗 (𝑻𝑪,𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻𝑪,𝒊𝒏 )
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝒎𝒉 𝑪𝒗 (𝑻𝑯,𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻𝑯,𝒊𝒏 )
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 − 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅
Procedure:
➢ Set the power of the equipment to 60 watts.
➢ Increase the volume of the cold and hot water by using the flow control valves.
➢ Carefully note down the temperatures of cold and hot water circulating through the tube by
looking at the thermometers attached.
➢ Draw the graph of temperature versus the position.

A = 0.067 m2
𝐶𝑣 =4.18 kJ/kg.K
No of 𝐕𝐇 𝐕𝐂 𝐓𝐂(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒐𝒖𝒕) 𝐓𝐇(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒐𝒖𝒕)

obs.
1. 2.1 2.2 26 30 33 50 45 43
2017-MC-19 Page | 20
Graph of T Vs Area
60
50
40
T(C)
30
Tc
20 Th
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Area
Comments:
➢
The temperature of the cold-water increases, with the decrease in the temperature of the
hot water because of the heat exchange.
2017-MC-19 Page | 21
LAB 08: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger under the

condition of Counter Flow
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to determine the working principle of concentric tube heat exchanger
(Hx) operating under condition of counter flow.
Apparatus:
▪ Heat Exchanger Apparatus

▪ Concentric tube
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
All the theory is same as in experiment # 7.
Procedure:
➢ Set the power of the equipment to 60 watts.
➢ Increase the volume of the cold and hot water by using the flow control valves.
➢ Carefully note down the temperatures of cold and hot water circulating through the tube by
looking at the thermometers attached.
➢ Draw the graph of temperature versus the position.

A = 0.067 m2
𝐶𝑣 =4.18 kJ/kg.K
No of 𝐕𝐇 𝐕𝐂 𝐓𝐂(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒐𝒖𝒕) 𝐓𝐇(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒐𝒖𝒕)

obs.
1. 2.1 2.6 35 33 32 46 43 42
2. 2.1 3 41 35 32 69 59 56
2017-MC-19 Page | 22
Graph of T Vs Area
80
70
60
50
T(C)
40
Tc2
30 Th2
20
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Area
50
45
40
35
30
T(C)
25
Tc1
20
Th1
15
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Area
Comments:
➢
Temperature of cold water increases as it flows in counter way of hot water whose
temperature is decreasing. Counter flow is more efficient than parallel flow because it
distributes heat more evenly across the heat exchanger.
➢
Counter flow heat exchanger is used in major industries, while the parallel ones are used in
minor industries.
2017-MC-19 Page | 23
LAB 09: Four Stroke Petrol Engine
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study the working of four stroke petrol engine.
Apparatus:
▪ Four stroke petrol engine
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Heat Engine:
“The engine which converts the thermal, chemical or heat energy into mechanical energy or work is
known as heat engine.”
Classification of Engines:
There are two main types of engine:
1) Internal Combustion Engine (Combustion inside engine)
2) External Combustion Engine (Combustion outside engine)
Both have further two types;
1. Rotatory (piston rotates)
2. Reciprocatory (piston moves to and fro)
Examples:
a) Examples of internal reciprocatory are;
• Diesel engine (uses diesel fuel)
• Petrol engine (SI engine)
b) Examples of internal rotatory are;
• Open cycle gas turbine (Jet engine)
• Wankel engine (mazde)
c) Examples of external reciprocatory are;
• Steam engine (Old trains)
• Sturling engine (Piston with one side hot and one side cold)
d) Examples of external rotatory are;
• Closed cycle gas turbine (Nuclear submarines and powerplants)
• Steam turbine
Spark ignition engines:
“The engines in which ignition is due to a spark.”
Petrol engine:
“Petrol engine is a four stroke SI engine, made by Nicholos Otto in 1876 (that is why its cycle is also
known as Otto cycle), in which petrol (Octane) is used as a fuel.”
2017-MC-19 Page | 24
Stroke:
“Distance between TDC and BDC is called stroke.”
Four stroke engine:
“An engine that would take four strokes to complete a cycle.”
Piston rings:
They are grooves which facilitates;
1) Exhaust gases removal
2) Lubrication
3) Un-burnt gases removal
Crank sump:
It contains mobiloil to decrease friction between piston and cylinder.
Engine fins:
It is an air cooled engine that is why fins are used to remove heat from the engine.
Carborator:
It prepares an air fuel mixture which causes combustion.
Spark plug:
It produces spark which may be due to;
1) Capacitor discharge
2) Magnetic discharge
Knocking:
Knocking is present in this engine but can be reduced by;
1) Wall size decrease
2) Triethyl lead
3) High octane fuel
Isentropic process:
Any polytropic process, where n = adiabatic index, is called isentropic process.
Bore:
“Top area of the piston is called bore. ”
Clearence volume:
“Volume occupied by the piston when it is at TDC.”
Swept volume:
“Volume between TDC and BDC.”
Compression Ratio:
“The compression ratio of this engine is 8 to 12.”
It is given by;
𝒗𝑻 𝒗𝒄 + 𝒗𝒔
𝒓= = = 𝟖 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟐
𝒗𝒄 𝒗𝒄
For the engine to be working, the mixture have to be compressed. And we must have an optimised
compression ratio in order to have satisfactory work. Otherwise because of pre-ignition, knocking will be
produced.
Working Principle:
There are four strokes which are as follow:
1) Suction stroke
2) Compression stroke
3) Power or expansion stroke
4) Exhaust stroke
Explanation:
1) Suction stroke:
In this Stroke the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel-air mixture is sucked in
the engine cylinder. Thus the piston moves from top dead center (T.D.C.) to bottom dead center
(B.D.C.). The exhaust valve remains closed throughout the stroke.
2017-MC-19 Page | 25
2) Compression stroke:
In this stroke both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during the stroke.
The piston moves towards (T.D.C.) and compresses the enclosed fuel-air mixture drawn. Just
before the end of this stroke the operating plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture and
combustion takes place at constant pressure.
3) Expansion stroke:
In this stroke both the valves remain closed during the start of this stroke but
when the piston just reaches the B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens. When the mixture is ignited by
the spark plug the hot gases are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C.
and thus the work is obtained in this stroke.
4) Exhaust stroke:
This is the last stroke of the cycle. Here the gases from which the work has been
collected become useless after the completion of the expansion stroke and are made to escape
through exhaust valve to the atmosphere. This removal of gas is accomplished during this stroke.
The piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine
cylinder; this is also called scavenging.
Efficiency of four stroke petrol engine:

The efficiency of the engine depends on;
a) Temperature
b) Clearance Volume
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐 = 𝟏 −
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐
And after some calculations;
𝟏
𝜼𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐 = 𝟏 −
𝒓𝜸−𝟏
Where, 𝛾 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒.
2017-MC-19 Page | 26

P-V Diagram:
The theoretical P-V diagram of the thermodynamic cycle is given below:
Comments:
➢ We can increase the efficiency by increasing the compression ratio but by increasing, it causes
acid rain. So in order to follow the emission standards, compression ratio is not changed.
➢ The efficiency of this engine is 25% to 28%.
2017-MC-19 Page | 27
LAB 10: Four Stroke Diesel Engine
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study the working of four stroke Diesel engine.
Apparatus:
▪ Four stroke diesel engine
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Diesel engine:
“In 1888 German scientist Rudolph Diesel after five years of struggle created an engine which has highest
effeciency among all engines that is diesel engine (water cooled engine).”
Glow plug:
It is used to heatup the air at engine startup (specially in winters), so that it ignites the diesel at 170C. It is
powered b battery and is only started once at start.
Knocking:
Knocking is not present in diesel engine.
Why spark plug is not used?
Because the temperature at which ignition ocurrs is 170C for diesel and 450C for petrol. So, compressed
heated air is enough for the ignition of diesel and spark plug is not required.
Valves:
The dia of inlet and exhaust valve is same in diesel valves, whereas the dia of inlet valve is larger in petrol
engine.
Compression Ratio:
“The compression ratio of this engine is 12 to 24.”
It is given by;
𝒗𝑻 𝒗𝒄 + 𝒗𝒔
𝒓= = = 𝟏𝟐 𝒕𝒐 𝟐𝟒
𝒗𝒄 𝒗𝒄
Cut-off ratio:
The change in volume that occurs during combustion is called cut-off ratio. It is represented by 𝛽.
2017-MC-19 Page | 28
Working Principle:
There are four strokes which are as follow:
1) Suction stroke
2) Compression stroke
3) Power or expansion stroke
4) Exhaust stroke
Explanation:
1) Suction stroke:
This stroke starts with the piston at top dead center position. The inlet value is
opened and the exhaust value is closed. The downward movement of the piston creates vacuum in
the cylinder due to which air is drawn into the cylinder. The movement of the piston is obtained
either by the starter motor or by the momentum of the fly wheel.
2) Compression stroke:
This stroke starts with the piston at B.D.C. position. Both the inlet and exhaust
values are closed. The air sucked during the suction stroke is compressed as the piston moves in
the upward direction. A few degree before the completion of compression stroke, a very fine
spray of diesel is injected into the compressed air. The fuel ignites spontaneously.
3) Expansion stroke:
Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. The heat energy released by the
combustion of the fuel, results in the rise in pressure of the gases. This high pressure rise drives
the piston in the downward direction, thereby producing some useful work. This stroke is called
as power stroke.
4) Exhaust stroke:
This stroke starts with the piston at the B.D.C. position. The inlet value remains
closed whereas the exhaust value is opened. The upward movement of the piston pushes the burnt
gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve. At the end of exhaust stroke, the exhaust
valve is also closed. The four-strokes complete one cycle which may repeat again to produce
power.
2017-MC-19 Page | 29
Efficiency:
The efficiency of this engine is given by;
𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏
𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏 −
𝒌(𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
And after some calculations;
𝜷𝒌 − 𝟏
𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏 −
𝒌𝒓𝒌−𝟏
𝒄 (𝜷 − 𝟏)
Where,
k = adiabatic index = 1.4 (for air)
Modern Vehicles:
The principle of modern vehicles is based on dual cycle (a combination of both otto and diesel cycle).
Modern engines:
a) VCR (variable compression ratio engines)
b) EFI (Electrically fuel injection engines)
Better Engine:
An engine is good if it has following qualities:
a) Mileage
b) Cost
c) Technology
2017-MC-19 Page | 30
d) Acceleration pick
e) Environmental friendly

P-V Diagram:
Comments:
➢ Diesel engine creates more noise than petrol engine because during compression, piston rubs with
the walls of engine due to the presence of oil.
2017-MC-19 Page | 31
LAB 11: Two Stroke Petrol Engine
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study the working of two stroke petrol engine.
Apparatus:
▪ Two stroke petrol engine
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Two stroke petrol engine:
In 1878, a British engineer introduced a cycle which could be completed in two strokes
of piston rather than four strokes as is the case with the four-stroke cycle engines. In this engine suction
and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here instead of valves, ports are used. The exhaust gases are driven
out from engine cylinder by the fresh charge of fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working
stroke. A two-stroke petrol engine is used in scooters, motor cycles etc.
Scavenging:
The fresh charge coming into the cylinder also helps in exhausting the burnt gases out of the cylinder
through the exhaust port. This is known as scavenging. This is also facilitated by deflector of piston.
Types of scavenging:
a) Loop (Inlet and exhaust on same side)
b) Uniform (Used in double piston cylinder)
c) Cross flow (Inlet and exhaust on different sides)
Ports:
In this type of engine there are only ports present not valves;
a) Inlet port
b) Exhaust port
c) Transfer port
We also do not have camshaft here.
Lubrication:
Double Mobil oil is used here for;
a) Fuel tank
b) Gear transmission
Working Principles of 2-Stroke petrol engine
The working principle of 2-Stroke petrol engine is discussed below:-
2017-MC-19 Page | 32
1) 1st Stroke: To start with let us assume the piston to be at its B.D.C. position. The arrangement of the
ports is such that the piston performs two jobs simultaneously. As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C.
position it closes the transfer port and the exhaust port. The charge (mixture, of the air and petrol) which
is already there in the cylinder, as the result of the previous running of the engine is compressed at the
same time with the upward movement of the piston vacuum is created in the crank case (which is gas
tight). As soon as the inlet port is uncovered; the fresh change in sucked in the crank case. The charging is
continued until the crank case and the space in the cylinder beneath the piston is filled with the charge. As
the end of third stroke, the piston reached the T.D.C. position.
2) 2nd Stroke: Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke, the compressed charge is ignited
by means of a spark produced at the spark plug. Pressure is exerted on the crank of the piston due to the
combustion of the piston is pushed in the downward direction producing some useful power. The
downward movement of the will first close the inlet port and then it will compress the charge already
sucked in the crank case. Just the end of power stroke, the piston uncovered the exhaust port and the
transfer port simultaneously the expanded gases start escaping through the exhaust port and the same time
the fresh charge which is already compressed in the crank case, rushed into the cylinder through the
transfer port and thus the cycle is repeated again.
Efficiency:
The efficiency of this engine is from 11% to 15%. The decrease in efficiency is due to the removal of
some fresh mixture along with the exhaust gases and a little quantity of Mobil oil. In order to increase
efficiency, we should use;
a) High octane fuel
b) Two spark plugs
2017-MC-19 Page | 33

P-V Diagram:
Comments:

➢ The decrease in efficiency is due to the removal of some fresh mixture along with the exhaust
gases and a little quantity of Mobil oil.
2017-MC-19 Page | 34
LAB 12: Two Stroke Diesel Engine
OBJECTIVES:
▪ Our objective is to study the working of two stroke diesel engine.
Apparatus:
▪ Two stroke diesel engine
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Theory:
Two stroke diesel engine:
In 1878, a British engineer introduced a cycle which could be completed in two strokes
of piston rather than four strokes as is the case with the four-stroke cycle engines. In this engine suction
and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here instead of valves, ports are used. The exhaust gases are driven
out from engine cylinder by the fresh charge of fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working
stroke. A two-stroke petrol engine is used in scooters, motor cycles etc.
Scavenging:
The fresh charge coming into the cylinder also helps in exhausting the burnt gases out of the cylinder
through the exhaust port. This is known as scavenging. This is also facilitated by deflector of piston.
Types of scavenging:
a) Loop (Inlet and exhaust on same side)
b) Uniform (Used in double piston cylinder)
c) Cross flow (Inlet and exhaust on different sides)
Ports:
In this type of engine there are two ports present and one valve;
a) Inlet valve
b) Exhaust port
c) Transfer port
We also do not have camshaft here.
Injector:
There are two types of injection systems;
a) Common rail injection system
b) Multi rail injection system
Here the second one is better because it is;
a) Modern
b) Better efficiency
2017-MC-19 Page | 35
Hybrid cars:
These cars are actually a combination of both engine and storage battery. And these cars are more
efficient because of three reasons given below;
a) Regenerative brakes
b) On traffic signal engine stores energy to battery
c) On low speed engine turns off and battery turns on
Working Principles of 2-Stroke petrol engine
The working principle of 2-Stroke petrol engine is discussed below:-
1) 1st Stroke: As the piston starts rising from its B.D.C. position, it closes the transfer and the exhaust
port. The air which is already there in the cylinder is compressed. At the same time with the upward
movement of the piston, vacuum is created in the crank case. As soon as the inlet port is uncovered the
fresh air is sucked in the crank case. The charging is continued until the crank case and the space in the
cylinder beneath the piston in filled with the air.
2) 2nd Stroke: Slightly before the completion of the compression stroke a very fine spray of diesel is
injected into the compressed air (which is at a very high temperature). The fuel ignites spontaneously.
Pressure is exerted on the crown of the piston due to the combustion of the air and the piston is pushed in
the downward direction producing some useful power. The downward movement of the piston will first
close the inlet port and then it will compress the air already sucked in the crank case. Just at the end of
power stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port simultaneously. The expanded
gases start escaping through the exhaust port and at the same time the fresh air which is already
compressed in the crank case, rushes into the cylinder through the transfer port and thus the cycle is
repeated again.
2017-MC-19 Page | 36

P-V Diagram:
Comments:
➢ If diesel and petrol engine of same compression ratio are analyzed, petrol engine has more
efficiency than of diesel engine.
2017-MC-19 Page | 37

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FOTS LAB REPORTS

Submitted by: Khawaja Daniyal 2017-MC-19

Submitted to: Farhan Qureshi

Course: Fundamentals of Thermal Sciences (MCT-214L)

Date: May 14, 2019

Department of Mechatronics and Control Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 01: Calibration of Bourdon Pressure Gauge

▪ Bourdon pressure gauge

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆

➢ For negative pressure (less than atmospheric pressure).

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆

Why use pressure gauge?

Observations & Calculations:

No. Gauge Pressure Indicated Calibrated Error

loading Unloading Mean

Mean percentage error = 36.5 %

➢ Graph of calibrated and mean pressure is given below:

Calibrated and Mean pressure Vs No. of Observation

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 02: Area Measurement of Regular closed shaped

A planimeter, also known as a platometer, is a measuring instrument used to determine the

Maximum and Minimum reading on disc, drum and Vernier:

Observations & Calculations:

Triangle 1.2 0 11 8 1.28 1.6

Trapizium 2.5 0 24 9 2.49 0.4

Circle 1.327 0 12 8 1.28 3.5

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 03: Linear Conduction along circular bar

▪ Heat conduction apparatus

Observations & Calculations:

No of Heat Temperature Surface Slope Thermal

2. 8 60 57.7 57 56.2 54 45 33 32.5 30.5 0.000491 -153.5 106.2628

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 04: Heat Conduction along a Composite Bar

▪ Conduction heat transfer unit

There are three portions of the composite material, so;

Observations & Calculations:

No of Heat Temperature Utheoretical Utheoretical

2. 8 53.8 53.1 51.9 51 30.4 30.2 636.6 821.6

3. 10 61.8 57.9 57.4 36.4 30.8 30.4 648.78 821.6

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 05: Effect of change in Cross-sectional Area on

▪ Our objective is to investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on

▪ Conduction heat transfer

When equated and solved, we get;

Observations & Calculations:

No of Power Temperature 𝑫𝒉𝟐 𝒅𝒕

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 06: Temperature Profile and Radial Steady Heat

▪ Conduction heat transfer unit

Thermal resistance is given by;

Observations & Calculations:

𝑻𝒄𝒐 34.5 34.2 33.2 32.4 31.9 31.9

𝑻𝒄𝒐 34.8 33.9 33.1 32.6 32.3 32.9

𝑻𝒄𝒐 35.5 34.6 33.4 32.6 32.1 31.6

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

LAB 07: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger under the

▪ Heat Exchanger Apparatus

Efficiency is given by;

Observations & Calculations:

No of 𝐕𝐇 𝐕𝐂 𝐓𝐂(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐂(𝒐𝒖𝒕) 𝐓𝐇(𝒊𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏) 𝐓𝐇(𝒐𝒖𝒕)

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore