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SUMMER-I-2019-
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS-I
DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS
TENSION
COMPRESSION
SHEAR
TORSION
THE SPECIMEN FOR TENSILE TEST
DIAMETER
DIAMETER
Gauge length
GRIP
SECTION REDUCED
SECTION LENGTH
INITIAL LENGTH li or l0
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Shape of Ductile Specimen at Various Stages of Testing
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VARIOUS STAGES IN STRESS STRAIN CURVE
1: ULTIMATE STRENGTH
2: YIELD STRENGTH
3: Rupture
4: STRAIN HARDENED
REGION
5: NECKING region
A: ENGINEERING (F/A0)
B: TRUE STRESS(F/A))
•)
Tensile Properties
Tensile properties refer to properties exhibited by Engineering Materials under
TENSION TEST CONDITIONS . THESE ARE DERIVED FROM STRESS-STAIN CURVES
Proportional Limit and Modulus of Elasticity
It is found that the initial portion of the stress vs strain diagram is a straight line for
most materials used in engineering structures/components. In this range, the
stress and strain are proportional to each other. Therefore we can write,
σ = E (Hooke’s Law)
E, the slope of the straight line portion of the stress vs strain diagram is called the
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.
Proportional limit is the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a
perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress. Thus the stress at the limit of
proportionality point P is known as the proportional limit.
If within this stress, the load on the test specimen is removed at any time, the
extensometer needle will return to zero (initial position). This indicates that the
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strain, caused by the load, is elastic.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TENSILE STRENGTH
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
The ultimate strength or the tensile strength is the maximum stress developed
by the material based on the original cross sectional area without fracture.
On loading further, a ductile material will continue to stretch and will fracture. In
case of a brittle material, it breaks when stressed to the ultimate tensile
strength.
It is calculated by dividing the maximum load applied during the tensile test by
the original cross sectional area of the sample
Breaking Strength
For a ductile material, at the maximum stress (ultimate strength), localized
deformation or necking occurs in the specimen, and the load falls off as the
area decreases. This necking elongation is a non-uniform deformation and
occurs rapidly to the point of failure. The breaking strength for a ductile
material, is determined by dividing the breaking load by the original cross
sectional area, is always less than the ultimate strength.
For brittle material, the ultimate strength and breaking strength coincide.
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DUCTILITY OF MATERIALS
Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess the level of impurities
and proper processing of a material
RESILIENCE OF AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL
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Toughness of a Material
The energy absorbed by a material prior to fracture
is known as tensile toughness and is sometimes
measured as the area under the true stress–strain
curve (also known as the work of fracture)
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Fundamentals of Fracture
• Any fracture process involves two steps in response to an imposed
stress
– crack formation and propagation.
For brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little
accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be
unstable, and crack propagation, once started, will continue
spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the applied stress.
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Fundamentals of Fracture
• The yielding region for ductile materials often takes up the majority of the
stress-strain curve, whereas for brittle materials it is nearly nonexistent.
• Brittle materials often have relatively large Young's moduli and ultimate
stresses in comparison to ductile materials. These differences are a major
consideration for design.
• Ductile materials exhibit large strains and yielding before they fail. On the
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contrary, brittle materials fail suddenly and without much warning.
Ductile Fracture
(a) Highly ductile fracture in which the
specimen necks down to a point.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture after
some necking.
(c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation.
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MORPHOLOGY OF DUCTILE FRACTURE
• The material exhibits substantial plastic deformation in
the vicinity of an advancing crack with high-energy
absorption before fracture.
• PROCEEDS OFTEN THROUGH VOID COALECENCE
• There is evidence of appreciable gross deformation at
fracture surfaces (e.g., twining and tearing)
Collective Information
• Crack surface may have grainy or faceted texture due to changes in orientation
of cleavage planes from one grain to another.
A crack that passes
through the grains within
the material is
undergoing transgranular
fracture. Fracture cracks
pass through grains.
Fracture surface have
faceted texture because
of different orientation of
cleavage planes in grains
However, a crack that
propagates along the grain
boundaries is termed an
intergranular fracture. Cleavage
is transgranular since cracks
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pass through the grains.
Why Ductile fracture is Preferred more ?
Ductile fracture is almost always preferred for two
reasons.
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Ductile to Brittle Transition(DBTT)
• DBTT is best explained by atomic dynamics. Greater
atomic vibration causes bond stretching and
increasing deformation in elastic regime. Ductility
prevails.
• In low temperature, atomic motions are frozen in.
deformation is rendured difficult. Brittleness sets in.
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BRITTLE FRACTURE
DUE TO DBTT IN Cargo
vessel "Schenectady" ( (T-2
tanker) in 1943
COMPARISON BETWEEN DUCTILE AND BRITTLE FRACTURES
Ductile Brittle
Deformation extensive little
Crack slow, needs
fast
propagation stress
most metals (not ceramics, ice,
Type of materials
too cold) cold metals
permanent
Warning none
elongation
Strain energy higher lower
Fractured surface rough smoother
HOME WORK
PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE OF A BRASS
SPECIMEN
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
EXAMPLE PROBLEM2