Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Mechanism of flash boiling and spray analysis with gasoline, iso-octane,

n-pentane and ethanol from a novel heated tip GDI injector
Yong Chen a,⇑, Zhendong Zhang b

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a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China

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h i g h l i g h t s

The novel heated tip injector with an inner heater has been designed.

A model refer to the velocity of the flash boiling spray is established.

The spray formations of the fuels were measured and compared under different conditions.

The results show that physical properties and fuel temperature are key factors.
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effects of thermal and fuel properties on the spray characteristics of a novel heated tip GDI injector
Received 15 November 2016 have been investigated. The novel heated tip injector with an inner heater has been designed and man-
Revised 17 December 2016 ufactured to study the macroscopic spray characteristics under different conditions. To reveal the effects
Accepted 22 December 2016
of injector heated tip temperature on spray characteristics, a six holes novel heated tip injector with dif-
Available online 17 January 2017
ferent temperature has been studied. Moreover, a model refer to the velocity of a droplet of the flash boil-
ing spray is established to predict the spray angle. A high-speed backlit imaging technique combined
Keywords:
with cross-sectional spray patterns based on Mie scattering technique is used to obtain images of tran-
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Heated tip injector

Mie scattering technique
sient spray formation. The macroscopic spray formations of gasoline, iso-octane, n-pentane and ethanol
Flash boiling were measured and compared under different experimental conditions. Experimental methods were
Fuel property used to validate how temperature effects on macroscopic spray characteristics. The results show that
Spray analysis there are two key factors that affect the spray characteristics under the same condition, one is the phys-
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ical properties and the other is fuel temperature. The spray characteristics is the key factor which has a
high sensitive effect on the engine performances.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Currently, the fuel injection pressure for GDI engines is within
10–20 MPa and produces droplet sizing with Sauter Mean Diame-
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Gasoline direction injection (GDI) engines become dominant in
the recent automotive market, as GDI engines have significantly
improved fuel economy, faster transient response and lower cold
start emissions, comparing to the traditional port fuel injection
(PFI) gasoline engines [1,2]. In GDI engines, fuels are directly
injected into the engine cylinder. After fast atomization and evap-
oration, the gaseous fuel mixes with fresh air to form combustible
mixture. This is a very short time process, so fast fuel droplet
breakup and quick evaporation are needed. In order to promote
the fuel atomization and vaporization, high injection pressure is
a well-accepted way for engine manufacture enterprises.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chenyong79320@sina.com (Y. Chen).
ter (SMD) in the range of 5–20 lm [3]. Although high injection
pressure can improve the fuel atomization and vaporization, there
are several disadvantages associated with it. Firstly, high injection
pressure normally causes long penetration of the spray. Under the
limited space available in the engine cylinder, the over-penetrated
spray could easily hit the piston surface and engine cylinder walls,
resulting in dilution of the engine lubricant, abnormal combustion
(pool fire), high level of unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and soot
emissions [4]. Secondly, all the fuel apply system must be tough
and tensile enough to endure this high pressure, which means
advance materials and technology should be used. Besides, the dro-
plet reduction effect is diminished when the injection pressure
increase to a high level. Therefore, its high cost and low income
way could reduce the droplet size by high injection pressure

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.101
1359-4311/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1110 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117

[5,6]. To overcome these conflictions, a new way which utilizes
high temperature to generate flash boiling has been found. A large
number of studies show that the spray characteristics are critically
dependent on fuel temperature. Especially, when the fuel temper-
ature exceeds the local boiling point, the fuel is superheated and
the sprays experience flash boiling. Comparing to the non-flash
boiling liquid spray, the flash boiling sprays show severe spray
structure transformation, remarkable different fuel air mixing
and significantly reduced the droplet size [7]. All those observa-
tions indicate that different mechanisms governing the flash boil-
ing spray atomization and vaporization process.
This paper provides a quantitative understanding of the thermal
transfer mechanism and macroscopic spray over a broad range of
experimental conditions. The aim of this paper was to examine
the effects of fuel heating on spray characteristics using gasoline,
iso-octane, n-heptane and ethanol fluids. For the purpose of prac-
to plume of fuel spray under various superheated conditions is
analyzed and compared.
2. Structure and work principles
2.1. Complete configuration and work principles
In GDI engines, fuel is injected directly from the multi-hole
injectors usually at 20 MPa injection pressure. A view of novel
heated tip GDI injector is presented in Fig. 1. The main components
conclude nozzle, valve assemble, heater, actuator etc. The actuator
lifts the needle to open the valve at the precise time to release a
metered amount of fuel in the engine. The operation of the sole-
noid valve is based on two main principles, energized and de-
energized. When the electromagnetic coil receives the injection

ticality, a novel heated tip GDI injector is redesigned from a con-
ventional multi-hole GDI injector, the fuel temperature is limited
to 120 °C injected into static air at ambient pressure and tempera-
ture is 0.5 bar and 25 °C, respectively. Both high-speed backlit
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signal emitted from the ECU, the electromagnetic force will quickly
overcome the hydraulic pressure, spring force, etc. Then the ball
leaves to the valve seat along the core direction, and fuel is sprayed
out from the spray holes. When the injector is de-energized,

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imaging and laser sheet Mie scattering technique are used as diag- armature assembly will quickly move toward the valve seat under
nostic tools to investigate the phenomenology of superheated fuel the hydraulic pressure, spring force, etc., and the injection is
injection with conventional diagnostics. The interaction of plume
AC terminated.
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Fig. 1. Heated tip GDI injector structure. Fig. 3. Phase change diagram.
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Fig. 2. Schematic of injector and spray plumes.

Table 1
Spray definition for GDI injector.

Nozzle No. Position values, mm Offset angle Proj. separation Proj. angle
X Y Z Spray plume angle
1 77.54 28.89 50.00 58.9 6–1 40.9 20.4
2 5.30 19.00 50.00 21.5 1–2 54.0 74.4
3 17.77 13.70 50.00 24.2 2–3 68.0 142.4
4 17.77 13.70 50.00 24.2 3–4 75.3 217.6
5 5.30 19.00 50.00 21.5 4–5 68.0 285.6
6 77.54 28.89 50.00 58.9 5–6 54.0 339.6
 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117 1111

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Fig. 4. (a) The atomization and vaporization of flash boiling sprays. (b) Near filed spray images of liquid spray and flash boiling spray.

Table 2
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Selected fuel properties.

Fuel properties Gasoline Iso-Octane n-Pentane Ethanol

RON, MON 95, 85 100, 100 62, 61 107, 89
Density [kg/m3](20 °C) 719 692 626 794
Viscosity [cP](20 °C) 0.3–0.8 0.5 0.2 1.1
Surface tension [mN/m] 25.8 14.7 15.82 22.4
(20 °C)
Latent heat [MJ/kg](25 °C) 0.364 0.305 0.363 0.902
Energy density [MJ/kg], [MJ/l] 44, 32 45, 31 48, 30 29, 23
Boiling point, °C
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30–190 99.8 36.1 78.5

Reid vapor Pressure [bar] 0.56 0.14 1.08 0.16
H:C, O:C 1.92, 0 2.25, 0 2.4, 0 3, 0.5
Refractive index (25 °C) 1.427 1.388 1.358 1.362
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Fig. 5. Schematic of present approach for flash boiling spray research.

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Fig. 7. Distillation curves of fuels.

Fig. 6. Schematic of the velocity of flash boiling spray.

2.2. Nozzle tip geometry and distribution asymmetric arrangement with different angles. Due to the asym-
metry of the spray plumes, each projection was labelled in relation
Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the injector and information of the to the orientation of the injector to the chamber optical access to
spray plume axis angles. The injector had six nozzle holes in an enable each view to be easily described and differentiated. The
1112 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117

view designation labels are shown in Fig. 2, and Table 1 summa- uniform. Thus under the certain current value, the heat generation
rizes details of the spray plume position and angle. of the coil and heater can be calculated as:

Pi þ P eddy þ Ph
3. Thermal model and flash boiling mechanism Ts ¼ ð1Þ
K T ðSout þ as  Sin Þ
P Hi
3.1. Thermodynamic model TH ¼ ð2Þ
K H ðSHout þ aHs  SHin Þ
There are two heat sources in the GDI injector, include the heat where KT, KH are the heat transfer coefficient of the coil surface and
generated by electromagnetic coil and heater. At different driven heater surface; Sout, SHout are the outer surface area of the coil and
strategies, the current valve, frequency, and duty cycle are differ- heater; Sin, SHin are the inner surface area of the coil and heater,
ent, therefore results in different heat generation and temperature as, aHs are the diversity factor of the heat dissipation condition of
rising. Assuming the current through the coil and heater section is the outer and inner surface.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the 3D transient
state heat transfer equation based on cylinder coordinate system
can be expressed as follow.

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@2T @2T @2T @2T Q ðr; hÞ
þ þ þ ¼ ð3Þ
@r 2 @z2 r@r r 2 @h2 k
where k is the thermal conductivity; Q(r,h) is the heat of the volume;

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T is the temperature, which is a constant value or periodic distribu-
tion on the cycle.
There are three types of heat transfer which are conduction,
convection and radiation. The main heat dissipation is from the
air and fuel exchanger. Therefore, the main heat transfer type
between the GDI injector and external environment is free convec-
tion. According to the Newton’s law of cooling, the convection can
be obtained from:
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q ¼ hADT ð4Þ

where A is the external surface area of the GDI injector; DT is the

temperature difference between the GDI injector and external envi-
Fig. 8. Vapor pressures of fuels. ronment; h is the convection coefficient. The convection coefficient
can be obtained from the empirical formula (5).
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Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the spray characteristics analysis system.

 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117 1113

!n
k k bg DtqD3 C p explode. The explosions of the bubbles within the liquid fuel
h¼C ðGr PrÞn ¼ C ð5Þ caused rapid atomization of the fuel along with sudden radial
D D tk
expansion of the spray as show in Fig. 4(a). The experimental
where Gr is the Grashof number; Pr is the Prandtl number; b is the results which are shown in Fig. 4(b) can observe this phenomenon
Volume expansion coefficient; q is the density of the heat transfer obviously. A detailed study has been performed in the past regard-
media; t is the kinematic viscosity; D is the feature dimension ing to the atomization enhancement in the flashing spray com-
(for cylinder, it is diameter); Cp is the Mass heat capacity at constant pared to non-flashing sprays. Regarding to the atomization and
pressure. vaporization under flash boiling conditions, ratio of ambient to sat-
The value of the C and n can be obtained from the GrPr table. For uration pressure or temperature are used as the main dimension-
the GDI injector, the value of GrPr is 1.753  107, the corresponding less numbers governing the flash boiling intensity, a general and
value of the C and n is 0.135 and 1/3, respectively. Therefore, the complete understanding for high pressure atomization flash-
inner convective h = 152.76 W/(m2 K), and external surface con- boiling spray still lacks. Due to the lack of knowledge of the inter-
vective h  9 W/(m2 K). nal flow of multi-hole nozzles under flash boiling conditions, it
becomes extremely difficult and important to figure out right input
3.2. Mechanism of flash boiling conditions of the spray which could mimic flash boiling conditions.

Flash boiling occurs when a pressurized upstream superheated
fuel is injected into a downstream domain with low surrounding
pressure [8]. A phase change occurs due to temperature variation
which is limited by the heat transfer characteristic time. On the
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3.3. Modelling of the flash boiling spray
The present approach for flash boiling spray focuses on the
modification of the atomized spray at nozzle vicinity. As explained

contrary, pressure drop depends on the geometrical flow condi-
tions and also on elevated speed of sound as presented in phase
change diagram in Fig. 3. The surrounding condition quickly evolve
to superheating condition B0 .
Whatever how complexity of this evolution, in this process a
part of the fuel is converted to vapor forming bubbles in the liquid
[9]. Bubbles are growing quite quickly and then eventually
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Fuel Type X-Z View Y-Z View
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earlier, the presence of bubbles under flash boiling conditions is
propitious to reduce the drop size and make the spray plumes con-
centrate on the center axis like a ‘‘bell”. These features fit with the
proposed modelling approach in Fig. 5. There are three steps for the
flash boiling spray. Step 1: atomized spray including bubbles; Step
2: supplementary disintegration; Step 3: resulting drop size and
additional kinetic energy (dashed line). The atomization is usually
Angle View X-Y View

Gasoline
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iso-Octane
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Ethanol

n-pentane

Fig. 10. Spray images, 25 °C, 0.5 bar, at 800 ls ASOI.

1114 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117

assumed to be quasi-immediate at the injector outlet. The drops Therefore, the proposed model of flash boiling spray can defined
are assumed to entrained bubbles inside. as:
In order to reveal the real reason that cause the dramatically 0v
u
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!1
change for the flash boiling spray, a model refer to the velocity of u 1 1
a droplet is established. The velocity of a droplet is decomposed
b ¼ tan1 @tC fb   A ð9Þ
dpi dpi
into two main parts in Fig. 6, the velocity based on the liquid flow
(without flash boiling) which is denoted by unf p , another is the where Cfb is a new introduced constant (with dimension of a length)
radial velocity due to the flash boiling, which is defined as ufb
p .
assumed to be constant and especially not depending on the flash
boiling conditions. The sauter means diameter dpi is reduced to
up ¼ unf
p þ up
fb
ð6Þ 
dpi depending on the superheating degree. It can also depend on
A simple proportionality relationship between the additional the geometry of the injector, e.g. if a metering hole is followed by
kinetic energy and the additional energy surface are considered a larger hole, which is a so-called ‘‘step-hole”. The value of the con-
as following. stant will increase with the increase of the step-hole diameter to
! length ratio.
rl rl
q fb2
l up    ð7Þ

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dpi dpi 4. Experiment conditions and apparatus
This explosion of the bubbles in the proposed model approach
4.1. Fuel properties
should be isotropic. From the above equations, a dependency of
the injection angle b is drop diameter, and dpi can be easily

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Four fuels were investigated: gasoline, iso-octane, n-pentane
deduced from the non-flash boiling velocity component and flash
and ethanol. Some typical properties of are summarized in Table 2
boiling velocity component.
at standard conditions (ambient pressure is 1 bar). The distillation
!
ufb
p
curves of the fuels are all illustrated in Fig. 7. Iso-octane is a single
b ¼ tan1 ð8Þ component with boiling point temperature of 99.8 °C at atmo-
unf
p
spheric pressure, while n-Pentane, also a single component, boils
at 36.1 °C. Ethanol boils at 78.5 °C at atmospheric pressure. The
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Fuel Type X-Z View Y-Z View Angle View X-Y View

Gasoline
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iso-Octane
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Ethanol

n-pentane

Fig. 11. Spray images, 120 °C, 0.5 bar, at 800 ls ASOI.
 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117
Fuel Type X-Z View Y-Z View
Gasoline
iso-Octane
Ethanol
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n-pentane
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Fig. 12. Spray images, 25 °C, 0.5 bar, at 1600 ls ASOI.
vapor pressure curves of the fuels are shown in Fig. 8. For Gasoline
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the vapor pressures were obtained experimentally using the stan-
dard ASTM D5190 (Dry Vapor Pressure Equivalent, DVPE) test
methodology as carried out by Shell Global Solutions (UK) Ltd,
other fuel properties are from the Ref. [10].
4.2. Experimental system
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Fig. 9 shows the schematic diagram of the spray characteristics
analysis system which consists a constant-volume chamber, a fuel
supply system, a GDI injector driver and heater driver system, a
vacuum system and a high-speed imaging system. A controllable
fuel temperature ranging from 20 °C to 100 °C is achieved by
adjusting the duty ratios, and an infrared thermal imager (Fluke
FLIR T640) is used to get the temperature of the GDI injector body
and fuel, so a pre-calibrated correlation between the fuel temper-
ature and body temperature is measured before experiment. The
GDI injector was mounted at the top of the chamber with a high
pressure fuel supply from a Hydro-pneumatic pump. A high-
speed backlit imaging system, composed of a high speed camera
and a high power Xenon light source, is used for recording the
images. Cross-sectional spray patterns were also investigated
based on Mie scattering technique with the apparatus depicted
in Fig. 9. A laser sheet of approximately 1 mm thickness generated
by a Nd: YAG laser (pulse width: 4 ns, power: 220 mJ at 532 nm)
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Angle View X-Y View
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and captured by a CCD camera. A programmable timing unit
(PTU) was used to synchronize the laser and the CCD camera.
5. Spray characteristics analysis and discussion
Figs. 10–13 illustrate the spray images of different fuels for the
injector body temperature is 25 °C, 120 °C and ambient pressure is
0.5 bar at ASOI 800 ls and 1600 ms. When injector body
temperatures is 25 °C, all four fuels have similar spray structure.
However, within the resolution of these images, the spray struc-
ture of the fuels have great various under higher injector body tem-
perature, the typical ‘‘collapsed” spray form which occurs due to
‘‘flash-boiling” at injector body temperature is 120 °C. Under this
condition, the fuel exits the nozzle it is rapidly depressurized to
a pressure sufficiently below its saturated vapor pressure and the
vapor generated is drawn towards the central low pressure
regions, overcoming the radial momentum of the injected droplets.
A comparison of the spray structural transformation for gaso-
line, iso-octane, n-pentane and ethanol fluids under various fuel
temperature conditions are shown in Figs. 10–13. From these
Mie scattering images, the occurrence of flash-boiling is observed
for gasoline, ethanol, and n-pentane at 120 °C. However, the iso-
octane spray maintains a multi-hole plume structure and not col-
lapses obviously. These observed spray structural behaviors are
consistent with the differences in the ambient pressure among
these four fuels, and other mechanisms are involved with respect
1116 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117
Fuel Type X-Z View Y-Z View
Gasoline
iso-Octane
Ethanol
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n-pentane
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Fig. 13. Spray images, 120 °C, 0.5 bar, at 1600 ls ASOI.
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to transient heat and mass transfer phenomena and phase change
inside the nozzle (e.g. from cavitation) which also affect the spray
shape outside the nozzle.
With closer inspection of the images, especially the images of
different fuels at 120 °C in Figs. 11 and 13. We can see that the
plume boundaries of iso-Octane are clearly discernable, in contrast
to the same condition with gasoline and n-pentane, where individ-
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ual spray plumes are not distinguishable. For the ethanol, the
images captured for spray show a similar spray formation to injec-
tor body temperature and ambient pressure conditions as for the
gasoline. For the n-pentane, which has the lowest boiling point
of the tested fuels at 36.1 °C, shows the greatest collapse at
120 °C injector body temperature the left hand plume pair show
significant convergence towards the injector axis.
The Mie scattering images of the Figs. 10–13 illustrate the
macroscopical spray characteristics under different temperature
conditions and fuels. When the temperature rising from 25 °C to
120 °C, the collapsed form can be observed clearly in all views
and all fuels. This is the typical collapsed spray form which occurs
due to flash boiling. When the fuels jet from the multi-hole, there
are rapidly depressurized to a pressure sufficiently below their sat-
urated vapor pressure and the vapor generated is down towards
the central low pressure regions, and then overcoming the radial
momentum of the injected droplets [11]. Therefore the fuel which
have a higher saturated vapor pressure the plume from each hole
Angle View X-Y View
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can be distinguished, however, the fuel which have a lower satu-
rated vapor pressure the individual plumes for 4 closely spaced
plumes are contracted into a single mass of fuel. The results also
validate the relationship between the saturated vapor pressure
(which shown in Fig. 8) and spray characteristics.
Both liquid and vapor components of the spray are subjected to
dramatic changes by the fuel temperature increasing (increasing
the superheated degree). For cold fuel condition (shown in Figs. 10
and 12), the spray-plumes are separated and characterized by
small plume angles, high penetration, and relatively low vaporiza-
tion. The spray breakup depends on the competition among the
inertia force, surface tension force, viscous force and aerodynamic
drag force acting on the liquid-jet surface. Details describing the
non-flash-boiling spray structure and dependence on the Weber
number, Reynolds number, and the air-to-liquid density ratio can
be found in Ref. [12]. Under flash-boiling conditions (shown in
Figs. 11 and 13), with increasing of the vapor pressure fuel body
temperature rises (shown in Fig. 8), larger vapor quantities are
generated. This is not only due to vapor formation within the bulk
of superheated liquid, but also due to enhanced superficial evapo-
ration as a result of improved atomization. Because of the different
physical properties of different fuels, such as distillation curves and
vapor pressure which illustrate from Figs. 7 and 8, there are differ-
ent spray structure, vaporization speed and droplet distribution,
which can be seen from Figs. 10–13.
 Y. Chen, Z. Zhang / Applied Thermal Engineering 115 (2017) 1109–1117
6. Conclusion
In this paper, a novel heated tip injector is designed and manu-
factured. The coupling mechanism of the main physical fields
include mechanical, electronic, magnetic, thermal and fluid were
considered in the coupling models, and the processes principle of
the novel heated tip GDI injector have been simulated based on
commercial software. In order to explore the sensibility of the
spray characteristics, four fuels with different properties have been
analyzed at fuel temperature and pressure are 120 °C and 10 MPa,
which compared with conventional cold condition(fuel tempera-
ture and pressure are 25 °C and 10 MPa). In addition, a model refer
to the velocity of a droplet is established to predict the flash boiling
spray angle. Detailed conclusions are as follows:
(1) A novel heated tip GDI injector which redesigned from a
conventional GDI injector has been analyzed under a novel
driven strategies and heating strategies. Multi-physical
fields coupling models were established to explore the inter-
action relationships and coupling mechanism of the multi-
physical fields. The results indicate that the fuel temperature
can be controlled by the inner heater with different current
and duty cycles.
(2) A model refer to the velocity of a droplet of the flash boiling
spray is established to predict the spray angle. According to
the strong change in the spray shape of the flash boiling
spray, the velocity of the droplets are decomposed into
two parts, the liquid flow and radial velocity. The accuracy
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of the model will be validated in the future.
(3) Four fuels which have completely different physical proper-
ties and temperature sensitivities have been analyzed in
detailed. The macroscopic spray structures have been inves-
tigated by Mie scattering images. A limited temperature and
ambient pressure were used to analyze the sensitivities of
the spray with different fuel properties. At the higher fuel
temperature condition (120 °C), all the spray structures
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appeared different formations compared with cold fuel
(25 °C). Higher fuel temperature rising increased the fuel
saturation pressure and improved flash-boiling generation.
Therefore, the multiple spray plumes collapse into a single
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mass surrounded by a large vortex of re-circulating droplets.
However, different fuel has different spray formation at the
same condition. This phenomenon can attribute to the
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physical properties of the fuels, the fuel which has higher
saturation vapor pressure and lower distillation has a dra-
matic levels of spray collapse and vaporization.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China (Grant No. 51275309). The Authors are all indebted to
their generous support.
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