Measurement of Fluid Flow

PITOT TUBE

The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted first by a French Scientist Henri
Pitot in 1732 for measuring velocities in the river.

 A right angled glass tube,

 Large enough for capillary effects to be negligible, is used for the purpose.

 One end of the tube faces the flow while the other end is open to the atmosphere as
shown in Fig.

Working

 The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the liquid reaches a height
above the free surface of the water stream.

 Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the hydrostatic pressure due to its
depth below the free surface, the difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and
the free surface becomes the measure of dynamic pressure. Therefore, we can write,
neglecting friction,
rV 2
p0 - p = = hr g [V = 2 gh ]
2

where p0, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure and velocity respectively at point A.

 Such a tube is known as a Pitot tube and provides one of the most accurate means of
measuring the fluid velocity.
Figure: Simple pitot tube: (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure. (b) Static and
Stagnation tubes together

 For an open stream of liquid with a free surface, this single tube is sufficient to determine the
velocity. But for a fluid flowing through a closed duct, the Pitot tube measures only the
stagnation pressure and so the static pressure must be measured separately.
 A Pitot tube is also inserted as shown (Fig. b) to sense the stagnation pressure. The ends of
the Pitot tube, measuring the stagnation pressure, and the piezometric tube, measuring the
static pressure, may be connected to a suitable differential manometer for the determination
of flow velocity and hence the flow rate.

ORIFICE METER

Construction:

 It provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement for the measurement of flow through a
pipe.
 It is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp edged concentric circular hole in it.

Working

 The orifice plate, being fixed at a section of the pipe, (Figure) creates an obstruction to the
flow by providing an opening in the form of an orifice to the flow passage.

Figure: Flow through an Orifice meter.

 The area A0 of the orifice is much smaller than the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The flow
from an upstream section, where it is uniform, adjusts itself in such a way that it contracts
until a section downstream the orifice plate is reached, where the vena contracta is formed,
and then expands to fill the passage of the pipe.
 One of the pressure tapings is usually provided at a distance of one diameter upstream the
orifice plate where the flow is almost uniform (Sec. 1-1) and the other at a distance of half a
diameter downstream the orifice plate.

VENTURIMETER

Construction:

 It is essentially a short pipe (Figure below) consisting of two conical parts with a short
portion of uniform cross-section in between.
 This short portion has the minimum area and is known as the throat.

 The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is having a shorter length
with a larger cone angle while the other is having a larger length with a smaller cone
angle.

Figure: A Venturimeter.

Working

 It is always used in a way that the upstream part of the flow takes place through the short
conical portion while the downstream part of the flow through the long one.
 This ensures a rapid converging passage and a gradual diverging passage in the direction of
flow to avoid the loss of energy due to separation. In course of a flow through the converging
part, the velocity increases in the direction of flow according to the principle of continuity,
while the pressure decreases according to Bernoulli’s theorem.
 The velocity reaches its maximum value and pressure reaches its minimum value at the
throat. Subsequently, a decrease in the velocity and an increase in the pressure take place in
course of flow through the divergent part.

FLOW NOZZLE

 The flow nozzle as shown in figure below is essentially a Venturi meter with the divergent
part omitted. Therefore the basic equations for calculation of flow rate are the same as those
for a venturimeter.

 The dissipation of energy downstream of the throat due to flow separation is greater than that
for a venturimeter. But this disadvantage is often offset by the lower cost of the nozzle.

Figure: A Flow nozzle

NOTCHES AND WEIRS

A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free
surface. A weir is a notch on a large scale, used, for example, to measure the flow of a river, and
may be sharp edged or have a substantial breadth in the direction of flow.

The stream of liquid coming out the weir is known as a nappe, sheet, or vein. There is no
difference between a notch and weir except that the former is a small structure and has sharp
edges. A weir is generally an overflow structure, with a broad crest, built across an open channel.
The top of weir wall over which the liquid flows is known as the sill or crest. The head under
which the weir is discharging is measured from the crest to the free surface. A weir or notch is
generally used for measuring the flow of liquids.

Figure: Notch and weir.

FLOW THROUGH MOUTHPIECE

A mouthpiece is a short tube of length not more than two to three times its diameter, which is
fitted to a tank for measuring discharge of the flow from the tank. By fitting the mouthpiece, the
discharge through an orifice of the tank can be increased. Mouthpieces are classified on the basis
of their shape, position and discharge conditions.

 According to the shape, they may be classified as, cylindrical, convergent, divergent and
convergent-divergent.
 Based on the positions, they may be external or internal mouthpieces with respect to
reservoir/tank to which it is connected. An external mouthpiece projects outside the tank
whereas the internal mouthpiece projects inside the tank.

 On the basis of discharge conditions, they may be classified as running full and running free
mouthpieces.