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Embankment
Strip footing
Failure surface
Mobilized shear
resistance
Retaining
wall
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear
Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance
Failure
surface
failure surface
No crushing of
individual grains.
Shear failure mechanism
τ
σ
τ f = c + σ tan φ
elope φ
re env
failu
Friction
Cohesio
τf angle
n
c
σ
σ
σ’
σ’ σ’
3 τ 3
Soil element θ
σ’
1
σ 1' − σ 3'
τ= Sin 2θ ' 2
' 2
σ −σ
'
2 ' σ +σ
'
σ + σ σ − σ τ + σ −
2 1 3
=
1 3
2
' ' ' '
σ ' = 1 3 + 1 3 Cos 2θ 2
2 2
Mohr Circle of stress
σ’1
σ’
σ’3 σ’3
τ
Soil element θ
σ’1
' 2 ' 2
σ −σ
'
' σ +σ
' σ 1' − σ 3'
τ + σ −
2 1 3
=
1 3
2
2 2
σ’
σ 3' σ 1' + σ 3' σ 1'
2
Mohr Circle of stress
σ’1
σ’
σ’3 σ’3
τ
Soil element θ
σ’1
τ
(σ’, τ)
' 2 ' 2
σ −σ
'
' σ +σ
' σ 1' − σ 3'
τ + σ −
2 1 3
=
1 3
2
2 2 θ
σ’
σ 3' σ 1' + σ 3' σ 1'
2
τ
Failure surface τ f = c'+σ ' tan φ '
Y
Y
X X
σ’
Soil elements at different locations
Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope
GL
∆σ
σc
Y σc
σc σc+∆σ
Initially, Mohr circle is a point
∆σ
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…
GL
∆σ
σc
Y σc
σc
Therefore,
θ = 45 + φ’/2
90 – θ + φ’ = θ
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses
σv σ v’ u
σh σ h’
= + u
X X X
effective stresses
total stresses
σh ’ σv’ σh σv σ or σ’
u
Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
σv σ v’ u
σh σ h’
= + u
X X X
c’ c
σh ’ σv’ σh σv σ or σ’
u
Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
σ’v = σ’1 τ Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses
σ’h = σ’3
X
effective stresses
(σ’ 1 − σ’ 3 )/
φ’ c’
2
X is on failure σ’3 σ’1 σ
c’ Cotφ’ (σ’ 1 + σ’ 3 )/ ’
Therefore, 2
σ =σ
' ' (1 + Sinφ ') + 2c' Cosφ '
1 3
(1 − Sinφ ') (1 − Sinφ ')
φ' φ'
σ = σ Tan 45 + + 2c' Tan 45 +
'
1
'
3
2
2 2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, φ or c’, φ’)
A representative
soil sample
z z
σvc σvc + ∆σ
σvc σvc + ∆σ
Porous
plates
Proving ring
to measure
shear force
Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates
Proving ring
to measure
shear force
Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Proving ring
to measure
shear force
Dense sand/
OC clay
τf
τ Loose sand/
τf NC clay
r ae h S
, ssert s
Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample
Shear displacement
Compression
Normal stress = σ 3
Normal stress = σ 2
τ
Normal stress = σ 1
τ f2
τ f1
r ae h S
, ssert s
τ f3
Shear displacement
Normal stress,
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and φ of sand
Normal force, σ
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P
Soil
S
Foundation material
τ f = ca + σ ' tan δ
Where,
ca = adhesion,
δ = angle of internal friction
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)
Failure plane
O-ring
impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water
Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Sampling tubes
Sample extruder
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
(∆σ = q)
Step 1
σc Step 2
σc σc
σc σc
σc σ c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure σ c Shearing (loading)
yes no yes no
CD test UU test
CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total, σ = Neutral, u + Effective, σ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
σ VC σ’ VC = σ VC
σ hC 0 σ’ hC = σ hC
Drainage
Step 3: At failure
σ VC + ∆σ f σ’ Vf = σ VC + ∆σ f = σ’ 1f
σ hC 0 σ’ hf = σ hC = σ’ 3f
Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
σ 1 = σ VC + ∆σ
σ 3 = σ hC
Deviator stress (q or ∆σ d) = σ 1 – σ 3
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation
Expansion
Volume change of the
Time
sample
Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing
Dense sand
or OC clay
d
(∆σ d)f
Loose sand
(∆σ d)f or NC Clay
, ssert s σ ∆
ve D
Axial strain
r ot ai
Expansion
Volume change
Dense sand
of the sample
or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression
Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and φ
(∆σ d)f
σ1 = σ3 +
c (∆σ d)f
Confining stress = σ 3c
d
Confining stress = σ 3b
b (∆σ d)f
r ot ai ve D
a
Axial strain
φ
Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope
τ
r ae h S
, ssert s
σ or
σ 3a σ 3b σ 3c σ 1a σ 1b σ 1c
’
σ
(∆σ d)f (∆σ d)fb
CD tests
Strength parameters c and φ obtained from CD tests
Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests, σ = σ’ and φ = φ’
φd
Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope
τ
r ae h S
, ssert s
σ or
σ 3a σ 1a
’
σ
(∆σ d)f
a
Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine φ d
of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes
For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0
τ OC NC
φ
c σ or
σ3 σ1 σc
(∆σ d)f ’
σ
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit
Soft clay
τ τ = in situ drained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage
τ
Core
τ = drained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay
σ hC 0 σ’ hC = σ hC
Drainage
Expansion
Volume change of the
Time
sample
Compression
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing
Dense sand
or OC clay
d
(∆σ d)f
Loose sand
(∆σ d)f or NC Clay
, ssert s σ ∆
+r ot ai ve D
Axial strain
Loose
sand /NC
Clay
∆u
Axial strain
Dense sand
-
or OC clay
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and φ
(∆σ d)f σ1 = σ3 +
b Confining stress = σ 3b (∆σ d)f
d
Confining stress = σ 3a
σ3
, ssert s σ ∆
(∆σ d)f
Total stresses at failure
r ot ai ve D
a
Axial strain
Mohr – Coulomb φ cu
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
τ
r ae h S
, ssert s
ccu σ or
σ 3a σ 3b σ 1a σ 1b
(∆σ d)fa ’
σ
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and φ
σ’ 1 = σ 3 + (∆σ d)f -
uf
σ’ 3 = σ 3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Mohr – Coulomb φ’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
φ cu
τ
r ae h S
, ssert s
ufb
C’ σ’ 3b ufa
ccu σ’ 1b σ or
σ’ 3a σ 3a σ 3b σ’ 1a σ 1a σ 1b
(∆σ d)fa
’
σ
CU tests
Strength parameters c and φ obtained from CD tests
Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and φ’
ccu and φ cu
c’ = cd and φ’ =
φd
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses
Mohr – Coulomb φ’ φ cu
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
τ
r ae h S
, ssert s
σ or
σ 3a σ 3a σ 1a σ 1a
’
σ
(∆σ d)f
a
Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine
φ cu and φ ’ ( = φ d) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit
Soft clay
τ τ = in situ
undrained shear
strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam
τ
Core
τ = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope
Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and φcu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
σC = σ3
No σ 3 + ∆σ d
No
drainage σC = σ3 drainage σ3
A × H = A0 × H 0
A0
A ×(H0 – ∆H) = A0 × H0 A=
A ×(1 – ∆H/H0) = A0
1− ε z
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0
∆uc = B ∆σ 3
Increase of cell pressure
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, ∆uc = ∆σ 3)
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
∆uc ± ∆ud
∆ud = AB∆σ d
Increase of pwp due to Increase of deviator
increase of deviator stress stress
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, A
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
∆u = ∆uc + ∆ud
∆u = B [∆σ 3 + A∆σ d]
Skempton’s pore
∆u = B [∆σ 3 + A(∆σ 1 – ∆σ 3] water pressure
equation
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total, σ = Neutral, u + Effective, σ’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling σ’ V0 = ur
0
0 -ur σ’ h0 = ur
Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures
σ’
σ’ 3 ∆σ σ’ 1
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total, σ = Neutral, u + Effective, σ’
Step 3: At failure σ’ Vf = σ C + ∆σ f + ur - σ c ∆uf = σ’ 1f
σ C + ∆σ f
No
drainage σC -ur + σ c ± ∆uf
σ’ hf = σ C + ur - σ c ∆uf
= σ’ 3f
Failure envelope, φ u = 0
τ
cu
ub ua
σ 3a
σ’3b
3 ∆σ f σ
σ’1a
1b
1 σ or
σ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
σ 3c σ 3b σ 1c σ 3a σ 1b σ 1a σ or
σ’
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit
Soft clay
τ τ = in situ
undrained shear
strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay
τ
Core
τ = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit
σ 1 = σ VC + ∆σ
σ3 = 0
σ 1 = σ VC +
Shear stress, τ
∆σf
σ3 = 0
qu
Normal stress, σ
τf = σ1/2 = qu/2 = cu
Various correlations for shear strength
For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, σ’0
cu
= 0.11 + 0.0037( PI ) Skempton (1957)
σ0'
Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true
cu cu
' ' = (OCR ) 0.8 Ladd (1977)
σ 0 Overconsolidated σ 0 Normally Consolidated
τ – u w) 1
(u a
u )2 >
(u a –
w
) >0
u
( a – uw 1
φ’
= 0
uw
ua –
σ -
How it become possible
build a sand castle
s an d
τ n s at u r a ted
’ = 0)
f o ru nd (c
ve lope t e d sa
re en at u ra
F ailu f o rs
>0 e
– u w
)
en ve lop φ’
(u a ai lure
= 0 F
uw
Apparent ua –
cohesion σ -
ua