Volume 17 • Number 4 • July/August 2019

magazine

Volume 17 • Number 4 • July/August 2019

www.ieee.org/power

on the 56
cover

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features

contents
24 Smart and Green Substations 56 Substations for Future HVdc Grids
By Heejin Kim, Jae-Kyeong Kim, Jiyoung Song, By Dirk Van Hertem, Willem Leterme,
Jaegul Lee, Kisun Han, Jeonghoon Shin, Geraint Chaffey, Mudar Abedrabbo,
Taekyun Kim, and Kyeon Hur Mian Wang, Firew Zerihun, and Mike Barnes

35 Synchronous Condenser 67 Offshore Substation Design

Applications By Vandad Hamadi, Úna Brosnan,
By George Zhou, David Wang, Adham Atallah, Ingar Loftus, and Gavin Montgomery
Frank McElvain, Ram Nath, John Jontry,
Christopher Bolton, Huang Lin, 75 Managing the New Grid
and Andreas Haselbauer By Julio Romero Agüero, Damir Novosel,
Emanuel Bernabeu, Bill Chiu, Jay Liu,
47 The Substation of the Future Veronika Rabl, Thomas Pierpoint,
By Rich Hunt, Byron Flynn, Doug Houseman, Babak Enayati,
and Terry Smith and Sharma Kolluri

columns &
departments
4 From the Editor 99 Book Reviews
8 Letters to the Editor 101 Awards
12 Leader’s Corner 102 Calendar
16 Guest Editorial 108 In My View

86 86 History

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2907386

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 1


Editor-in-Chief
Michael I. Henderson, mih.psat@gmail.com
Associate Editors
John Paserba, History
Editorial Board
L. Barroso, A. Conejo, J. Feltes, N. Hatziargyriou,
T. Hong, B. Johnson, B. Kroposki, Debra Lew,
N. Lu, B. Mather, M. Miller, D. Novosel,
M. O’Malley, N. Ochoa, J. Paserba, C.E. Root,
magazine
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Promoting Sustainable Forestry

IEEE POWER & ENERGY SOCIETY (PES)

SFI-01681

The IEEE Power & Energy Society is an organization of IEEE members whose principal interest is the advancement of the science and practice of electric power generation,
transmission, distribution, and utilization. All members of the IEEE are eligible for membership in the Society. Mission Statement: To be the leading provider of scientific and
engineering information on electric power and energy for the betterment of society, and the preferred professional development source for our members.

Governing Board L.F. Gaitán, Social Media Publications

S. Rahman, President G. González, Web Site Development Publications Board Chair, B. Pal
F. Lambert, President-Elect S. Ninalowo, Women in Power Editors-in-Chief
M. Armstrong, Vice President, Chapters J. Hofman, Young Professionals IEEE Electrification Magazine, I. Husain
F. Rahmatian, Vice President, Technical Activities IEEE Power Engineering Letters, M. Fotuhi-
E. Uzunovic, Vice President, Education Technical Council
F. Rahmatian, Chair, V. Vittal, Vice Chair Firuzabad
B. Pal, Vice President, Publications IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, J. Jatskevich
W. Bishop, Vice President, Meetings H. Chen, Secretary, M. Sanders, Past-Chair
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, W. Xu
J.C. Montero Q, Vice President, Membership Technical Committee Chairs IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, N. Hatziargyriou
& Image K. Schneider, Analytical Methods for IEEE Trans. on Smart Grid, J. Wang
S. Bahramirad, Vice President, New Initiatives/ Power Systems IEEE Trans. on Sustainable Energy, B. Chowdhury
Outreach K. Chen, Electric Machinery IEEE Power & Energy Technology Systems Journal,
N. Hadjsaid, Treasurer J. Yale, Energy Development & Power S. Sudhoff
J. Bian, Secretary Generation IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, M. Henderson
D. Novosel, Past-President C. Ashton, Energy Storage & Stationary Battery eNewsletter, S. Fattah
D. Diaz, Region Rep., U.S. & Canada E. Bascom, Insulated Conductors Marketing, E. Batzelis
J. Milanovic, Region Rep., Europe, Middle East, D. Harmon, Nuclear Power Engineering PES Representative to IEEE Press, Open
& Africa K. Fodero, Power System Communications Website, R. Rana
S. Leon, Region Rep., Latin America & Cybersecurity
D. Sharafi, Region Rep., Asia & Pacific C. Vournas, Power System Dynamic Performance Meetings
B. Enayati, Member-at-Large J. McBride, Power System Instrumentation Committee Chairs
R. Kappagantu, Member-at-Large & Measurements General Meeting Steering, D. Hall
H. Koch, Member-at-Large L. Barroso, Power System Operation Planning Joint Technical Committee Meeting Steering,
J. Yu, Member-at-Large & Economics S. Ward
R. Patterson, Power System Relaying & Control Technically Cosponsored Conferences Steering,
IEEE Division VII Director J. Mitra
B. Meyer S. Chandler, Smart Building, Load &
Customer Systems Transmission & Distribution Conference &
Exposition Committee for North America
IEEE Division VII Director-Elect J. Gravelle, Substations
Steering, C. Segneri
M. Sanders S. Hensley, Surge Protective Devices
T. Irwin, Switchgear Innovative Smart Grid Technology Conference–
PES Executive Director S. McNelly, Transformers Europe, D. Van Hertem
Patrick Ryan, +1 732 465 6618, G. Chang, Transmission & Distribution Innovative Smart Grid Technology Conference–
fax +1 732 562 3881, p.ryan@ieee.org Asia, TBD
Technical Council Coordinating Committees Website, Open
Standing Committee Chairs D. Houseman, Intelligent Grid & Emerging
H. Louie, Constitution & Bylaws Technology Education
V. Kolluri, Fellows D. Alexander, Marine Systems Committee Chairs
N. Hadjsaid, Finance D. Lew, Wind & Solar Power Power and Energy Education, S. Brahma
A. Apostolov, History Scholarship Plus, R. Pieper
F. Lambert, Long-Range Planning Technical Council Standing Committees Website, Open
D. Novosel, Nominations & Appointments M. Sanders, Awards
Open, Industry Education New Initiatives and Outreach
Region Representatives H. Chen, Organization & Procedures Committee Chairs
D. Diaz, B. Gwyn, J. Khan, S. Leon, N. Logic, T. Burse, Standards Coordination IEEE Smart Village, R. Larsen, Chair
J. Milanovic, P. Pabst, D. Sharafi, V. Vittal, Technical Sessions R. Podmore, Vice-Chair
M. Stryjewski, C. Wong Open, Webmaster Industry Outreach, J. Giri, Chair
Website, K. Anastasopoulos
Chapter Committee Chairs
C. Diamond, Awards & Resources
Z. Wang, Chapters Website
N. Nair, Distinguished Lecturer Program IEEE Power & Energy Magazine
Z. Wang, Electronic Communications IEEE Power & Energy Magazine (ISSN 1540-7977) (IPEMCF) is published bimonthly by the Institute of Electrical and
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2 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

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 from the editor
A
ADVANCES IN SUBSTATIONS HAVE
come a long way! System needs now call
for smaller footprints, greater reliability,
easier maintainability, faster construc-
tion, and lower costs. New and creative
means of successfully integrating re-
newable resources with the grid create
additional requirements.
The substation of the future has be-
come a reality today. Innovative features
of design and equipment address system
needs in many ways. Gas-insulated sub-
stations (GISs) provide opportunities
for small size, and their modular de-
sign can meet requirements for fast and
flexible engineering, procurement, and
construction, including the ability to be
located offshore. Reducing or elimi-
nating the use of sulfur hexafluoride
in insulating gasses would help miti-
gate greenhouse gas emissions. Air-
insulated substations also demonstrate
improvements in equipment perfor-
mance and can often be constructed
with lower capital costs than GISs. Both
technologies must provide hardening
against the elements as well as physical
security and cybersecurity.
The days of complicated wiring
schemes and palatial control houses
have ended, as fiber networks are re-
placing wires, and solid-state compo-
nents are supplanting electromechanical
equipment. Condition monitoring in
conjunction with adaptive protection
and control improves the reliability of
equipment and the overall system.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2910426
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
4 ieee power & energy magazine
substations of the future
advances in systems & equipment
New substations mean new types of
equipment. Flexible ac transmission
systems and synchronous condensers
improve system performance, which
have become increasingly impor tant
with the large-scale growth of variable
resources. Circuit breaker offerings
provide higher fault interrupting ca-
pability, better maintainability, and
higher reliability. The growth of high-
voltage (HV) dc applications means
that more substations will need to ac-
commodate both ac and dc equipment.
Traditional components of substations
also reflect advances in quality control
and reliability.
In This Issue
Our guest editor, Girish Behal, has col-
lected articles by authors representing
a cross section of IEEE Regions. The
issue describes state-of-the-art devel-
opments of substations including
✔ the integration of modern sub-
station equipment in the Repub-
lic of Korea
Michael Henderson
©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/GARRYKILLIAN
✔ synchronous condenser applica-
tions and the studies necessary
for their successful deployment
✔ the opportunities and means of
achieving digitally enabled sub-
stations
✔ dc substations as integral parts
of HVdc grids
✔ substations for integrating off-
shore wind.
This issue also features a standalone
article by representatives of the IEEE
Power & Energy Society (PES) In-
dustry Technical Support Task Force
(ITSTF) that discusses the challenges
and opportunities resulting from chang-
es in the power generation resource
mix. The authors expand upon the ex-
pert testimony the ITSTF provided to
the U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission by discussing generation
portfolio trends and essential reliabil-
ity services, lessons learned from in-
creases in distributed energy resources,
planning and operational needs and
solutions the industry must provide, and
july/august 2019
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other issues arising from storage, elec-
trification, demand response, and man-
agement of the grid.
In My View
The “In My View” column presents how
several recent technological advances
may be reflected in substations of the fu-
ture. Ramy Azar discusses how the elec-
tric power industry uses digital sensors
and processors, artificial intelligence and
robots, and virtual reality. He emphasizes
the importance of cybersecurity for suc-
cessful operations and offers new roles
for substations, such as helping to man-
age markets and successfully integrate
renewable resources. He believes HVdc
substations will experience growth.
History
The early days of electrification were
driven, in large measure, by the success
of traction railways. Our “History” col-
umn, by Robert D. Barnett, discusses
the early development of motors used in
electric streetcars. It includes several of
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the technical details and technical chal-
lenges of the Sprague motor, which was
used in one of the world’s first electrified
trolley systems in Richmond, Virginia.
Book Review
The expected growth of microgrids re-
quires knowledge of modeling, opera-
tions, and control. Ramu Ramanathan re-
views Microgrid Dynamics and Control,
which comprehensively covers the topic
for a readership of experienced power
system engineers and graduate students.
System Changes
In “Leader’s Corner,” Damir Novosel,
past PES president, discusses the chang-
es the power system is undergoing, the
resulting complexities and challenges,
and how a resilient grid can be main-
tained. Fortunately, PES “helps the
power and energy industry identify the
best technical strategies to assure re-
silient, efficient, safe, and sustainable
delivery of electrical energy around the
globe.” He also discusses several ac-
polycast.ca
1 (800) 665.7445
complishments of PES under the leader-
ship of our Governing Board.
2019 IEEE Medal
in Power Engineering
The IEEE Industry Applications Soci-
ety, IEEE Industrial Electronics Society,
IEEE Power Electronics Society, and
PES sponsor the prestigious IEEE Med-
al in Power Engineering. Please join me
in congratulating Lionel Barthold, the
2019 winner, who was recognized for
outstanding contributions to and lead-
ership in advancing the technologies of
electric power transmission.
Vote
As a reminder, PES elections for presi-
dent-elect, treasurer, and secretary are
coming soon. Please be sure to vote.
Voting begins 1 August and concludes
on 1 October 2019 at 12 p.m. (EST).
We have a block of extraordinarily well-
qualified candidates:
✔ president: Jessica Bian and Chris-
topher Root
✔ treasurer: Nouredine Hadjsaid
✔ secretary: Lalit Goel, Jonathan
Sykes, and Cat Wong.
Candidate statements can be found at the
PES website, which include corrections to
candidate statements.  Please see https://
www.ieee-pes.org/2019-elections.
2019 General Meeting
The PES 2019 General Meeting (GM19)
has the theme “Expect Uncertainty, Pre-
pare to Adapt.” We can say with abso-
lute certainty that GM19 is a wonderful
opportunity for us to learn and grow
together. Please plan to attend to meet
and greet our PES candidates, newly
elevated Fellows, award recipients, and
thousands of other amazing volunteers
in Atlanta, Georgia, 4–8 August 2019.
Thanks
A special note of appreciation to Mel
Olken, who continues to provide guidance
and tutelage, and to the IEEE publications
staff who make this publication possible.
Thanks to the many contributors to this
issue, especially our guest editor, Girish
Behal, and authors. A particular note of
appreciation is needed to Associate Editor
John Paserba and Robert C. Henderson,
who provides editorial assistance. p&e
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 letters to the editor

share your thoughts

send comments to mih.psat@gmail.com

R
READERS ARE ENCOURAGED TO
share their views on issues affecting the
electric power engineering profession.
Send your letters to Michael Hender-
son, editor-in-chief, at mih.psat@
gmail.com. Letters may be edited
for publication.
Disposable Costs
In the article “Nuclear Energy in a
Carbon-Constrained World,” by Bu-
ongiorno et al. (IEEE Power and &
Energy Magazine, vol. 17, no. 2, pp.
69–77, March/April 2019), the authors
admit that their study “did not address
well over US$40 billion over the past
20+ years. The higher end of that
range is the estimated cost for coun-
tries with a smaller fleet, e.g., Swe-
den. The whole range is in the noise
of electricity cost (typically US$40–
100/MWh). The authors feel the is-
sue with waste is not cost but social
acceptability, which I believe is the
thrust of your point.
—Jacopo Buongiorno
A Much-Referenced Book
Thanks for the “History” article “West-
inghouse T&D Book,” by John Paserba,

the disposal of radioactive waste (or,
more properly, spent nuclear fuel).”
In Figure 2 of the article, they offer
average generation cost (US$/MWh)
figures for nuclear power generation.
How is the cost of the disposal of ra-
dioactive waste (or spent nuclear fuel)
taken into account, for example, in the
authors’ figures summarizing average
nuclear generation costs? Is the broader
concern really about the disposal and
safe storage of radioactive waste over
millions of years?
—Gerhard Juette
Author’s Response
Thank you for your inquiry. The au-
thors accounted for the cost of waste
disposal in the US$1–3/MWh range
in our analysis. The lower end is
the “waste fee” paid by U.S. nuclear
utilities, which has accumulated to
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2907388
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
on the Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Company’s Electrical Trans-
mission and Distribution Reference
Book, (IEEE Power and & Energy
Magazine, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 78–88,
March/April 2019). I appreciated it
very much since I loved Westinghouse
T&D, used it as text book in gradu-
ate school, and still refer to it almost
weekly, even after 64 years working
in the power and energy industry.
When I was a utility consultant and
application engineer in the Westing-
house Cincinnati district office in the
1950s, I took it with me on every cus-
tomer call in the Dayton, Ohio; Louis-
ville, Kentucky; and Evansville, Indi-
ana areas. I had it in my car if needed
as a quick reference. I was pleased to
see the names of so many great people
referenced in your article whom I knew
very well and who were good to me.
I would like to add a postscript to
the history of the T&D book. In the late
1950s, Westinghouse was in the process
JOHN PERULFI
figure 1. Volume 3, Distribution
Systems, of Electric Utility Engineer-
ing Reference Book, Westinghouse
Electric Corporation.
of redoing the whole book into three
separate volumes:
✔ Volume 1: “System Analysis and
Generation”
✔ Volume 2: “Transmission and
System Protection”
✔ Volume 3: “Distribution Systems.”
We started with volume 3 (Figure 1),
first, and it was published in 1959.
However, as times changed and bud-
gets were reduced, we never did vol-
umes 1 or 2. Thanks again for your
reminder of the history of a book I
always use and cite as a backup author-
ity for what I say or do.
—John Perulfi

8 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Author’s Response
Thanks for sharing your experience
with the Westinghouse T&D Reference
Book. As for the subsequent work be-
yond the 1950 fourth edition referenced
in my “History” column, the “Fore-
word” of the 1959 edition of volume 3,
Distribution Systems written by Joseph
K. Dillard, manager, Electric Utility En-
gineering Department, Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, states:
…due to success of the “T&D
Book” as the original volume
came to be called, leading dis-
tribution engineers continually
requested a companion volume
dealing exclusively with distribu-
tion systems. We began prepar-
ing it in 1956. But by the time the
first draft was completed, it was
apparent that we could not write
a separate volume on distribu-
tion systems without duplication
a number of chapters covering
basic principles that had already
been published in the fourth edi-
tion of the “T&D Book.” About
this time, many of the advances
mentioned [earlier in this “Fore-
word”] were coming in for a
serious consideration. Thus, it
became evident that a major revi-
sion of the “T&D Book” would
be needed fairly soon. This
prompted an entirely new plan
for an Electric Utility Engineer-
ing Reference Book that would
provide a complete reference
to all the engineering fields en-
countered in the utility industry.
It consists of three volumes writ-
ten by the Westinghouse Electric
Utility Engineering and has the
following subtitles:
✔ Volume 1 – System Anal-
ysis and Generation
✔ Volume 2 – Transmission
and System Protection
✔ Volume 3 – Distribution
Systems
Because of the great need,
Volume 3 is published first. …
This volume is written prin-
cipally as an information source
and reference for the Electric
Utility Distribution Engineer
to help in the solution of dai-
ly and long-range distribution
problems. …
The authors of the 12 chapters over
567 pages of Volume 3 include R.F.
Lawrence, S.B. Griscom, L.W. Man-
ning, D.N. Reps, H.E. Lokay, B.L.
Lloyd, Miles Maxwell, D.M. Sauter,
and Robert A. Zimmerman.
—John Paserba
p&e

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10 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

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 leader’s corner
E
ENERGY SUSTAINABILITY AND
decarbonization require reliable, resil-
ient, and cost-effective electrical en-
ergy delivery. IEEE volunteers world-
wide are meeting this challenge by
developing and implementing hybrid
grids. Such grids will allow renewable
and distributed energy resources to be
used efficiently and reliably. The impor-
tance of electrical energy has been em-
phasized in numerous mass-media dis-
cussions that often prioritize the views
of partisan politics or business agendas.
Some are very critical of the practical-
ity of deploying renewable energy and
storage, while others take the opposite
approach, ignoring the challenges of re-
lying on these technologies.
Significant Technological
Advancements Needed
A modern hybrid energy system con-
tains a high penetration of renewable
wind power and distributed energy re-
sources, traditional synchronous gener-
ation, energy storage, and transmission
and distribution (T&D) networks with
conventional and smart energy-effi-
cient loads, including microgrids and
nanogrids. This option promises elec-
trical energy delivery in a sustainable
and environmentally friendly way but
faces numerous challenges, especially
with the growing demand from in-
creased electrification (transportation,
heat-pumps, and so on). The solutions
require significant technological ad-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2907389
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
12 ieee power & energy magazine
energy sustainability
guiding the power & energy industry
vancements and infrastructure invest-
ments. New technologies and operating
techniques can be fully leveraged only
with the help of IEEE-provided interop-
erability standards accompanied by the
appropriate regulatory frameworks.
While distributed energy resources
provide value to the overall electric
system, it is also necessary to properly
recognize the value of the grid’s capa-
bility to increase market penetration
and access for them, improve resilience,
increase electrification, lower market
prices, and provide the customer choice
for electric service. Today’s intercon-
nected grid started out as distributed
and became increasingly interconnect-
ed to improve cost efficiency, reliability,
service quality, and safety. Technologi-
cal advancements have made renewable
resources more efficient and easier to
control in distributed grids. However,
the fundamental benefits of a connected
grid still hold and, in fact, become more
important. For example, the massive in-
troduction of wind and solar photovol-
taic distributed resources in Europe has
encouraged substantial grid reinforce-
ments, including transnational intercon-
nections that have enabled an integrated
energy market.
The IEEE’s Unique
Responsibility
As the electric power system evolves
into an increasingly complex and dy-
namic hybrid energy system, it is vital
to adequately prioritize areas of focus
and the associated risks. As the larg-
est global organization of professional
Damir Novosel
engineers, the IEEE has the unique
responsibility to help the power and
energy industry identify the best tech-
nical strategies to assure the resilient,
efficient, safe, and sustainable delivery
of electrical energy around the globe.
This guidance is one of the key ways in
which the IEEE fulfills its mission to
serve the betterment of society.
Recently, there has been much dis-
cussion regarding the definition of, and
metrics for, resilience. Once described
as the ability to withstand a high-impact,
low-frequency event, the definition for
this term may need to change as high-im-
pact, weather-related events become the
new norm. While further defining the
resilience concept, baseline, and metrics
required to implement mitigation mea-
sures, incorporating resilience into the
T&D planning process is recommended.
For example, after fires ravaged Cali-
fornia, the media and stakeholders asked
if enough was being done to inspect
and maintain its aging infrastructure,
including using advanced monitoring
technologies. While regulatory targets
in California have focused on promot-
ing renewable energy and storage, it
is necessary to put additional focus on
resilience targets (in the face of fires,
hurricanes, extreme temperatures, and
so forth) as well. California is not alone;
other regulators have similar targets (e.g.,
New York Clean Energy Standards and
renewable energy targets in Germany).
It is very important to have forward-
looking regulatory targets that address
both short- and long-term needs in a bal-
anced way to better serve consumers.
july/august 2019
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
 The IEEE Power & Energy Society’s
Industry Technical Support (ITS) orga-
nization facilitates resilient renewable-
based grid development by cooperating
with global government, regulatory, and
other industry organizations on technical
issues related to power and energy. This or-
ganization taps our membership through
technical committees, local Chapters,
and other organizations, such as the
IEEE Standards Association and IEEE-
USA (see https://www.ieee-pes.org/ieee-
cooperation-structure-on-policy-sup-
port). The ITS organization also leads a
corporate engagement initiative to bet-
ter support our membership. Corporate
engagement packages encourage mem-
ber companies to support and encour-
age employees who wish to participate
in various IEEE initiatives (see https://
www.ieee-pes.org/about-pes/corporate-
engagement).
14 ieee power & energy magazine
PES Accomplishments
While it is important to plan for the
future, it is also essential to appreciate
what we have accomplished. I am proud
that during my tenure on the Governing
Board, we jointly achieved several goals
through the More Power to the Future
initiatives, including:
✔ increased global membership
growth, industry participation,
and conversion of members to
volunteers
✔ promoted the benefits of products
and services, including standards
✔ provided objective technical
leadership
✔ facilitated sharing of global prac-
tices and technological advance-
ments.
As we enhance the value of participa-
tion with new ideas and solutions, our
membership will continue to grow.
Learning and
Working Together
I would like to acknowledge our volun-
teers and staff who have led and sup-
ported our initiatives. Thank you all for
your dedication and results, which pro-
vide unparalleled benefits to our indus-
try and the Society. I was fortunate to
serve on the amazing Governing Board,
which fully embodies the definition of
teamwork as “wanting and helping
your colleagues to succeed.” We ben-
efit from the IEEE’s diverse member-
ship that represents academia, utilities/
independent system operators, vendors,
regulators, researchers, and others. By
learning and working together, we
will advance the electrical grid that
has become inextricably linked with
our well-being.
p&e
july/august 2019
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 guest editorial
S
SUBSTATION MODERNIZATION
remains a critical element of state-of-
the-art electric power systems. The rap-
idly evolving nature of the grid, customer
demands, and technological innovation
puts substations at the forefront of grid
transformation. Substation developments
include the application of equipment
tests, sustainable practices, digitization,
and advanced solutions for a host of
system needs, along with reactive power
compensation and long-distance renew-
able integration of renewable energy
sources. Substations must increasingly
act not only in the interest of the larger
grid but also in support of decision mak-
ing at the local level. They are expected
to serve as data-gathering locations that
can optimize future investments leading
to the implementation of new technolo-
gies. To achieve public acceptability, sub-
stations should be fully functional and
either invisible or aesthetically appealing,
especially in highly populated areas. Sus-
tainability is another aspect where substa-
tions are seeing innovation, such as in re-
placing sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, a
greenhouse gas, with other gasses used in
compact gas-insulated substations (GISs).
As Ramy Azar writes in his “In My
View” column, substations are becom-
ing the heart and the brain of the electric
grid. The pace of innovation in substation
design is accelerating quite significantly,
and we should not be surprised if we see
self-healing substations managed by arti-
ficial intelligence (AI) in the near future.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2910425
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
16 ieee power & energy magazine
substation innovations
the heart and brain of the grid
With the substation of the future in
mind, we invited authors from across
the globe to share their experiences and
expertise regarding technologies being
implemented in their regions. It should
not come as a surprise that advancements
in substation technologies play a key
role in the next evolution of the grid.
Our first article, by Heejin Kim, Jae-
Kyeong Kim, Jiyoung Song, Jaegul Lee,
Kisun Han, Jeonghoon Shin, Taekyun
Kim, and Kyeon Hur discusses sustained
R&D solutions that create more sustain-
able and smart substations throughout the
Republic of Korea. The benefits of these
efforts include reduced adverse environ-
mental impacts of substations, while, at
the same time, implementing cutting-
edge technological innovations continu-
ously improves the performance of ex-
isting and new assets. The authors start
with a brief description of the growth
history of the electric transmission and
distribution system on the Korean Pen-
insula. They examine the adaptation and
implementation of the IEC 61850 stan-
dard in substations. Kim et al. share the
additional research being done for the
development of AI algorithms to be used
for automatic restoration of equipment.
They then describe the establishment of
advanced data collection infrastructure
and how it is expected to lead to more re-
liable service for the end customers. With
a significant push to integrate renewable
resources in Korea, the authors review a
standard modularized green substation
that is easily deployed and also uses inert
gases for insulation rather than SF6. As
mentioned in the article, deploying a stan-
Girish Behal
dardized modularized substation, which
may also include flexible ac transmission
system (FACTS) devices, could signifi-
cantly promote the successful integration
of distributed energy resources (DERs)
and microgrids.
In the second article, George Zhou,
David Wang, Adham Atallah, Frank
McElvain, Ram Nath, John Jontry,
Christopher Bolton, Huang Lin, and
Andreas Haselbauer survey synchro-
nous condensers. They provide an in-
depth look at the significant portfolio
changes that a number of U.S. states are
facing with increased renewable portfo-
lio standards (RPSs), which encourage
the development of carbon-free electric
energy resources. An unintended conse-
quence of RPSs has been the closure of
some nuclear power plants earlier than
expected due to reduced revenues caused
by the addition of lower-cost variable re-
sources. The article evaluates the effects
of the loss of kinetic energy and reactive
power supply on large power systems,
like California’s, which have integrated
renewables at a large scale. The authors
explore some technical studies that were
done to evaluate system conditions, in-
cluding power flow and transient analy-
sis, and how innovative solutions can
improve system reliability.
Modeling issues and the need for
proper representation of equipment are
also evaluated, an aspect the industry
views as vitally important. Flawed mod-
els used in the initial project evaluations
were uncovered only after equipment
installations had resulted in deficient
performance, which added substantial
july/august 2019
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costs. As the authors point out, syn-
chronous condensers are one of many
devices that can improve system perfor-
mance by addressing variability issues
resulting from the high penetration of
renewable resources. The studies high-
lighted in the article are also needed
for planning other types of FACTS de-
vices, and in all cases, they provide the
information necessary for ensuring the
appropriate design of equipment that
meets grid support requirements.
The next article, by Rich Hunt,
Byron Flynn, and Terry Smith, describes
a digitally enabled substation, its archi-
tecture, and areas of development. It
builds on the discussion in the first arti-
cle by Kim et al., regarding the digitali-
zation and modularization of the substa-
tions. The authors show the advantages
of a digitally enabled substation that can
readily adapt to increased levels of in-
verter-based DERs and electric vehicles
while providing improved control of
the power system at the local distribu-
tion feeder level. Given the many-fold
increase in the number of stakehold-
ers participating in the production and
distribution of electricity, the authors
believe that utilities would optimize
grid investment by interacting with each
stakeholder and leveraging system data.
This would require a larger amount of
flexibility in the power control system.
To that end, the authors explore the ar-
chitecture of the digitally enabled sub-
station that would provide the required
adaptability and flexibility. They expect
a variety of applications running on a
software platform that would provide
a wide range of services based on the
sensing data from the substation and
the larger network. Stakeholders, such
as utility operators, would need to in-
teract with potentially thousands of de-
vices and improve situational awareness
required to operate the system reliably
and efficiently. As the power system
becomes more unpredictable with less hi-
erarchical control, situational intelligence
can be obtained using a variety of moni-
toring systems, ranging from wide area
monitoring systems to small monitoring
sensors on the equipment measuring the
operational reliability of the power system
equipment. All the collected data would
then need to be organized, evaluated, and
utilized for substations to operate reliably
and almost independently.
Hunt et al. discuss steps that the in-
dustry would need to take to support the
digitization of the substation and the
status of standards, available hardware,
and initial adoption by industry. They
address the process bus design in detail,
including process interface units, which
would exist close to the primary equip-
ment and act as the interface between the
digital systems and power system equip-
ment. Other pieces of equipment may
be replaced by digital instruments that
reduce overall cost, improve accuracy,
and enable better system protection.
With increased accuracy, analytics-
based asset management systems could
improve predictive maintenance equip-
ment models by identifying issues sooner
than is currently possible. The digital
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THE PROVEN POWER.

substation results in a smaller physical
footprint and adds additional flexibility
to the assets. Gathering data from the
substations is also expected to deploy
even more DERs by being better able
to visualize the local needs and drive
investment strategies by various stake
holders. Relevant issues around cyber-
security and workforce development are
also discussed because they will influ-
ence the adoption rate of new technolo-
gies by investor-owned utilities.
The fourth article, by Dirk Van Her-
tem, Willem Leterme, Geraint Chaffey,
Mudar Abedrabbo, Mian Wang, Firew
Zerihun, and Mike Barnes, brings to the
forefront the discussion around dc tech-
nology and its application in substations of
the future. The authors begin by describ-
ing applications of two current converter
station technologies: line commutated
converters (LCCs) and voltage source
converters (VSCs). High-voltage (HV) dc
applications have grown to meet the need
for the bulk energy transfers from gen-
eration sources to population centers, as is
evident in China, India, and Latin Ameri-
ca. HVdc technology also supports the in-
tegration of large-scale renewables, such
as offshore wind resources that are pri-
marily connected through underground/
subsea cross-link polyethylene cables. The
discussions on ac/dc conversion equip-
ment highlight the challenges surround-
ing propagation of fault currents and the
equipment that can be used to interrupt
fault current at the converter. An exami-
nation related to dc circuit breakers and
switchgear is followed by various mecha-
nisms that can be utilized for dissipating
excess energy. The development of new
dc power-flow control devices enables use
of the full capacity of the power system
network, but it could increase the land
area requirement for substations. Second-
ary equipment, such as nonconventional
instrument transformers for dc voltage
measurement, is also being developed
and is expected to support the develop-
ment of dc substations.
In the context of grid control for stable
operations, the authors talk about the po-
tential to employ a voltage droop scheme
at the substation level utilizing a grid
controller concept. Increased integration
of intelligent electronic devices using the
IEC 61850 protocol and other standards
for communication and teleprotection for
the dc substations will also need higher
bandwidth and communication speed,
which will require us to rethink how we
deploy communication networks. This is
expected to lead to the development of
digital platforms for dc grids, echoing the
message we heard from Hunt et al.
Considerations for dc substation de-
sign, influenced by the choice of substa-
tion technology, bus bar design topology,
and protection philosophies, are also de-
tailed by the authors. Offshore dc sub-
stations primarily use VSC technology,
which requires a smaller footprint and
lower installation costs than LCC installa-
tions. Other considerations for offshore dc
substations relate to weather conditions,
implementation logistics, spare part phi-
losophies, access to substations, and rev-
enue loss analysis that takes into account
forced and maintenance outages. We see
the drive to reduce offshore installation
weights leading to tradeoffs between ef-
ficiency and amount of equipment. Cool-
ing systems for HVdc converter stations
add weight and can lead to interesting
applications of dc GIS solutions for the
offshore substations (OSSs), which do not
require significant cooling systems.
The fifth article, by Vandad Hamadi,
Úna Brosnan, Ingar Loftus, and Gavin
Montgomery, who are all from the United
Kingdom, discusses the lifecycle opti-
mized approach to OSS design in Europe.
OSSs have been built in Europe for a few
years and are now starting to be deployed
globally as offshore wind installations
continue to grow. They play an important
role as collector stations of offshore wind
resources by stepping up the voltage to on-
shore substation connections. The United
States expects offshore wind resources to
reach an installed capacity of 8.4 GW by
2030, with more than 30 GW in plan-
ning and development stages. Offshore
wind developers have experienced signifi-
cant pressure to reduce overall installation
costs, including capital costs (CAPEX)
and operational costs. Lifecycle cost
management for OSSs affects revenue
models, which consider costs of trans-
mission losses and reduced availabil-
ity due to repairs. The overall CAPEX
costs of the HVdc installations become
more favorable than ac alternatives for
submerged substations. These technolo- nance costs grow exponentially once
gies have the potential to reduce the cost the substations are transported offshore.
even further for offshore wind develop- Onshore testing and verification prior to
ments. New onshore substation designs transport is an important aspect. Much
can utilize many of the OSS technologi- of OSS maintenance resembles prac-
cal and economical improvements. tices of the oil and gas industry, which
Engineers consider construction and has extensive experience with offshore
operational issues as part of the design structures and some electrical assets.
and installation of projects. This is par- The challenge is determining typical
ticularly true for OSSs, where mainte- maintenance requirements for different
Power System Reliability
A new module to analyze the reliability of electrical
power distribution systems and calculate the
expected availability of loads.
· Auto-import reliability data or specify failure
rate, downtime, and cost.
· One-click analysis of the entire system or a
specific load branch.
· Identify weak points and factor cost of power
interruption in future design.
Build Model Export and
View Results
0.09 100

90

offshore projects that are far from land.

0.08

80
0.07

Run
70
PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL

An innovative approach of the offshore

0.06
Unavailability (hrs/year)

60

Cumulative Percent
Evaluation
0.05

PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL 50

transmission module (OTM) strips down

0.04
PANEL PANEL PANEL
40

PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL

0.03
30

Component Failure Failure Rate Avg Repair Unavailability

the OSS equipment to a bare minimum.

PANEL PANEL PANEL PANEL

Type Name Contirbution (%) (per year) Time (hrs) (hrs/year) Uptime (%) 0.02
20
Bus MAIN BUS A 12.4003 0.00949048 7.289839 0.06918407 0.9999921
Bus MAIN BUS B 12.4003 0.00949048 7.289839 0.06918407 0.9999921
Bus MECH BUS A 12.4001 0.009490247 7.2899071 0.069183016 0.9999921 0.01 10
Bus MECH BUS B 12.4001 0.009490247 7.2899071 0.069183016 0.9999921
Breaker BL-7 5.76386 0.00085777 37.490168 0.032157953 0.99999633

The OTM weight reduction is achieved

Branch C-1_A 5.30718 0.00282 10.5 0.02961 0.99999662 0.00 0

Auto-
s 2 3 W -1 -A -B -6 -4
Branch C-1_B 5.30718 0.00282 10.5 0.02961 0.99999662 Bu us us sS BL _1 _1 BL BL
B B C C
Breaker BL-6 4.12983 0.002400276 9.599442 0.023041312 0.99999737 ain Bu
M
Breaker BL-6_A 4.12983 0.002400276 9.599442 0.023041312 0.99999737
Breaker BL-17 2.70288 0.0026 5.8 0.01508 0.99999828
Breaker BL-17_A 2.70288 0.0026 5.8 0.01508 0.99999828

by using automated controls. Integrated Import

Branch C-1_C 2.65359 0.00141 10.5 0.014805 0.99999831
Branch C-1 2.12287 0.001128 10.5 0.011844 0.99999865
Breaker BL-10 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914
Breaker BL-10_A 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914
Breaker BL-8 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914

Data
Breaker BL-8_A 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914

offshore HVdc and HVac substations and

Breaker BL-9 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914
Breaker BL-9_A 1.35144 0.0013 5.8 0.00754 0.99999914
Breaker BL-14 0.991175 0.002765 2 0.00553 0.99999937
Breaker BL-14_A 0.991175 0.002765 2 0.00553 0.99999937
Breaker BL-15 0.991175 0.002765 2 0.00553 0.99999937
Breaker BL-15_A 0.991175 0.002765 2 0.00553 0.99999937

interlinked OSSs offer opportunities to

Breaker BL-7_A 0.991175 0.002765 2 0.00553 0.99999937
Breaker BL-16 0.496484 0.001385 2 0.00277 0.99999968
Breaker BL-16_A 0.496484 0.001385 2 0.00277 0.99999968
Breaker BL-16_B 0.496484 0.001385 2 0.00277 0.99999968
Breaker BL-16_C 0.496484 0.001385 2 0.00277 0.99999968
Breaker BL-2 0.0833447 0.00093 0.5 0.000465 0.99999995
Breaker BL-2_A 0.0833447 0.00093 0.5 0.000465 0.99999995

reduce overall costs, which could portend

offshore grids driven primarily by eco-
nomic considerations. The technological
Minimal additional work is required to perform a
advances helping the industry to further reliability assessment on your power system once
improve OSS design include increases in the one-line diagram has been created.
array cable voltages, adopting midpoint
reactive compensation platforms, larger Explore more online and request a free demo copy at:
wind turbines, structure standardization, www.EasyPower.com/Reliability
and the use of GIS equipment. Technolo-
gies currently under development include
low-frequency ac systems, floating sub- ®
stations, offshore development hubs, and
Power made easy.
types of electrical equipment in an off-
shore environment. A strong case can be
made for condition-based maintenance
to reduce the lifecycle costs of the asset.
Another key consideration is the final
decommissioning of assets after end of
life. This is not a typical consideration
for onshore substations where life exten-
sions are typically less expensive than
complete replacement or decommission-
ing. Offshore projects, however, are typi-
cally required to remove all assets that
have been installed. We can be sure that
there will be development of new prac-
tices for OSSs leading to innovative so-
lutions in the next decade to come.
The “In My View” column provides
a perspective on how current technolo-
gies will shape the future development
of substations. The author describes
substations as the main components of
electric grids and reflects on the critical
role electricity plays in keeping the en-
gines of economies going and growing.
He also reflects on the need to alleviate
energy poverty, an area where substa-
tions play an important role alongside
the DERs. He studies the improvements
in computing power that have enabled
the rise of microprocessor-based relay-
ing and have led to improved protection
systems, which exhibit better reliability,
selectivity, speed, cost, and simplicity.
These improvements have also led to
the growth of software platforms that are
slowly replacing the need for large physi-
cal equipment by utilizing what is cur-
rently considered nonconventional equip-
ment. This is anticipated to reduce overall
substation sizes and have a positive envi-
ronmental impact. Azar also talks about
the rise of AI and its potential to create
self-managing and self-healing substa-
tions, which give rise to more efficient,
reliable, and safe systems. In addition,
the author investigates how virtual reality
technologies can further improve the sub-
station design. The vision of a substation
being a Wall Street trading floor for elec-
tricity of the future is the most graphic
description of the potential changes we
will see in the industry in the near future.
The future looks interesting for substa-
tions utilizing new technologies, showing
better aesthetics and sustainability, and
providing increased ability to integrate
DERs. The development of substation in-
novations will provide opportunities for
professional growth in the electric power
industry for years to come, especially as
we learn to gather, understand, and im-
prove how we manage and use data that
will be available from the substations. I
look forward to further discussions of
substations of the future at IEEE Power
& Energy’s 2019 General Meeting.
This issue contributes to the discus-
sion of state-of-the-art innovation in
substations and the future path that it can
possibly take. I would like to thank the
authors for their time and dedication and
the articles provided, which shed light on
innovations happening around the world.
And a special thanks to the IEEE publi-
cations staff and Editor-in-Chief Michael
Henderson for all of the assistance ren-
dered to a novice guest editor.
p&e
 Bucharest, Romania 29 SEPT – 2 OCT

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2019
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Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2917739

 T
THE KOREAN ELECTRIC POWER
Corporation (KEPCO) has created a num-
ber of initiatives for encouraging both
green and smart energy in the global
energy industry. With the aim of being a
smart energy creator, KEPCO conducted
R&D for green and smart substations over
the last 10 years, which will be implemented
in future substations.
The smart (or digital) substation is
equipped with protection and automation
schemes in an IEC 61850 environment
that provides a platform for smart feeder
(or smart grid) applications. Since the IEC
61850 standard was published, the role of
the substation has undergone a paradigm
shift. The major role of a conventional
substation is to offer voltage-level trans-
formation, key parameter measurements,
and line and equipment protection. An
advanced substation offers conventional
services and also provides progressive
functions, such as feeder automation,
remote maintenance, and the integration
of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs).
The future smart substation will not only
include additional functionalities but
will also provide self-healing protection
schemes and grid services for improving
power stability and quality.

Smart and
Green Substations
By Heejin Kim, Jae-Kyeong Kim, Jiyoung Song,
Jaegul Lee, Kisun Han, Jeonghoon Shin, Taekyun Kim,
and Kyeon Hur
©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/DRAFTER123,
KOREA MAP—FOOTAGE FIRM, INC.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2909792
Date of publication: 18 June 2019

24 ieee power & energy magazine 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE july/august 2019

 Shaping the Electric
Power Grid of Korea

The green substation provides a platform to support the increase of renewable energy (RE) as
well as demonstrate the achievement of environment-friendly substations by reducing the produc-
tion of air pollutants, such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas. For example, since 2016, the 23-kV
gas-insulated switchgears (GISs) with SF6, used for more than 20 years in the Korean electric
power grid, are being replaced by GISs with dry air and solid-insulated switchgears (SISs). A
modular green substation is proposed for interconnecting the increasing amounts of RE. This
example of the future green substation will play an important role in integrating remotely located
RE sources (RESs) into the power grid.
The expanded adoption of distributed energy resources (DERs) changes the grid dynamics by
displacing the large fossil fuel and synchronous generators, thereby weakening the grid strength,
requiring new capabilities and functionalities for the future substations. The fundamental changes
and opportunities of the future power system with improved reliability, availability, efficiency, and
security can be summarized as follows:
✔ the high penetration of DERs
✔ the high integration of controllable devices for power system support
✔ the interconnection of power systems in different countries and regions via a dc grid (or
supergrid)
✔ the convergence of IT, automation, and power engineering
✔ the advanced control and protection schemes
✔ the communication networks in power systems.
With these priorities in mind, various projects, such as communication network development
for digital substations, modular green substations for increasing the hosting capacity of RESs,
online load modeling for reliable power system operation, phasor-measurement unit (PMU) data
acquisition and analysis systems, and the Jeju Island testbed for the smart grid, have been under-
taken in the Republic of Korea. The following sections will introduce these efforts for future
smart and green substations to shape the electric power grid of the Republic of Korea.

Overview of the Korean Electric Power System

Brief History of Its Electric Power Industry

In 1887, the first light bulb was illuminated at the royal palace in Seoul. Over the last 130
years, Korea’s electric power industry has grown dramatically. KEPCO was established with
the Electricity Enterprises Act (three electric companies were merged and became a wholly
government-owned corporation) in 1961. KEPCO is the only electric utility company that owns
the transmission and distribution system in the Republic of Korea. The overall power demand
in the country has grown significantly since the 1970s due to industrialization and rapid eco-
nomic growth. The maximum demand was 5.4 GW in 1980 and 41 GW in 2000, and the highest
demand was 92.5 GW in 2018. The peak demand has increased by more than 17 times over the
past 38 years.
The fi rst high-voltage (HV) dc interconnection between Jeju Island and the main peninsula
was completed in 1998. The purpose of the HVdc installation was to improve the reliability of
the power system of Jeju, the biggest island in the Republic of Korea, and to reduce the cost of
its electricity.

Korea Electric Power Substation Statistics

The Republic of Korea is currently one of the largest consumers of electrical energy in the
world, due to the country’s rapid economic growth of heavy and chemical industries. The
Republic of Korea consumed a total of 507.7 TWh of net electricity in 2017, with 276.6 TWh

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 25

 for industrial purposes, 164.5 TWh for commercial appli-
cations, and 66.5 TWh for residential use. The maximum
demand reached 92.5 GW in 2018 and is forecast to grow
and reach 110 GW in 2030, according to the eighth long-
term electricity supply and demand plan published by
the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy. The total
installed generation capacity in the Korean power system
is currently 119 GW.
Table 1 shows the transmission, substation, and distribu-
tion facilities in the Republic of Korea from 1992 through
2017. As is shown, the number of 345- and 154-kV transmis-
sion and substation facilities has increased, but the number
of 66-kV transmission facilities has decreased. Since 1990,
these facilities have been intentionally retired to improve
transmission efficiency.
KEPCO has established a new voltage level (70 kV)
to accommodate increasing amounts of RESs in accor-
dance with its long-term electricity supply and demand
plan. The first 70-kV substation will be installed in 2022
and reflect a modular design. While it typically takes four
years to install a conventional substation, strategically
locating modular substations would likely expedite the
process significantly.
Outlook for Korea’s Efforts in
Smart Substation Development
Development of Digital Substations
and Communication Network
After the publication of IEC 61850 in 2004, a task force to
promote digital substations was created. Table 2 is an over-
all road map for the implementation of the smart substation.
After several pilot projects, the first 154-kV digital substa-
tion was installed in 2013. A total of 32 digital substations
were installed in 2018, and 740 more are expected to be
installed by 2034, which includes the digitalization of exist-
ing substations. Figure 1 shows the status and future instal-
lation plans for digital substations in the Republic of Korea.
As the number of digital substations increases annually, the
proportion of total digital substations is expected to reach
83% in 2034.
Smart substation features developed during the prepara-
tion stage for the application of IEC 61850 to establish com-
munication networks for digital substations included the
following: substation virtual servers, substation gateways,
IED explorer (software that performs IEC 61850 client sim-
ulator for the testing of IEC 61850-based IEDs), a digital

table 1. Transmission, substation, and distribution facilities in the Republic of Korea.

Division 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017
Transmission 765 kV — — 662 755 835 1,019
facilities (C-km)
345 kV 5,259 6,442 7,496 8,284 8,770 9,746
154 kV 11,631 15,097 18,144 19,917 21,578 22,831
66 kV 3,579 2,513 1,402 338 208 128
Total 20,469 24,052 27,704 29,294 31,391 33,724
Substation facilities 765 kV — — 7,110 23,114 29,116 38,116
(MVA)
345 kV 26,339 46,009 69,078 95,279 115,598 131,880
154 kV 32,982 58,706 83,364 109,268 126,143 141,538
66 kV 2,103 1,813 1,073 454 312 240
22 kV 508 308 213 134 78 94
Total 61,932 61,932 160,838 228,249 271,247 311,868
Number of 765 kV — — 3 5 5 7
substations
345 kV 20 36 69 81 68 112
154 kV 223 335 472 571 636 713
66 kV 74 48 20 6 3 3
22 kV 14 8 10 6 3 4
Total 331 427 574 669 715 839
Distribution facilities Line (C-km) 255,340 326,506 366,983 401,485 442,641 481,365
Transformer 24,072 39,596 71,977 92,963 104,081 114,236
(MVA)
C-km: Circuit kilometer.

26 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

substation engineering tool called
S-CLICK (it sets up and verifies
communication and data exchange
between various IEDs and operat-
ing systems of a digital substation),
substation human–machine inter-
face (HMI), IEC 61850 server/cli-
ent conformance testing device, and
application software programs for
the substation automation system.
Several other items needed to be
developed, including protection and
control IEDs [e.g., protective relay-
ing devices, on-load tap-changer
controllers, circuit breaker (CB)
controllers, capacitor bank switch-
es, recloser controllers, voltage reg-
ulators, and shunt reactor switches],
power quality IEDs, a bay controller
(controlling a bay in a substation), a
merging unit (a device that enables
the implementation of IEC 61850 by
converting the analog signals from
the conventional current transform-
ers and voltage transformers into
IEC 61850 sampled values), and a
generic object-oriented substation
event (GOOSE) messaging agent
(software that monitors and pub-
lishes GOOSE messages to test and
verify GOOSE messages of IEDs).
table 2. A road map of the smart substation (from 2008).
Development Stage Duration Objective
Preliminary 2008–2009 ✔ Education and training
Preparation 2009–2012 ✔ Pilot project for digital substation
✔ Various types of IED development
✔ Merging unit development
✔ Engineering tool (S-CLICK) development for
digital substation
✔ GOOSE agent software development
✔ Development of IEC 61850 server/client
conformance testing device
✔ Field test
Implementation 2013–2017 ✔ Digital substation installation and operation
✔ Digital substation smart operation system
development
✔ Error collection and performance improvement
Innovation 2017–2019 ✔ Upgrade for IEC 61850 edition 2.0
✔ Development of AI-based automatic substation
restoration system
Diffusion 2019–2030 ✔ Demonstration project for AI-based automatic
substation restoration system
✔ Design and implementation of intelligent
digital substation based on IEC 61850
process bus
✔ Expansion of substation automation system
+ substation asset management system
+ substation equipment monitoring and
diagnostics system + AI-based automatic
substation restoration system
✔ AI-based autonomous operation unmanned
substation

Total Number of Digital Substations in South Korea

80 800
Number of Digital Substation Installations

70 700

60 600

50 500

40 400

30 300

20 200

10 100

0 0
13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34
20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

Year
Number of Digital Substation Installations
Total Number of Digital Substations in South Korea

figure 1. The status and future plans for digital substation installations in South Korea.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 27

 RTU Automatic Substation Restoration System Automatic Substation
SCADA
(154-kV Substation) (Server) Restoration System (Client)

TCP/IP
Operator Console Real-Time Data Storage Memory Sector

Third-Party
Application
Server Internal • Operator HMI
AI/Expert

I/F
RTUs System Process
• Relay, CB
• Fault Location
Dynamic • Load Outage
AP/FEP/
Model Main • Fault Record
DB Server
RTUs Engine • Control Record
AI Search
DNP on • Topology and so on
Intelligence
TCP/IP
Process
• Fault Restoration
Sending Data
• Monitoring SCADA • AI Engine
Failure Control Decision
• Control DB Facility
• Measuring Judgment Strategy Record
• DB Engineering

*SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

• Restoration
*RTU: Remote Terminal Unit
Procedure Engineering
*DNP: Distributed Network Protocol Intelligence
Substation
*AP Server: Application Server DB DB
*FEP: Front-End Processor • System Engineering
*DB: Database

figure 2. The proposed architecture of the automatic substation restoration system.

IEC 61850 expects interoperability of various devices in a
substation, but it has been observed that complete interop-
erability cannot be guaranteed when devices from various
vendors are installed. To solve this, the development of the
second version of a client conformance testing system based
on IEC 61850 was started during the innovation stage, as seen
in Table 2. Procedures and systems for the test and verification
of the digital substation’s high-level system are expected to be
developed. This will support installation by verifying the in-
teroperability of IEDs in digital substations, which are being
installed more often in the future Korean power grid.
Development of an Automatic Substation
Restoration System
When a substation is tripped due to a fault, it needs to be
restored as soon as possible. Fault isolation and substation
restoration improve the reliability of a power system. As the
complexity of the modern grid increases, a new machine-
learning-based automatic substation restoration strategy will
replace the existing expert system-based algorithms and
reinforce system restoration. Once a fault occurs, the faulty
zone will be instantly identified, and a smart strategy for
restoring the system will be executed, which will complete
restoration in 1 min. By comparison, the average recovery
time, over the past 10 years, of the existing fault recovery
system has been 4.8 min. The automatic restoration system
should help avoid potential failures due to human errors
in the existing system. Figure 2 shows the architecture of
the automatic substation restoration system using artificial
intelligence (AI). This project will be completed in 2019,
and an automatic substation restoration system demonstra-
tion project in substations will be implemented from 2019
to 2020. Depending on the results of the project, the auto-
matic substation restoration system may be expanded to
other substations.
Advanced Metering Infrastructures
KEPCO has expanded metering infrastructure in substations
to provide situational awareness of the grid state and
measurements of data. These details inform power system
operations and enable the accurate analysis of the system
impacts due to the expanded adoption of DERs. Currently,
KEPCO uses PMUs in several HV substations (e.g., 765 and
345 kV) to monitor system status. In substations (e.g., 345
and 154 kV) without PMUs, a power quality meter is used for
system monitoring as well as data measurements. In 22.9-kV
substations, a power quality management system (PQMS)
monitors the state of the system as well as power quality.
The data from these advanced metering infrastructures
(AMIs), analytical models of generators, transmission lines,
and loads have been developed that improve the accuracy of
power system analysis.
Online Load Modeling
Because power system data from substations can validate
dynamic load models for power system stability analysis, a
load-modeling automation system (LMAS) was developed.
Figure 3 illustrates the overall data and information flow

28 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Substation 1
K-PQMS LMAS LMAS HMI
Load-
Real-Time Modeling
PQM Event Data
Server Data Results
Feeders
PQM TCP/IP TCP/IP
Protocol
Display System Condition
Display LMAS Results
Substation 2

Real-Time Power Quality Data Event Data

(Time, V, I, Harmonic) (Interruption, Sag Data)
PQM Apply Load Modeling Algorithm
Feeders Server
Interruption

Sag

figure 3. The data flow of the LMAS of KEPCO. PQM: power quality meter.

of the LMAS. Whenever an event (e.g., a transmission line Increment of DERs and the Emergence
fault) occurs in the power system, the metering infrastruc- of a Modular Green Substation
ture of each substation measures it so it is transferred to the The Korean government aims to increase the proportion of
central KEPCO PQMS (K-PQMS). The K-PQMS builds a RESs to more than 20% of total generation by 2030. This
database that includes time, voltage, current, frequency, would require approximately 60 GW of RE facilities (Table 3).
harmonics, and flicker data and then selects suitable data To meet this goal, a government policy that promises inter-
for load modeling based on the predefined decision crite- connection of RESs under 1 MW has been announced,
ria. The selected data are transferred to the LMAS server, the Guarantees Interconnection of Renewables policy.
and the load models for the corresponding buses are devel- A large capacity of renewables is expected to be con-
oped. This entire process is completed automatically, and nected in the Korean power grid shortly. Remotely
the results are displayed on the LMAS HMI. located DERs on long distribution lines, however, could
With the expansion of smart substations as well as cause power quality issues and adversely affect the volt-
AMIs to provide quality data on system states, more accu- age stability of the distribution network. Location and
rate and high-quality grid data will be obtained. Thus, a size uncertainties in future renewable installations also
plan was established to build a comprehensive online load- make it difficult to screen and confirm suitable locations
modeling infrastructure based on an LMAS, to include for interconnections and perform timely grid reinforce-
the following: ment studies. In addition, the high penetration of DERs
✔ event-driven online load modeling based on state esti- could threaten the frequency and voltage stability of the
mation data from the energy management system and entire power system. Installing modular substations is
data from substations one option to address these issues and increase DER
✔ load-model database construction and analysis for de- hosting capacity.
veloping the representative model by season and time
✔ a real-time validation of the representative models Modular Green Substation (G-Platform)
through continuous monitoring at the smart substation Modular or mobile substations are not new, but they have not
✔ the continuous validation and updating of the rep- yet been installed in the Republic of Korea. These substations
resentative load models
through big data analysis table 3. Propects for RE growth in the Republic of Korea (eighth electrical
and defining the repre- power supply and demand plan, December 2017).
sentative model by season 2017 2022 2026 2030
and time.
The aforementioned online load Generation 11.3 (9.7%) 23.3 (16.4%) 38.8 (25.4%) 58.5 (33.7%)
capacity (GW)
modeling should improve the reli-
ability of the results from the power Generation 34.4 (6.2%) 58.3 (9.6%) 89.5 (14.4%) 125.8 (20%)
amount (TWh)
system analysis.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 29

 Ecofriendly High-Efficiency
Compact GISs Transformer

ESS–Active Power Compensation

Charge Discharge
FACTS–ac Voltage
Regulation

PCS PMS
Charge

BMS Discharge STATCOM

Battery RES Power TCR TSC

BESS TSR
Compensated Power

figure 4. The configuration of the G-platform. PCS: power conditioning system; BESS: battery ESS; BMS: battery manage-
ment system; PMS: power management system; TCR: thyristor-controlled reactor; TSR: thyristor-switched reactor; TSC:
thyristor-switched capacitor; STATCOM: static synchronous compensator.

25 The design of G-platforms will be optimized to integrate

Overcapacity Substations
Expected Number of the

23 RESs and be environmentally friendly. The G-platform will

20
15
10
8 7
5
5 4
0
0~10 MW 10~20 MW 20~30 MW 30~40 MW 40 MW ~
The Amount of Excess Capacity of the Overcapacity Substations
figure 5. The preliminary study results for the future
renewable generation installation (August 2016). The excess
capacity of 76.5% of overcapacity substations is lower than
30 MW.
have been manufactured by several companies across the
globe. MarketsandMarkets, a company that provides mar-
ket analysis reports of segmentation, trends, share, and
forecasts, forecasted the growth of the modular substation
market from US$10.782 billion in 2015 to US$16.477
billion in 2020. While there was no historical need and
market for modular substations in the Republic of Korea,
the government has adopted this technology to achieve
its RE vision. Such substations are planned to intercon-
nect RESs, which are called modular green plat-
forms (G-platforms).
increase the capacity of the substation and also minimize
the adverse effects of intermittent RE and volatility through
communication between the G-platform and the RESs. Fig-
ure 4 illustrates the concept of the G-platform, which is in a
container and can be configured with a 170-kV GIS, a 23-kV
GIS, a 154-kV/22.9-kV transformer, and connections for an
energy storage system (ESS) and a flexible ac transmission
system (FACTS). ESSs and FACTSs can be installed as
needed to improve the power quality and stability of the grid
with a high penetration of DERs.
Capacity Determination of the G-Platform
Figure 5 shows results of a preliminary study conducted
in August 2016 for renewable generation installations that
were planned for 2018. Results showed 47 of the 698 sub-
stations with 154-kV/22.9-kV transformers were going to be
over capacity in 2018 due to RES connections. The study
results also showed that 97 substations would exceed 50%
of their capacity, of which 63 substations would exceed 70%.
The number of overcapacity substations would gradually
increase with the addition of RESs, as was anticipated in
the near future. Given the difficulties of increasing the host-
ing capacity of the RESs, the urgent need for G-platforms
became apparent. Figure 5 shows that under 30 MW of excess
capacity is available in 76.5% ^6(23 + 8 + 5) /47@ # 100%h of

30 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

the substations. Thus, installing
G-platforms with a 30-MW capa-
bility could provide a sufficient 22.9 kV Remotely Located RESs
margin to 76.5% of the substa-
tions with limited overcapacity. A Wind
154-kV
transformer capacity of 30 MVA Substation
in the G-platform was determined
PV
as meeting weight, economy, and
urgency requirements in the pre- Wind
liminary study.

Connecting the G-Platform

for RE Integration
Figure 6 is an example of a G-plat- Direct Connection to 154-kV
form installation that directly Transmission Line
connects an existing substation 154 kV
and remotely located small-scale
RE resources to a transmission 154-kV
line. Candidate locations for this Substation Wind PV
application are shown in Figure 7. 154-kV/22.9-kV
The advantage of this connection G-Platform Wind
method is reducing the need for
rights of way and cost savings
resulting from lower line installation figure 6. An example of the G-platform installation. PV: photovoltaic.

Jinan – Muju 154-kV

Transmission Line

G-Platform Geumneung
Substation

Jinan G-Platform
Substation

Geumneung–Sungju 154-kV
Transmission Line

Types of Distance From Capacity Types of Distance From Capacity

Renewable Substation (km) (kW) Renewable Substation (km) (kW)
A PV 4.3 6,000 A PV 6.9 100
B PV 7.5 3,000 B PV 7.5 100
C PV 7.1 2,000 C PV 7.1 100
D PV 23.1 2,000 D PV 6.1 100
E PV 4 8,000 E PV 8.1 200
F PV 6.7 2,000 F PV 15.2 19,500

figure 7. The candidate locations of the direct connection between a G-platform and a transmission line. PV: photovoltaic.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 31

 costs and decreased system losses. This connection would
improve the voltage stability in the distribution system.
The G-platform can also be interconnected in parallel with
existing substations, especially when the existing substation
does not have any additional space for expansion.
The advantages of the G-platform are summarized
as follows:
✔ The installation is fast, simple, and flexible because
of the modular design and the capacity upgrade, and
installation location change is easy.
✔ At strategic locations, it is expected to face minimal
public opposition because of its compact design.
✔ Because of the ESS, it can act as a virtual power plant and
minimize the adverse effects of variations in generation
output from renewables. This means that a DER with a
G-platform can be used as a dispatchable generator.
✔ In the event of a failure of the existing substation, it can
be installed quickly to prevent a long outage period.
KEPCO is developing a standard specification for the
installation of the G-platform and the technologies for

table 4. Existing and planned HVdc and FACTS substations in the Republic of Korea (as of March 2019).
Type Year Capacity Location Status
HVdc 1998 300 MW Jeju HVdc No. 1 Under refurbishment
2019
(refurbishment)
UPFC 2003 80 MVA Kangjin Substation In operation
STATCOM 2009 ±100 MVar Migum Substation In operation
SVC 2010 ±200 MVar Dongseoul Substation In operation
STATCOM 2010 ±50 MVar Sinjeju Substation In operation
STATCOM 2010 ±50 MVar Halla Substation In operation
SVC 2012 ±200 MVar Sinpaju Substation In operation
HVdc 2014 400 MW Jeju HVdc No. 2 In operation
STATCOM 2014 ±100 MVar Sinsungnam Substation In operation
STATCOM 2017 ±400 MVar Sinyoungju Substation In operation
STATCOM 2017 ±400 MVar Sinchungju Substation In operation
STATCOM 2018 ±200 MVar Sinbupyung Substation Under installation
SVC 2018 –225 ~ +675 MVar Sinjaechun Substation In operation
TCSC 2019 555 MVar × 2 Sinyoungju Substation Under installation
TCSC 2019 595 MVar × 2 Sinjaechun Substation Under installation
STATCOM 2018 ±300 MVar Godeok Substation Under installation
STATCOM 2019 ±300 MVar Singapyoung Substation Under planning
STATCOM 2022 ±300 MVar Uijeongbu Substation Under planning
STATCOM 2021 ±300 MVar Sinhanul Substation No. 1 Under planning
STATCOM 2022 ±300 MVar Sinhanul Substation No. 2 Under planning
HVdc 2019 1.5 GW Bukdangjin–Godeok No. 1 Under installation
HVdc 2020 200 MW Jeju HVdc No. 3 Under installation
HVdc 2021 1.5 GW Bukdangjin–Godeok No. 2 Under installation
HVdc 2021 4 GW Sinhanul–Singapyoung No. 1 Under planning
BTB 2021 200 MW Yangju Substation Under planning
HVdc 2022 4 GW Sinhanul–Singapyoung No. 2 Under planning
HVdc 2023 2 GW West Coast Offshore Wind Connection Under planning
TCSC: thyristor-controlled series capacitor; UPFC: unified power flow controller; SVC: static
VAR compensator

32 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

monitoring, diagnosis, and control for the G-platform. The
optimal capacity and type of the G-platform has also been
investigated to increase the hosting capacity of renewables.
The G-platform should play a key role in the future green
Korean power grid.
Toward an SF6 Gas-Free
Ecofriendly Substation
KEPCO is continuously striving to install ecofriendly sub-
station equipment and develop advanced testing and opera-
tional technologies. As part of this effort, HV vacuum CBs
(VCBs) have been developed by Korean CB manufacturers
since 2016 and will be deployed in 2021. CB interrupting
capabilities will be rated 50 kA, and the rated steady-state
current will be 3,150 A. Real-time monitoring of the with-
stand voltage and the mechanical and electrical character-
istics of CBs will be implemented to ensure their reliable
condition and to predict breakdowns. By not using SF6 in
CBs, the project aims to reduce use of greenhouse gases
by an equivalent of 300,000 metric tons of CO2 from 2021
through 2030.
An SF6-free ecofriendly GIS with a fluoronitrile/CO2
mixture and an alternative GIS with dry air have been under
development since 2017, including maintenance technologies
and CBs. KEPCO established the standard specification for
an ecofriendly GIS in 2018; the pilot installation of a 170-kV
GIS will begin in 2019 and will be used in new substations by
2021. The goal is to reduce the use of greenhouse gases by an
equivalent of 120,000 metric tons of CO2 from 2021 through
2030 by not using SF6 in GISs. The 23-kV GISs, which have
Metropolitan Area
(Load Center) Singapyoung
Uijeongbu
Seoinchon C/C Yangju Miguem
Dongseoul
Sinsungnam
Sininchon C/C
Sinsiheung
Power Plant
Substation Without FACTS
Substation With FACTS
Power Flow Direction
BTB
figure 8. Substations in the metropolitan area and the location of the BTB HVdc. C/C: combined cycle.
july/august 2019
been used for more than 20 years in the Korean electric power
grid, are being replaced by GISs with dry air and SISs. Adopt-
ing the new CB and GIS technologies will also improve reli-
ability performance. When an ecofriendly VCB and GIS are
successfully developed, more than 100 HV VCBs and GISs
per year will be installed in the Korean power grid, either as
new or replacement installations.
Power Electronics-Based Substation
The development of power electronics-based substations (e.g.,
HVdc and FACTS) has increased significantly during the past
few decades. (Table 4 shows existing and planned HVdc and
FACTS substations in the Republic of Korea.) Most HVdc
ties connect two distinct areas for integrating remote genera-
tion, interconnecting grids, and long-distance power trans-
mission. Current HVdc projects in Korea have been chosen as
an alternative to the expansion of the 765-kV ac transmission
system. Public opposition to 765-kV tower construction has
resulted in new HVdc plans for interconnecting the east coast
to the west metropolitan load center because of the relatively
smaller size of the HVdc transmission facilities and fewer
concerns regarding the health effects of HV electromagnetic
waves. Because HVdc and FACTS can provide better control-
lability of power flow, the installation of HVdc and FACTSs
will improve the stability and security of the power system.
A voltage-sourced back-to-back (BTB) HVdc is planned at
the Yangju substation to control power flows and reduce the
short circuit current in the Seoul metropolitan area, which is
served by a ring network as shown in Figure 8. Here the level
of the short circuit increases as the power system is reinforced
Power Plant
Major Loads
765-kV Line
345-kV Line
ieee power & energy magazine 33
 with ac facilities and the interrupt capacity of the CBs in the
metropolitan area would need to be increased. The replace-
ment of CBs is challenging due to cost considerations and
insufficient installation space at existing substations. In addi-
tion, it is difficult to replace several CBs at the same time,
which may also interfere with existing system protection coor-
dination. HVdc applications reduce the short circuit capacity
and control both the active and reactive power (especially
using voltage source converters) that improves the stability
and security performance of the entire power system.
Controlling power flow in an ac power system is difficult,
but it is easily achievable in a dc system. Power electronics-
based substations can be called smart substations. HVdc
and FACTS equipment, which has high control bandwidth,
can provide grid services, such as voltage regulation, black
start, special protection schemes (SPSs), virtual inertia sup-
port, and primary and secondary frequency regulation. For
example, this type of substation might prevent a blackout
through coordinated control using SPSs. A sudden power
transfer increase achieved through an SPS is a key require-
ment of the east-metropolitan interconnection HVdc project
that reduces the number of required generator trips upon
occurrence of a key N – 1 contingency (a fault on an exist-
ing 765-kV transmission line). The controllability of power
electronics-based substations increases the efficiency and
reliability of the overall power system and plays a key role in
the future power system.
The Vision for the Future Smart and
Green Substations and the Smart Grid
A smart and green power grid may be defined as efficient,
reliable, flexible, and resilient with a high integration of
DERs; these smart and green substations will be crucial in
addressing the challenges presented by future changes to the
power system. The functionalities and benefits of smart and
green substations are as follows:
✔ easier implementation, installation, maintenance, and
upgrades, e.g., a modular substation
✔ real-time data acquisition and analysis, e.g., online
load modeling, behind-the-meter forecasting, and active
network management
✔ smart control and protection, e.g., fast SPS using
HVdc, a modular substation with an ESS, substations
with FACTSs, and self-healing (automatic substation
restoration system)
✔ enhancing the efficiency of the entire power grid, e.g.,
power flow control of HVdc and optimal grid plan-
ning and grid operation
✔ an ecofriendly design and construction, e.g., SF6-gas-
free substations.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Korea Electric Power
Corporation (grant R17XA05-4). This work was also
supported by the “Human Resources Program in Energy
34 ieee power & energy magazine
Technology” of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology
Evaluation and Planning, granted financial resource from
the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy, the Republic of
Korea (20194030202420).
For Further Reading
Korea Electric Power Statistics Information System. Accessed
on: May 3, 2019. [Online]. Available: http://epsis.kpx.or
.kr/epsisnew/selectEkesKepChart.do?menuId=010100&
locale=eng
S. Kim et al., “Improvement in policy and proactive in-
terconnection procedure for renewable energy expansion in
South Korea,” Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., vol. 98,
pp. 150–162, Dec. 2018.
“Modular Substation Market by Application (Power Utili-
ties, Commercial, Industrial), Voltage, Type (Trailer Mount-
ed & Fixed), Insulation (Air-Insulated & Gas-Insulated), &
by Region–Global Trends and Forecast to 2020,” Market-
sandMarkets, Pune, India, 2015. [Online]. Available: https://
www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/modular-
substation-market-403992.html
J. D. McDonald, “Substations,” in Electric Power En-
gineering Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2012, ch.  5.
[Online]. Available: http://www.pce-fet.com/common/
library/books/78/2784_ElectricPowerSubstationsEngineer
ing.pdf
J. D. McDonald, “Substation automation: IED integration
and availability of information,” IEEE Power Energy Mag.,
vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 22–31, Mar./Apr. 2003
S. Kim et al., “Expanding power systems in the Re-
public of Korea,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 17, no. 3,
pp. 61–72, May/June 2019.
P. Mohapatra, F. Ainslie, and C. McTaggart, “FITNESS–
Future intelligent transmission network substation,” PAC-
world, Dec. 2016. [Online]. Available: http://www.pacw.org/
issue/december_2016_issue/fitness/fitness_future_intelligent_
transmission_network_substation.html
Biographies
Heejin Kim is with Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
Jae-Kyeong Kim is with Korea Electrotechnology Re-
search Institute, Uiwang, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea.
Jiyoung Song is with KEPCO Research Institute, Dae-
jeon, Republic of Korea.
Jaegul Lee is with KEPCO Research Institute, Daejeon,
Republic of Korea.
Kisun Han is with KEPCO Research Institute, Daejeon,
Republic of Korea.
Jeonghoon Shin is with KEPCO Research Institute,
Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
Taekyun Kim is with KEPCO Research Institute, Dae-
jeon, Republic of Korea.
Kyeon Hur is with Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
p&e
july/august 2019
 SAN DIEGO GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY
Synchronous
Condenser
Applications
C
CALIFORNIA HAS A MANDATED RENEWABLES PORT-
folio Standard (RPS) requiring that 33% of electricity retail
Under sales be served by renewable energy resources by 2020, 60% by
2030, and 100% by 2045. Over the last 10 years, wind and solar
Significant Resource have become the dominant renewable resources in California,
with solar predominating in the last five years. Figure 1 shows
Portfolio Changes the renewable generation growth trend from 1983 to 2018. Com-
bined with the retirements of fossil fuel and nuclear generation,
the California grid is experiencing the loss of inertial kinetic

By George Zhou, David Wang, Adham Atallah,

Frank McElvain, Ram Nath, John Jontry,
Christopher Bolton, Huang Lin, and Andreas Haselbauer
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2909005
Date of publication: 18 June 2019

july/august 2019 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE ieee power & energy magazine 35

 energy and reactive power resources, which presents a chal-
lenge to maintaining system reliability and stability.
This article illustrates how a solution technology using syn-
chronous condensers was selected to mitigate these combined
system reliability threats and what technical studies should be
conducted for its deployment. Synchronous condenser solu-
tions have recently been reintroduced to support transmission
systems by offering additional reactive power control, short
circuit current, and inertial kinetic energy. Because converter-
based renewable power generation does not contribute mate-
rial short circuit current to the transmission network, the
installation of stand-alone synchronous condensers is becom-
ing necessary when an increase in the strength of the trans-
mission grid is required. Modern synchronous condensers
are equipped with advanced excitation systems and have high
reliability and low losses.
Overview of System Characteristics
The San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDG&E) serves
approximately 5,000 MW of load in the southwestern cor-
ner of the United States in the Western Interconnection. As
shown by the power flow patterns in Figure 2, the load is
concentrated along the Pacific coast. The demand in this
area was formerly supplied mainly by “in Basin” genera-
tion located within SDG&E’s load center. Prior to 2009, this
area included approximately 4,500 MW of dispatchable gen-
eration and was characterized by the following generation
resource mix:
✔ two large gas-fired thermal power plants
✔ a large nuclear power plant
✔ small conventional generation facilities
✔ various peaking units totaling roughly 600 MW.
The balance of demand was supplied through a 500-kV
line from the east and five 230-kV lines from the north. During
summer peaks, SDG&E typically experienced a 1,200-MW
flow from the north and 1,600 MW from the east. Under that
prior system load and resource profile, the SDG&E trans-
mission system reliably served 3.5 million customers.
For years, a major challenge to system planners was ensur-
ing that the transmission system could reliably transfer the
output of the company’s generating resources to serve exist-
ing and future loads. In many instances, system constraints
were transmission thermal capacities and acceptable steady-
state voltage performance during peak load conditions. This
operating scenario is becoming more challenging with the
changing resource portfolio.
Problem Statement
In the last decade, some major generation portfolio changes
occurred within and around SDG&E’s operating territory.
✔ Thermal generation was replaced by renewable gen-
eration. Approximately 2,000 MW of large gas-fired

100,000 Estimate
BTM Solar
90,000 Solar 14% BTM* Solar
Wind 13,618
80,000
Geothermal
70,000 Small Hydro Solar
31% 30,262
Biomass
60,000
(GWh)

50,000

40,000 Wind
29%
27,838
30,000

20,000 14% Geothermal

13,249
10,000 4% Small Hydro
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 8% 4,347
0 Biomass
1983 8,044
2002 2006 2011 2015 2018
First California RPS Increased RPS RPS RPS
RPS Established to 20% by 2010 Increased Increased Increased
(20% by 2017) CSI Initiated to 33% to 50% to 60%
Global Warming by 2020 by 2030 by 2030
Solutions Act
of 2006

figure 1. California renewable generation by resource type. BTM: behind the meter; CSI: California Solar Initiative.
(Source: California Energy Commission; used with permission.)

36 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 TB

july/august 2019
MAR
CP
230-kV Flow Path to North
LNL
New Synchronous
S
Condenser/SVC
S
New Phase-Shifting

600
TA
Transformer

1,200
S
G New Gas-Fired Gen
SO G
Retired
2,200 (1,100/–800) S
SA G Retired Thermal Gen

Typical Heavy Summer Peak

EA Flows in the Past
Retiring G ES
Recent Heavy Summer Peak
946 (469/–112) G Added 565 (306/–120) Flows

500-kV Substations and Lines

AR
Getting
Congested 230-kV Substations and Lines
Load Center
Area (Orange) PQ
SX Underlining System
SCR Lines Under Constructions
S To EC
(Neighboring
MS OCO System)
Above 2,700 Renewable
OT Getting ML Resource
Congested Around 1,600 Zone (Green)
SG
BUE IV From
G OM
BB Added 603 (306/–122), Neighboring
Note: Map not to scale. S ECO System
Underlining system not G 309 (156/–138)
Retired To ROA
shown in this map. 689 (299/–118) To TJI (Neighboring System) MEXICO
(Neighboring System)

figure 2. A conceptual illustration of system power flow patterns and reactive source shift. Gen: generator.

ieee power & energy magazine

37
 The inertia is inherent in a synchronous condenser
because it is a synchronous rotating machine operating
as a motor with no mechanical load.
thermal plants in the coastal load center area were re-
tired, and the replacement generation is fundamental-
ly very different. It is more decentralized, is variable
and nondispatchable, and has much smaller long- and
short-term reactive power capabilities.
✔ The generation resource mix shift resulted in much
higher power flows from the east and depressed sys-
tem voltages in the load center, especially during
peak load conditions. The majority of new resource
installations are large solar and wind farms in the area
around EC and IV (Figure 2, green oval).
✔ Shutting down 2,200 MW of the San Onofre Nuclear
Generating Station (SONGS) further worsened the
SDG&E’s northern voltage profile. Without SONGS,
overall transmission imports and flows increased, sys-
tem inertia was reduced, and dynamic reactive power
support with a range of 1,100/–800 Mvar was lost.
✔ The nature of renewable resources further challeng-
es the system with high output during low-demand
periods. This produces some high-voltage pockets
during periods when dispatchable generation is of-
ten not available to provide operating flexibility and
voltage control.
For years, SDG&E has assessed the planning and operation
of its power grid based on 1) the risk of losing its nuclear power
plant and the retirement of old thermal power plants, 2) system
needs in meeting reliability challenges under California’s RPS
goal, and 3) the effects of electric power industry technology
development. SDG&E has also been working with the Califor-
nia Independent System Operator (CAISO) and neighboring
transmission owners to assess scenarios and alternatives for
meeting system requirements in various regional assessments.
All of these technical assessments consistently illustrate the
need for additional reactive power resources.
Needs Assessment
Detrimental Impact of
SONGS Decommissioning
SONGS, the 2,200-MW and 1,100/–800-Mvar nuclear power
plant, was electrically located at a critical point between the
SDG&E bulk transmission system and its northern neighbor-
ing system. An unexpected early shutdown of the plant cre-
ated capacity shortfalls for meeting load requirements, and
the huge loss of dynamic reactive resource support caused
voltage criteria violations in the highly populated area in the
northern neighboring system.
38 ieee power & energy magazine
Additionally, power no longer flowed from SDG&E’s
northern interties into its system. Instead, power flowed
from SDG&E’s eastern interties, through the San Diego
basin, and then northward across SDG&E’s northern inter-
ties. This flow pattern caused more losses than previous flow
patterns and further depressed the SDG&E voltage profile,
especially in the northern portion of its system.
Various Technologies Considered
and the Preferred Option
Long-term transmission planning assessments consistently
identified the need for additional reactive sources with the
following characteristics:
✔ output ranges to inject reactive power during peak
load hours and to absorb it during light load hours
✔ provision of smooth voltage profiles to regulate volt-
age in response to changing outputs of variable energy
resources.
With these requirements, SDG&E narrowed down its
product/technology search to dynamic reactive resources to
be deployed in several critical system locations. The tech-
nologies considered include static var compensators (SVCs),
static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs), and syn-
chronous condensers.
SDG&E operates its grid with a ±100-Mvar, three-level
STATCOM, which had cooling system issues and resulted
in SDG&E discrediting, to some extent, the use of this tech-
nology for needed future system improvements. There were
space limitations at the substations being considered for new
dynamic reactive resources, which was a critical and deter-
mining factor for selecting the technology for dynamic reac-
tive resources. Because synchronous condensers require
less space, they were selected as the preferred technology
over SVCs, which possibly require harmonic filter circuits.
Although utility-scale solar installations have the ability to
provide Mvar support, they were deemed unable to meet the
needs of the transmission system for this study.
Another important factor in selecting synchronous con-
densers was the addition of inertia to help maintain sys-
tem rotor angle and frequency stability, which exhibited
degraded performance as a result of the retirement of con-
ventional generation power plants. The inertia is inherent in
a synchronous condenser because it is a synchronous rotat-
ing machine operating as a motor with no mechanical load.
SDG&E submitted a proposal in CAISO’s 2010–2011
annual grid-planning cycle to add several dynamic reactive
devices throughout its bulk transmission system. CAISO
july/august 2019
approved those projects several planning cycles later, when
the system evolved to the worst-case scenarios showing the
greatest need for improvements. SDG&E then installed syn-
chronous condensers at four existing substations by the end
of 2018. After the synchronous condenser technology was
selected to address the system needs, various technical stud-
ies were completed to verify the designs and confirm the sys-
tem performance with more detailed implementation stud-
ies. The following section describes those required studies in
detail. A close collaboration between SDG&E and Siemens
at an early stage was essential to optimizing the synchro-
nous condenser system designs (i.e., sizing, footprint, and
so on) to meet all requirements.
Technical Studies
Technical studies included power flow, transients, ground-
ing, insulation coordination, protection coordination, and
dynamic performance. Although these studies are based on
the synchronous condenser applications to SDG&E’s system,
they are generally applicable to synchronous condensers or
other transmission equipment additions to any transmission
systems as well.
Power Flow Study
Numerous power flow studies had been performed to iden-
tify the need for reactive resources as well as their most
effective locations and capacities for ensuring system reli-
ability. The studies described here optimize design param-
eters and confirm initial conclusions. Each synchronous
condenser installation comprises a synchronous generator,
a step-up transformer, auxiliary systems, and an excitation
system. Synchronous condensers mainly provide variable
reactive power to support transmission system voltages dur-
ing events that could otherwise create unacceptably high or
low voltages.
The objective of these studies was to verify the rating of
the equipment deployed with each synchronous condenser
installation. The evaluations included design requirements
on step-up transformers and how the synchronous condenser
performed in various system conditions, including auxiliary
load voltages.
A synchronous condenser’s step-up transformer has two
design factors that need to be addressed. First, the trans-
former needs to be adequately sized to provide the required
reactive power range at the connection point. Second, the
transformer’s impedance can affect winding losses, voltage
regulation, and short circuit contributions to the system and
the synchronous condenser terminal. An optimization of the
step-up transformer impedance might be needed to ensure
that the synchronous condenser provides sufficient reactive
support to the system under a wide variety of conditions.
An example resulting from such an investigation is shown
in Figure 3. The letters show grid requirements that must
be met by the synchronous condenser installation. Here, the
synchronous condenser fulfills the required reactive power
range at the 230-kV transmission connection point with

265 Synchronous Condenser Inductive Capability

Synchronous Condenser Capacitive Capability
260
Grid Requirements
255
R F E L
250
245
M
240 D

235
VHV (kV)

230 Q A G H I J K N
225
220
215
210
PB C O
205
200
195
–200 –175 –150 –125 –100 –75 –50 –25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
QHV (Mvar)

figure 3. The transmission network voltage as a function of reactive power capability. The value VHV represents
the 230-kV system voltage, and QHV represents the Mvar injected/withdrawn on the high side of the synchronous
condenser transformer.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 39

 For the short circuit current to be interrupted
and the breaker contacts opened, the short circuit
current must experience a zero-crossing.
some margin to allow for unstudied conditions. The identi-
fied 230-kV operating region reflects the result of numer-
ous power flow simulations. The figure shows that the grid
requirements can be met while respecting the Mvar capabil-
ity of the synchronous condenser and the acceptable voltage
range at the machine’s terminals in relation to the voltage at
the transmission system. The machine terminal voltage limit
reflects physical constraints on the synchronous condenser,
step-up transformer, and the auxiliary system.
As indicated by the letters in Figure 3, a list of operating
points is specified to determine the synchronous condenser
and step-up transformer design. For each operating point, the
following results were reported for a complete summary of
the installation operation under different conditions:
✔ transmission-system-side voltage
✔ transmission-system-side reactive power
✔ transmission-system-side current
✔ synchronous-machine-side voltage
✔ synchronous-machine-side reactive power
✔ synchronous-machine-side current
✔ auxiliary system busbar(s) voltages.
Transient Study
The installation of a synchronous condenser introduces a
big change in operating conditions and equipment stresses.
Higher fault levels and the corresponding interrupt capabil-
ity of high-voltage circuit breakers need to be investigated.
Studies need to fully consider transient conditions to verify
that the circuit breakers will be capable of performing their
intended roles without surpassing acceptable operating limits.
For a projected synchronous condenser installation, two
transient phenomena are investigated:
✔ machine-fed short circuit current dc component
✔ transient recovery voltage (TRV).
In most cases, this circuit breaker would be on the high-
voltage side of the synchronous-machine step-up transformer.
For both transient phenomena, the investigations were con-
ducted in the electromagnetic transient domain. The electrical
network in the vicinity of the synchronous condenser instal-
lation was modeled in detail to capture the system’s physical
behavior and assess stresses on substation components, espe-
cially the interrupting capabilities of circuit breakers.
Synchronous-Machine-Fed Short Circuit
Current dc Component
Although any short circuit current might have a high dc off-
set, synchronous-machine-fed faults typically have a low
40 ieee power & energy magazine
damping ratio that could lead to delayed zero-crossings of
the short circuit current. The electrical network between
the short circuit source (the synchronous machine, which is
characterized by a low subtransient time constant) and the
interrupting device is usually composed of a step-up trans-
former and short-length cables. This arrangement results in
a very high reactance-to-resistance (X-to-R) ratio, leading to
delayed zero-crossing.
For the short circuit current to be interrupted and the
breaker contacts opened, the short circuit current must
experience a zero-crossing. If the first zero-crossing takes
place beyond the breaker’s interrupting window, it will fail
to interrupt the short circuit current and might be physically
damaged due to energy buildup while it is arcing. The arc-
ing characteristics of a circuit breaker, which are manufac-
turers’ proprietary information, also need to be considered
in transient studies because the arc resistance could have a
significant impact on the damping of the short circuit current
dc component.
Transient Recovery Voltage
Recovery voltage appears across the terminals of a pole of a
circuit breaker after interruption. This voltage may be con-
sidered in two successive time intervals: one during which
a transient voltage exists (i.e., TRV), followed by a second
interval during which only a power frequency voltage exists.
The TRV wave shape is determined by the operating
point of the electrical network surrounding the circuit
breaker prior to interruption and the electrical charac-
teristics of that network. Because TRV is a determining
parameter for successful current interruption, breakers are
normally type-tested in a laboratory to withstand a stan-
dardized TRV.
Standardized TRVs are fixed in international standards
such as IEC Standard 62271-100, IEEE Standard C37.04,
ANSI Standard C37.06, or IEEE Standard C37.09. This
standardized TRV is usually determined by the maximum
allowed rate of rise of recovery voltage and a maximum
crest voltage.
Circuit breaker ratings are defined within TRV envelopes
that specify a maximum allowable TRV. Parameters of the
envelope are adjusted as a function of the interrupted short
circuit current. If a breaker’s TRV rating is exceeded, reigni-
tion in the breaker chamber can lead to permanent damage
to the breaker and nearby equipment.
For TRV investigations, all network details surrounding
the breaker being studied should be modeled. In particular,
july/august 2019
 Because TRV is a determining parameter for successful
current interruption, breakers are normally type-tested
in a laboratory to withstand a standardized TRV.

any transformer stray, circuit breaker grading, or voltage
transformer capacitance will have a great influence on con-
taining the TRV within the breaker’s rated envelope.
Figure 4(a) illustrates the high-frequency voltage oscil-
lations, depicted in the blue trace, resulting from the natural
frequency of the network between the breaker and fault loca-
tion. The high natural frequency from low shunt capacitance
causes the recovery voltage to exceed the breaker enve-
lope, depicted in the orange trace. The envelope represents
the maximum allowable TRV the circuit breaker is able to
withstand. The circuit-breaker-withstanding envelope is set
according to standardized testing and characterized by a
first period of higher rate of rise and a second period of lower
rate of rise. Adding shunt capacitance of 100 nF reduces the
frequency oscillations drastically, as shown in Figure 4(b),
where the recovery voltage is within the breaker envelope.
The design conclusions and recommendations that result
from a grounding system study include the following:
✔ thermal design
• determination of the required cross sections for differ-
ent grounding components (conductors, electrodes,
rods, and foundation electrodes)
• general conductor material, considering temperature,
mechanical stresses, and corrosion
✔ ground grid layout
• direction for a type of meshed earth grid
• recommended foundation ground electrodes
• recommended grounding separation or interconnection.
Insulation Coordination Study
Insulation coordination studies determine whether equip-
ment insulation will be able to withstand potential transient

Grounding Study
High-voltage installations require grounding systems to pro-
tect human life against excessive touch voltages and keep 0
transferred potential to a minimum. To minimize potentially –100
dangerous step and touch voltages, substation grounding
Voltage (kV)

–200
systems need to have resistances as low as possible. Step and
–300
touch voltages are two key quantities in grounding studies.
Step voltage is the difference in surface potential that could –400 TRV Voltage in kV
be experienced by a person striding 1 m while not contact- –500 Breaker Envelope in kV
ing any grounded object. Touch voltage is the potential dif- –600
ference between a ground grid’s ground potential rise and a (a)
surface potential where a person is standing with a hand in 0
contact with a grounded structure.
–100
Synchronous condensers, like any new fault current source,
Voltage (kV)

can adversely impact a substation’s grounding system. IEEE –200

Standard 80-2013 (IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substa- –300
tion Grounding) is the definitive standard for evaluating all –400
aspects of grounding systems. Key parameters in perform- –500
ing grounding evaluations include maximum earth fault cur-
–600
rents and fault durations at various voltage levels.
8

82

84

86

88

92

94
00

00

Another important factor for an extended grounding sys-

00

00

00

00

00

00
0.

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

tem is soil resistivity. For soil at greater depths, special mea-
surements are necessary to identify its structure.
All parts of the fault current return within the ground-
ing system (i.e., transformer neutrals, earth wire, and cable
sheaths) must be considered, including the return fault
current considered for the design of the grounding system
of the high-voltage station. Hence, determination of the
resulting current flowing into the earth electrodes is an
important task.
Time (s)
(b)
figure 4. The TRV simulation results with different net-
work capacitances. (a) The high-frequency voltage oscilla-
tions, depicted in the blue trace, resulting from the natural
frequency of the network between the breaker and fault
location. (b) Adding shunt capacitance of 100 nF reduces
the frequency oscillations drastically.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 41

 To minimize potentially dangerous step and touch voltages,
substation grounding systems need to have resistances
as low as possible.

overvoltages caused by lightning or switching surges. This
evaluation focuses on overvoltage protection provided by
substation equipment surge arresters.
At a substation where a new synchronous condenser is
installed, the following components are some of the new
equipment typically required for interconnection to the
power grid:
✔ generator step-up (GSU) transformer
✔ extra-high-voltage underground cable
✔ gas insulated substation (GIS).
Two types of substation configurations are shown in
Figure 5, showing how a lightning surge travels from an
overhead line to the GSU and through substation equip-
ment. In the example that follows, surge arresters exist at
the point of interconnection near major equipment to pro-
vide protection against anticipated overvoltages. Some of
these locations include
✔ cable entrance
✔ GSU terminal
✔ overhead line entrance (if needed; not shown in Figure 5)
✔ GIS entrance (if needed; not shown in Figure 5).
The first step in an insulation coordination study involves
the selection of minimum surge arrester ratings that effec-
tively protect nearby equipment. The selection is based on
✔ maximum continuous overvoltage
✔ expected transient overvoltages and their duration.
The next steps for an insulation coordination study con-
sist of
✔ the selection of reliability criteria
✔ the determination of equipment voltage stresses
✔ the comparison of voltage stress with insulation strength.
An acceptable safety margin for insulation levels is based
on either IEEE Standard 1313.2 (IEEE Standard 1313.2-1999,
IEEE Guide for the Application of Insulation Coordination) or
the individual utility’s standard. The minimum safety margin
recommended by SDG&E standards is 20% of the required
basic insulation level (BIL) (SDG&E Standard SE-3802, Sub-
station Arrester Selection Requirements, 15 October 2013).
A transient model is developed to capture a conceptual
lightning strike’s path or switching surges through substation

Lightning Surge

Overhead Bus

Overhead Line Outdoor

AIS GSU
Surge
Arrester
Ground Cable

(a)

Lightning Surge Overhead Bus

Cable
Overhead Line Riser
Surge Pole
Arrester Indoor GIS GSU
Surge
Arrester

Ground Cable Cable

(b)

figure 5. (a) Lightning surges travel to the GSU from the overhead line and cable connection. (b) Lightning surges travel
to the GSU from the overhead line, cable, GIS, and cable connection. AIS: air insulated substation.

42 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

equipment. This model includes a detailed substation represen-
tation with transmission lines emanating from the substation.
In general, switching surges are not considered to be a
design concern for nominal operating voltages up to 230 kV;
therefore, insulation coordination studies for 230-kV sub-
stations focus only on the transient overvoltages caused by
lightning surges. On the other hand, for 345-kV and higher-
voltage substations, both lightning and switching surges are
considered for overvoltage evaluations.
Lightning Overvoltages
Study scenarios used in lightning overvoltage simulations
Figure 7 presents the voltage waveforms at the GSU high-
voltage terminal for the GSU energization.
Very-Fast Transient Overvoltages
The switching of GIS breakers and disconnects can produce
very-fast transient (VFT) phenomena in the gas insulated
600
500
400

V_GSU2 (kV)
300
assume that lightning strikes an overhead line conductor
200
near a substation fence and that it travels to the GSU through
100
a cable. The resulting transient overvoltages at the GSU ter-
0
minal and at the cable termination are evaluated and com-
pared with the lightning impulse BIL of the GSU and the –100
cable to determine insulation adequacy. –200

06

07

08

09

1
These evaluations are made for several network configu-

05

06

07

08

09

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
rations. More circuits at a substation mean more paths along Time (ms)
which a lightning surge can travel and dissipate. Therefore, (a)
GSU terminal transient overvoltages are expected to decrease 600
as more circuits are connected and in service at a particular
V_GIS_Cable_GSU2 (kV)

500
substation. Maximum transient overvoltages are anticipated
400
for configurations with fewer circuits connected.
300
As shown in Figure 6, the simulation results indicate
200
the maximum phase-to-ground voltage at the GIS-to-cable
100
interface (576-kV peak) and at GSU2 (533-kV peak) for the
230-kV system. Lighting overvoltage studies also determine 0
the energy discharged in arresters and compare it with the –100
energy-discharge capability of the arrester to confirm that –200
5

06

07

08

09

1
the arrester location and rating are adequate to mitigate
05

06

07

08

09

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
expected transient overvoltages. Time (ms)
(b)
Switching Overvoltages
Switching overvoltages become important for systems whose figure 6. The overvoltages at the (a) GSU2 terminal (V_
nominal system voltage is 345 kV or higher. Simulations of GUS2) and (b) GIS-cable interface (V_GIS Cable_GSU2).
GSU energization quantifies the risk of system overvoltages
for the system configuration with the selected synchronous
condenser. The switching studies can be performed for two V GSU1 HV
operating scenarios: 1.75
1.50
1) no residual flux in the transformer windings 1.25
2) residual flux in the transformer windings. 1
0.75
Simulations without models of residual flux determine the 0.50
0.25
(p.u.)

maximum overvoltage at the GSU terminals and are used to 0

–0.25
apply the safety margin to the transformer’s basic switching –0.50
impulse level. –0.75
–1
The residual flux scenarios are simulated to determine –1.25
–1.5
the maximum transient voltage dip. The voltage perfor- –1.75
mance following a transformer energization can be evalu- 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
ated against required reliability standards such as North Time (s)
American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Standard Phase A Phase B Phase C
TPL-001_WECC_CRT-2.1 (System Performance Criterion
Under Normal Conditions, Following Loss of a Single BES figure 7. The phase-to-ground voltage profile at the GSU1
Element, and Following Extreme BES Events, 1 April 2012). terminal for GSU1 energization.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 43

 The installation of any new equipment in a power system
requires either revising the existing protection system
settings or defining new ones.

substation. VFT formation and propagation throughout a erly designed and parameterized prevents equipment failures
GIS produces internal and external overvoltages. VFT under normal and abnormal operating conditions. It discon-
overvoltages generally have a very short rise time, in the nects affected equipment during fault conditions without com-
range of 4–100 ns, and are normally followed by oscil- promising the overall operation of the system. This is realized
lations having frequencies in the range between 0.1 and through a protection coordination study, which includes
50 MHz, which is the highest frequency range of transients ✔ selecting and coordinating the protective functions
in power systems. within the protective device
GIS breaker and disconnect switching actions can be ✔ selecting and coordinating the protective functions
simulated to determine the internal overvoltages between with the equipment to be protected for expected net-
the GIS phase conductor and the enclosure. The simulations work configurations
also show phase-to-ground voltages at other equipment con- ✔ determining main and back-up protection settings
nected to the GIS, such as the cables. The estimated over- ✔ applying communication procedures among the pro-
voltages from the worst-case event are compared with the tective devices to have fast clearing times with high
equipment BIL. The study results confirm whether the loca- selectivity
tion and rating of the surge arresters planned for the substa- ✔ tuning the instrumentation transformers to the protec-
tion provide adequate safety margins. Additional arresters tive device requirements.
can be deployed in case inadequate margins are observed. For a synchronous condenser installation, the defined
protection concept shall provide an overlaying protection
Protection Relay Coordination Study for each equipment in the installation and overlapping pro-
The installation of any new equipment in a power system tection at the interfaces to eliminate any blind spots in the
requires either revising the existing protection system set- protection system.
tings or defining new ones. A protection system that is prop- The protection philosophy defines the following protec-
tion zones:
✔ at the interface with the public network
table 1. Synchronous condenser activated ✔ of the step-up transformer
protection functions. ✔ of the synchronous condenser
✔ of the machine-transformer unit block.
Protection Function Description ANSI Code
Additional protection also considers the installation’s
Overcurrent protection 51 auxiliaries. The summary of the activated functions for
Overcurrent protection with direction 67 the two main components in the installation, that is, the
Voltage restraint overcurrent protection 51V synchronous condenser and the step-up transformer, are
Negative sequence protection 46 shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The parameter-
ization of those protection functions shall consider two
Differential protection 87G
major aspects:
Underexcitation (loss-of-field) protection 40
✔ protection of the equipment from physical damage,
Reverse power protection 32R specifically during abnormal or fault conditions
Underimpedance protection 21 ✔ meeting the system operator or grid code requirements.
Undervoltage protection 27 The protection settings for the synchronous con-
Overvoltage protection 59 denser installation must be coordinated for all equip-
ment, including the machine controller (i.e., excitation
Frequency protection 81
system), without jeopardizing compliance with the grid
Overexcitation protection 24 code requirements.
90% stator earth fault protection 59N
100% stator earth fault protection 65G Dynamic Study
Inadvertent energization protection 50 The installation of a synchronous condenser will result in
changes of system operating conditions that will impact
Fuse failure monitor 60
system dynamic performance, which must meet required

44 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Dynamic performance studies should be undertaken
to assess the condenser response and its effect on the
transient stability performance of the system.

reliability criteria. Dynamic performance studies should be
undertaken to assess the condenser response and its effect on
the transient stability performance of the system.
Dynamic Performance Requirements
The following is a summary of these requirements.
✔ Voltage ride-through requirements: The synchronous
condensers must be able to remain connected and in
service during any of the short-term excursions in
voltage in accordance with requirements by the West-
ern Electricity Coordinating Council and NERC. In
the worst low-voltage scenario, when the voltage is at
zero for nine cycles, the synchronous condenser must
remain connected to the network.
✔ Voltage recovery requirements: One of the primary
requirements from SDG&E is that the synchronous
condenser, exciter, and regulator shall be coordinated
to restore the controlled voltage to within ±5% of the
set voltage within 1 s after either fault removal or line
energization. The maximum voltage overshoot during
a rapid change from faulted conditions to normal con-
ditions shall not exceed ±20%.
✔ Frequency deviation requirements: Typical dynamic
frequency profiles due to an event on the transmission
network are shown in Table 3.
Dynamic Study Scenarios
To evaluate the synchronous condensers’ dynamic response
and their effect on the system, a dynamic performance study
was performed with system models that include machine
parameters for the synchronous condenser and its excitation
system. The study scenarios typically reflect various operat-
ing conditions with different contingencies. In our study, two
power flow cases were used: peak and off-peak load operat-
ing conditions. Under each power flow case, two variations
with different numbers of synchronous condensers in service
were considered. For all of the study combinations of oper-
ating scenarios and the number of synchronous condensers
in service, a number of contingencies under different NERC
categories were simulated. Figure 8 shows results of a study

table 2. Step-up transformer activated

protection functions. Voltages at TA 230, 138,17.5 Buses
1.1
1
Protection Function Description ANSI Code 0.9
Voltage (p.u.)

0.8
Differential protection 87 0.7
0.6
Restricted earth fault protection 87N 0.5
0.4
Time overcurrent phase protection 50/51 0.3
0.2 17.5 kV 138 kV 230 kV
Time overcurrent earth protection 50N/51N 0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)
(a)
table 3. Frequency performance requirements.
Reactive Power at TA 17.5 Bus
Frequency, F (Hz) Length of Application 600
Reactive Power (Mvar)

500
F < 55.5 Instantaneous
400
55.5 ≤ F < 56.5 0.5 s 300
56.5 ≤ F < 57.0 2s 200
100
57.0 ≤ F < 57.5 10 s
0
57.5 ≤ F < 58.5 1.5 min –100 SC Mvar
58.5 ≤ F < 59.5 10 min –200
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
59.5 ≤ F < 60.5 Steady state Time (s)
60.5 ≤ F < 61.5 10 min (b)
61.5 ≤ F < 62.0 45 s
figure 8. (a) The TA bus voltages and (b) the TA synchro-
F ≥ 62.0 Instantaneous
nous condenser reactive power.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 45

 for a three-phase fault at the high-voltage side of the synchro-
nous condenser’s transformer.
Modeling Issues
To simulate the dynamic behavior of the synchronous con-
densers, models for the synchronous condenser and its exci-
tation system must be developed, with either IEEE standard
library models or user-written models. In our case, the syn-
chronous condenser model was a standard model, and the
excitation system was a user-written model.
Synchronous Condenser Model
The synchronous machine for modeling the synchronous
condenser is a Siemens Generator type SGen6-100A-2P
108-48 M07, a round-rotor type of generator. It was modeled
by a standard six-order positive sequence load flow (PSLF)
model, which includes one field winding and one damper
winding in the direct axis and two damper windings in the
quadrature axis.
Excitation-System Models
The excitation system consists of several regulating devices
and limiters that operate in combination to control the reac-
tive power output, field current, and magnetic flux of the syn-
chronous condensers. The excitation system chosen for the
synchronous condensers is Siemens’s rotating AC RG3-S7,
which includes the following:
✔ automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
✔ field current regulator
✔ exciter
✔ excitation current limiter
✔ stator current limiter
✔ under excitation limiter
✔ V/Hz limiter.
The excitation system, excluding the limiters for the syn-
chronous condensers, was modeled as a variant of the stan-
dard IEEE model AC7B in PSLF. The user-written model
includes input parameters to the standard model and limiters.
Model Response Tests
The test system consists of a synchronous condenser, a GSU,
and an equivalent system bus. The synchronous condenser
response tests include the following:
✔ offline AVR voltage reference step response
✔ online AVR voltage reference step response
✔ dynamic response tests for limiters
✔ fault response test.
Summary
Synchronous condenser technology provides a possible solu-
tion to addressing system variability issues resulting from
high penetrations of fluctuating renewable generation and
the retirement of conventional generation. Synchronous con-
46 ieee power & energy magazine
densers support the grid by meeting reactive power needs,
improving voltage regulation, increasing levels of short cir-
cuit availability, and providing inertia to the system.
As part of a synchronous condenser installation project,
a number of technical studies are required. These technical
studies ensure the proper dimensioning of the synchronous
condenser and auxiliary equipment of the installation and
demonstrate compliance with the regulatory and opera-
tional requirements of the system. In general, these types
of studies are also required for adding any other type of
transmission equipment.
For Further Reading
California Energy Commission, “California Energy Com-
mission—Tracking progress,” Dec. 2018. [Online]. Avail-
able: http://www.energy.ca.gov/renewables/tracking_prog
ress/documents/renewable.pdf
P. Diehl, “SDG&E juicing up substation,” San Diego
Union-Tribune, Feb. 1, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www
.sandiegouniontribune.com/communities/north-county/
sd-no-substation-upgrade-20170130-story.html
M. Belden, “2016 SDG&E grid assessment results,”
Sept. 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.caiso.com/
Documents/SDGE_Presentation-2016-2017Transmission
PlanningProcess.pdf
Siemens, “The stable way—Synchronous condenser
solutions.” [Online]. Available: https://w3.usa.siemens.com/
smartgrid/us/en/events/Documents/IEEE%202016/TS
_Synchronous_Condenser.pdf
Siemens, “A stable grid in the era of renewables.” [Online].
Available: https://new.siemens.com/global/en/products/
energy/high-voltage/facts/portfolio/syncon.html
Biographies
George Zhou is with Siemens Power Technologies Interna-
tional, Foster City, California.
David Wang is with the San Diego Gas and Electric
Company, San Diego, California.
Adham Atallah is with Siemens Power Technologies
International, Erlangen, Germany.
Frank McElvain is with Siemens Power Technologies
International, Foster City, California.
Ram Nath is with Siemens Power Technologies Interna-
tional, Foster City, California.
John Jontry is with the San Diego Gas and Electric
Company, San Diego, California.
Christopher Bolton is with the San Diego Gas and Elec-
tric Company, San Diego, California.
Huang Lin is with the San Diego Gas and Electric Com-
pany, San Diego, California.
Andreas Haselbauer is with Siemens AG, Erlangen,
Germany.
p&e
july/august 2019
 By Rich Hunt, Byron Flynn,
and Terry Smith

The
Substation
of the
Future
Moving Toward
a Digital Solution

T
THE SUBSTATION OF THE FUTURE WILL MOVE AWAY FROM THE
current single-purpose, hardware-based protection and automation sys-
tems and replace them with a software-defined control system running
virtual services: a digitally enabled substation. This is necessary to enable
substation systems to adapt to the new reality of an increasing amount of
inverter-based distributed energy resources (DERs) changing operating
requirements and affecting feeder power flow, voltage, and protection
functions. Wind power, solar power, battery storage, and electric vehicles
(EVs) may be connected anywhere to the grid. Unless operation is coor-
dinated, the geographic concentration of DERs by different owners could
potentially result in a negative impact to the existing grid.
Future power system control is likely to be more cooperative and negoti-
ated because operators and control functions will have to plan for and quickly
©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/OLASER

adapt to changes in available resources and power flows. Transmission and

distribution planners, engineers, and asset managers will need information

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2908122

Date of publication: 18 June 2019

july/august 2019 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE ieee power & energy magazine 47

 from the grid to drive an evolving set of applications and ana-
lytics. Utilities, systems owners, and a host of new DER stake-
holders will need to be able to roll out new applications and
access an increasing amount of grid data to optimize their
investments. Old schemes will need to be adapted quickly and
reliably throughout the entire system. The only way to provide
the adaptability and flexibility required within fast time con-
straints is to use an application-driven hardware- and vendor-
independent ecosystem. As the grid evolves, future substations
will require applications to be developed for a specific need
and then pushed out to every substation, similar to the current
smartphone ecosystem.
Digitally Enabled Substation Architecture
A reference architecture for the first version of a digitally
enabled substation is shown in Figure 1. The substation
in this architecture is fully digital: every analog interface
will be digitized directly at the interface, with data shared
to communications networks in the substation. This means
that the state and behavior of the power system and primary
equipment are readily available as digital data wherever
needed. The control of primary equipment is through digital
interfaces as well. Therefore, a required step for the substa-
tion of the future is the full implementation of process bus
to interface data from primary equipment to devices, such as
protection relays, bay control units, equipment monitoring
devices, and phasor measurement units (PMUs).
The key component in this architecture is the substation
edge device, which is a processing platform running soft-
ware services using a container-based architecture. Every
application is developed as a service running independently
of the others, each entirely in its own container, as seen in
Figure 2. Data can be shared across or between containers as
necessary, so functions, for instance, the security manager
and control plane, are shared. The substation edge device
is also the communications interface between the substation

Utility
Cloud Enterprise

Distribution
Mobile
Automation

Microgrid

Substation Edge Device

Security Services

Edge Manager
Data Collector
Data Services

Control Plane
Analytics
Apps

Apps

Apps

Station Bus

Protection and Monitoring and

Bay Control Unit PMU
Control Relay Diagnostic Devices

Process Bus
Process Digital Process
Interface Unit Instrument Sensing Interface Unit
Transformer

figure 1. A digitally enabled substation.

48 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Substations can be continually updated to meet new operating
conditions and operating requirements without having to perform
complete upgrades or recommission impacted equipment.
and wide-area applications. This includes distribution auto-
mation applications, such DER management, fault detec-
tion and isolation, microgrid integration, and connections to
cloud applications and utility system operations. One result-
ing function of this device is essentially to be a communica-
tions interface and data concentrator for wide-area applica-
tions connected through the substation.
The benefit of this architecture is the ability to develop
applications that run as software services. Any application,
such as asset performance management (APM), wide-area
monitoring, and DER management, can be independently
developed, quickly prototyped, and rapidly type tested.
These new applications can then be loaded into the substa-
tion edge device without requiring a firmware upgrade or
impacting services or applications already working the
edge device. New functionality through new applications
can be rolled out automatically and remotely to all sub-
stations quickly and with little risk. Therefore, substa-
tions can be continually updated to meet new operating
conditions and operating requirements without hav-
ing to perform complete upgrades or recommission
impacted equipment.
Asset
Performance
Management
Domain U
Domain 0
Real-Time Container 1
Container
Engine
Control Plane App
Security Services Resource
Data Collector Bins/Libraries
Management
Data Services
Container Engine
figure 2. A substation edge device concept.
july/august 2019
Why Do We See This Direction?
Utility operators will interact and cooperate with potentially
thousands of new devices, including residential solar invert-
ers, solar farms, ac and dc EVs connected to the distribution
system, and battery storage. There will also be new types of
distribution operators, including microgrid owners and vir-
tual power plants. The new operations system must quickly
model and instantly represent new control devices of any
type, at any location, and in multiples of thousands of such
devices. At the distribution level especially, the substation
will be the key data concentrator for this type of interface.
As the power system becomes more unpredictable and has
less hierarchical control, better situational awareness is needed.
The substation becomes a key source of data for situational
intelligence for both transmission and distribution. Wide-area
monitoring systems must integrate PMUs from transmission
networks and the micro-PMUs increasingly found on distri-
bution networks. Beyond situational intelligence, monitoring
systems will be necessary to operate the substation better
to maximize the usage of power system equipment, such as
transformers. APM will, therefore, be a mission-critical func-
tion to ensure that power system components can dynamically
Bay Control
Distance
Protection
Real-Time Domain
Container 2 Real-Time Real-Time
Container 1 Container 2
App
App App
Bins/Libraries
Bins/Libraries Bins/Libraries
Hypervisor
Hardware
ieee power & energy magazine 49
 Substation automation functions and any other functions that
do not operate in absolute real time, including equipment
monitoring, will become services in the substation edge device.
and reliably support changing power flows and operating sce-
narios. New types of analytic applications may be required to
coordinate storm response when the distribution system is also
a source, to do better network modeling that allows dynamic
line loading, and even to perform local state estimation for
operations and dynamic protection. Developing and adding
these new applications as software services are the only cost-
effective and timely ways to provide them.
This version of the substation of the future shows protec-
tion and substation automation as standalone devices, as in
today’s substations. However, this cannot continue. Substa-
tion automation functions and any other functions that do
not operate in absolute real time, including equipment moni-
toring, will become services in the substation edge device.
As distribution circuits become strong sources because of
DERs and become more networked, distribution protection
will adopt transmission protection techniques, such as line
differential and teleprotection schemes. Relay settings will
be more dynamic at both the transmission and distribution
level. Relays must operate reliably for the different network
conditions and levels of short circuit current resulting from
variable resources coming online and offline. Faults must
be identified and cleared correctly, even in the presence
of declining system inertia and decreased system stability
clearing times. The only cost-effective and timely manner to
meet these needs will be to roll out new protection schemes
as a software service so that protection will become a real-
time application in the substation edge device.
Next Steps
The substation of the future is both fully digital and digitally
enabled for applications running as software services. The
substation of today is not. It is important to understand the
steps to go from the substation architecture of today to one
of the future. In a practical manner, this requires two sepa-
rate steps.
One step is to go fully digital. Communications between
substation gateways and zone devices, for example, protec-
tive relays and bay control units, are already digital. The
complete digital substation means implementing process
buses, which are distributed input/output (I/O) devices for
protection and control and substation automation. A pro-
cess bus digitizes the interfaces to all primary equipment,
including binary status and control points for circuit break-
ers and power transformers, and all analog data, such as cur-
rents and voltages from instrument transformers. Commu-
nications used in this process are defined by the IEC 61850
50 ieee power & energy magazine
standard. Going fully digital by implementing process bus
is a step that can be taken today. The technology needed
is widely commercially available, and going fully digital
provides many benefits today in terms of both capital and
operating expenses.
The other step is to be digitally enabled using a substation
edge device that supports a software services architecture.
This concept is shown in Figure 3. Such devices, designed
for applications in utility substations, are becoming avail-
able in the market. Substation edge devices will first imple-
ment standard substation gateway functions, and then they
will support other new power system and control applica-
tions as they are developed. Future versions will support the
addition of a real-time operating system so that protection
functions can be created as applications. Therefore, all appli-
cation processing in a substation will be a software service
in the substation edge device, centralizing protection, auto-
mation, monitoring, and analytics. The next step is to start
defining the necessary new applications and system operat-
ing conditions while evaluating substation edge devices as
they become available.
Process Bus
The goal of a digital substation is maximum flexibility and
adaptability. To make this possible, it is necessary to sepa-
rate the control functions, including protective relaying, from
the primary equipment being controlled. The way to do this
is process bus, where analog values are converted to digital
sampled values at the primary equipment, and these sampled
values, along with status and control signals, are transmitted
through a communications channel to protection equipment.
Digitization takes place in simple I/O devices integrated
into primary equipment using the data models and message
formats of the IEC 61850 standard. Process bus facilitates
flexibility and adaptability because the basic data for state,
status, and control of the substation are available on the pro-
cess bus network. Any device or application connected to
this network can subscribe to the data without impacting
other devices or applications and without connecting to the
primary equipment.
The reason to use the IEC 61850 standard for communica-
tions is to provide a future-proof digital substation architec-
ture that can be easily configured, updated, and maintained.
The configuration of a process bus system is easily verified
through standard tools, as the data models provide a self-
description of the data being sent. The majority of messages
are event driven, using a multicast publish–subscribe model.
july/august 2019
This means that adding a device or application is a matter
of publishing messages to the network and subscribing to
the appropriate messages already on the network. These
features of IEC 61850 communications make a process bus
solution future proof. Any device or application supporting
IEC 61850 can connect to the network and interoperate with
any other device on the network while using the same con-
figuration tools.
Tools to Implement Process Bus
An IEC 61850 process bus architecture is implemented with
discrete devices connected in standard ways to provide sys-
tem solutions. The discrete devices consist of process inter-
face units (PIUs), digital instrument transformers (DITs),
communication networks, clocks, and intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs).
PIUs will exist close to the primary equipment and be
the interface between the electrical physical world and the
digital world. Their role is publish information from the pri-
mary equipment and control it from digitized control signals
on the communications networks. These PIUs will control
circuit breakers and switches, connect to traditional cur-
rent transformers (CTs) and voltage transformers (VTs), and
publish both equipment signals and digital sampled values to
IEDs for protection and operation purposes.
CTs and VTs will likely be replaced by DITs, which
are nonconventional instrument transformers (NCITs)
connected through a merging unit to output digital sam-
pled values of current and voltage. NCITs use differ-
ent measurement techniques from wire-wound CTs and
VTs. Examples of NCITs are fiber-optic current sensors,
Rogowski coils, and capacitive and resistive voltage divid-
ers. In most applications, NCITs must be DITs. The output
of an NCIT is a low-energy analog signal that must be
sent digitally to ease the interfacing with equipment and
avoid interference issues because of distance and shield-
ing. DITs are not subject to the inaccuracies of the excita-
tion losses of a traditional iron-core transformer and can
provide superior accuracy across a large band. The high
accuracies of DITs will simplify and unlock new methods
of protection.
Many of today’s protection algorithms have limitations
regarding the accuracy of instrument transformers, and
major portions of the protection algorithms exist to deal
with those inaccuracies. A prime example of this is the tradi-
tional sloped differential characteristic that accommodates

Utility
Cloud Enterprise

Distribution
Mobile
Automation

Microgrid

Substation Edge Device

Security Services
Control as App

Edge Manager
Protection and

Data Collector
Data Services

Control Plane
Bay Control

Analytics
as App

Apps

Process Bus
Process Digital Process
Interface Unit Instrument Sensing Interface Unit
Transformer

figure 3. A fully digitally enabled substation.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 51

 CT inaccuracy and saturation. Because DITs can be linearly
accurate for all levels of current, the sloped differential
characteristic will be unnecessary for differential protection
when using DITs. DITs also eliminate the oil used as the
insulating medium in traditional standalone CTs and VTs.
This lack of oil reduces not only the possible environmental
impact but also the weight and size of the instrument trans-
former, and thereby decreasing installation time.
The PIUs will publish and subscribe to data from a commu-
nication network. The 61850 standard defines Ethernet as the
physical architecture of the process bus communication net-
work. Ethernet’s packet-switched architecture allows multiple
protocols to run across the same network, which maximizes
the use of the communication infrastructure. While point-to-
point Ethernet is an allowed implementation of the 61850 stan-
dard, switched Ethernet process bus will be the physical archi-
tecture of larger substations in the future. The Ethernet switch
will be the backbone of these networks. These switches will be
configured devices in the process bus networks used to con-
trol and shape the flow of traffic in the network using virtual
local area networks, media-access-control address filtering,
and deterministic Ethernet solutions, such as time-sensitive
networking. The switches will also need to be configured to
maintain security and pass timing signals.
Clocks will become a critical protection component in
the substation of the future because of the need to syn-
chronize published streams of data, as this is necessary
for all of the published streams of analog data. Otherwise,
elements, such as differential protection, may misoper-
ate because of the wrongly calculated angular differences
associated with communication latency. Several clock
synchronizing methods exist today, but all signals that can
be communicated over the network will be sent that way
rather than through wired communications. Therefore,
future substations will use the precision time protocol sig-
nal defined in the IEEE 1588 standard.
IEDs will be the application containers of the substation
of the future. These containers will subscribe to data and then
use that data to make protection decisions, provide operation
data, or provide monitoring and diagnostic data. These con-
tainers will also control and operate the substation based on
the data that they subscribe to. In the substation of the future,
discrete IEDs will be replaced by a single IED that acts as
the centralized protection unit. The centralized protection
unit will make all protection decisions for the substation and
will act as a gateway to serve operational and maintenance
data. This centralized protection unit will likely be included
in the substation edge device. Because all digital substation
components are critical to the protection of the substation,
redundancy, for PIUs, IEDs, clocks, and communications
networks, will have to be addressed at each level.
Benefits of Process Bus
Process bus brings clear benefits to the substation of today, and
those benefits will drive the adoption of the substation of the
52 ieee power & energy magazine
future. Benefits include reduced expenditures, smaller substa-
tion footprints, and flexibility and adaptability of the substation.
Capital expense reduction is the most often-touted benefit. This
decrease does not come from a cutback of equipment, because
there will be more actual equipment in the substation. Rather,
it comes from reduction of labor to design and construct the
substation. This decrease of labor on the design side will be
realized through the tools that configure the substation. The
designer will configure the substation through software tools
rather than design the substation as is done today.
Because the substation will be a standard configuration,
it will be easier to duplicate than today’s designs. With a
duplicated design, the designer can create standard mod-
ules for the substation. The design process would mean
connecting the modules together and minimally config-
uring each standard module. As information is contained
and transmitted in communication packets rather than in
discrete wires among equipment and IEDs, deduction of
installation expense in the process bus is realized because
of the decreased field wiring and the lower number of ter-
minations of field wiring.
Because there will be fewer cables in the process bus
architecture, the substation can be smaller. Instead of many
copper cables among the control house and the primary
equipment, the same functions can be accomplished over a
single fiber-optic cable. This will allow the cable trench of the
substation to shrink. Because the IEDs will not be required
to house space-to-land analog and digital inputs and outputs,
the IED itself will be smaller, which will translate into a
smaller control house with fewer panels.
A requirement of the substation of the future is that the
substation design be flexible and adaptable. Process bus
allows designers to add bays or lines to the substation very
quickly because the design will consist of adding a substa-
tion module and modifying the configuration rather than
redesigning the substation. During construction, the outage
time to install new equipment will be reduced because the
work performed during the outage will be to install and save
the new configuration to the centralized protection unit.
Examples of Digitally Enabled
Substation Applications
Substations of the future will enable new use cases by pro-
viding critical data as well as a platform for new decentral-
ized applications. New use cases are required by the higher
penetration of new DERs, the aging of the existing grid
assets, and the application-driven workforce. Every one of
the applications described here will be delivered as a soft-
ware service into a substation edge device.
Asset Lifecycle Management
Helping to manage the lifecycle of the grid’s assets will
continue to be an important role of the substation of the
future. Part of this strategy is APM, which integrates and
analyzes all data from the power system with the goal
july/august 2019
of improving equipment reliability and availability, com- A Wide-Area Measurement System
bining the concepts of condition monitoring, predictive The substation of the future will provide critical data to
analysis, and reliability-centered maintenance. APM data increase the use and usefulness of data from a larger deploy-
from breakers, transformers, batteries, and other key grid ment of PMUs and micro-PMUs across the grid. The system
elements typically exist only in the sensor, a spreadsheet, will include secure access and phasor data management in
or a locked file cabinet and have not been integrated with substations and provide new tools for automation, operators,
the APM system. Substation cybersecurity systems must and engineers (see Figure 6). These data will improve applica-
access the remote data in the sensor to be provided to APM tions for enhanced system disturbance management, includ-
systems and asset managers. In addition to secure remote ing the following:
access, the substation of the future will also include data
management and modeling with health and risk analytics.
Figure 4 shows the role of sensor-data collection to help Criticality Failure
with asset strategy. For the substation of the future, the Modes Damage
physics-based asset models, the logic-based calculation Mechanisms Strategy Optimize Plan
engine, and the multivariable pattern-recognition model
can be loaded into the substation edge device.
Change Strategy Operations and
New Analytics Risk
(Interval) Maintenance
A new set of system analytics incorporating artificial intel- Drive Work
ligence and machine learning will be connected to the sub- (Repair)
station of the future. These capabilities provide predictive Analytics
Reevaluate Connect/Collect
and prescriptive analytics to deliver multiple use cases. Risk and Action
– Sensor Data/
One of these use cases is storm response analytics, as seen Alerts/Events
in Figure 5, to predict the impacts on the grid and recom- – Inspection Data/
mend responses to forecasted storms. The goal is to reduce Alerts/History Events
resource staging safety risks and deployment timing costs,
ultimately reducing outage durations because of storms. figure 4. An intelligent asset strategy.

figure 5. A storm response analytic.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 53

 figure 6. An event analysis using PMU data.
✔ near-real-time stability monitoring
✔ subsynchronous oscillations and active dampening
✔ advanced islanding resynchronization and black start
✔ short circuit capacity
✔ system disturbance monitoring
✔ fast voltage stability assessment for transmission
corridors.
A DER Management System
The future grid will have a high penetration of DERs, and
substations will have a critical role in managing them. Valu-
able DER data, control, and optimization will be part of future
substations, especially for utility-grade resources. DER data
from substations will play an important role in visualizing and
planning DER deployment: understanding, managing, and
planning an increasingly complex DER portfolio; calculating
DER capacities; and understanding what mitigation steps need
to be implemented, often in the substation, to reduce nega-
tive impacts involving voltage stability, grid capacity, reverse
power flow, unintentional islanding, and more.
Substations of the future will likely consist of some func-
tionality to optimize and control DERs. This will include the
ability to supply critical data for real-time analysis and con-
trol algorithms. The substation, through a DER management
system running as an application (see Figure 7), will provide
input to market operators and market players to understand
constraints and capacities of the grid to accommodate DER
functionality, ancillary services, and market contribution.
Summary
There are great benefits to making substation control sys-
tems fully digital, including reduced design and construction
costs, more efficient use of engineering and technician time,
and lower maintenance costs. However, as shown in the
54 ieee power & energy magazine
example applications, the greatest value is the ability to adapt
to new operating requirements in a timely and reliable man-
ner. In the future, the substation will be the key control point
and interface that manages the impact of new resources and
new operators. With a digitally enabled substation, it will be
possible to quickly roll out new applications, such as APM to
maximize the usage of physical assets, artificial intelligence
and machine learning to help analyze and respond to system
events, wide-area monitoring to provide situational intelli-
gence for both the transmission and the distribution system,
and DER management to integrate the resources that will
make the grid stronger and more resilient.
Another advantage of the digitally enabled substation is
that it will increase efficiency and reduce nonvalue added
activities. The biggest gain in productivity is in the much
lower number of trips to substations for configuring, main-
taining, testing, and troubleshooting devices. System moni-
toring, for example, APM means monitoring as opposed
to testing. Rolling out a new application, such as advanced
islanding, is simply sending the application software to the
substation edge device via communications. The configura-
tion of a DER management system can be done remotely by
connecting to and automatically configuring control devices.
The focus will move toward how to operate the power sys-
tem more effectively and away from how to configure, main-
tain, test, and update devices and systems.
There are some considerations regarding the implemen-
tation of a digitally enabled substation. The substation edge
device and the digital substation must be designed with cyber-
security in mind. This requires capabilities, including secure
firmware in the substation edge device, signed applications,
authentication of application sources, and the ability to roll the
substation edge device back to a known safe state. There are
also two types of interoperability to consider: 1) the ability of
july/august 2019
figure 7. A DER management functionality screen example.
substation edge and process bus devices from different suppli-
ers to communicate with each other and 2) the ability to run the
same application in different models of substation edge devices.
Interoperability among devices can be met by using indus-
try standard communications, such as IEC 61850 and the
Open Field Message Bus, to interface and share data. This
interoperability of communications is important, as NERC
standards require the use of redundant protection schemes
for transmission systems. Redundant substation edge devices,
each acquiring the same data, will be necessary. Compatibility
is the power of an application to run on any substation edge
device from any supplier. This may be challenging. As with
the smartphone ecosystem of today, application developers
may need to develop different versions tuned to run on differ-
ent container-based operating systems.
The substation of the future is starting today. Many utili-
ties are taking the first steps toward a digital substation by
adopting process bus with today’s independent device archi-
tecture. Expect a continuing evolution of process bus design
and devices as utilities and suppliers develop best practices.
True substation edge devices with containerized applications
are becoming available, beginning with applications such as
APM. More applications will be developed to meet new oper-
ating scenarios, and the real-time operating systems neces-
sary to support protection functions will also be added. The
best part of the substation of the future is that third-party com-
panies, including utilities themselves, will develop new appli-
cations to improve power system operations to run in substa-
tion edge devices and energy management systems.
For Further Reading
San Diego Gas & Electric, “Monitoring, communication
and control infrastructure for power system moderniza-
july/august 2019
tion,” Dec. 31, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.sdge
.com/sites/default/files/EPIC-2%20Project%203_Final%20
Report.pdf
D. Tholomier and D. Chatrefou, “IEC 61850 process
bus—It is real!” PAC World, 2008. [Online]. Available:
https://www.pacw.org/issue/winter_2008_issue/protection_
iec_61850/iec_61850_process_bus_it_is_real/complete_
article/1.html
D. Stewart, A. Rose, and R. Hunt, “Using digital instru-
ment transformers to reduce substation design costs,” PAC
World, Mar. 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.pacw
.org/issue/march_2018_issue/reducing_substation_design_
costs/tackling_the_challenges_of_hybrid_transmission_
line_new_methodologies/complete_article/1.html
R. Hunt, “Manufactured protection and control: A modular
approach to installing protection and control,” in Proc. 2014
67th Annu. Conf. Protective Relay Engineers, pp. 743–769.
D. Ball and J. Byerly, “Fiber: From the whiteboard to the
station yard,” PAC World, Mar. 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.pacw.org/issue/march_2017_issue/fiber_and_
process_bus/fiber_from_the_whiteboard_to_the_station_
yard/complete_article/1.html
Ercot, “DER management systems overview,” Sept. 2014.
[Online]. Available: http://www.ercot.com/content/meetings/
etwg/keydocs/2014/0924/3_GTM_DERMS_Overview_-_
ERCOT_working_group_-_Sept_24.pdf
Biographies
Rich Hunt is with GE Renewable Energy, Apex, North Carolina.
Byron Flynn is with GE Renewable Energy, Boise, Idaho.
Terry Smith is with GE Renewable Energy, Chattanooga,
Tennessee.
p&e
ieee power & energy magazine 55
 Substations
for Future HVdc
Grids

©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/TARRAS79

W
WITH THE INCREASED INTEGRATION OF RENEW-
able energy generation, high-voltage direct current (HVdc)
will become more prevalent in the power system. Antici-
pated annual growth rates are in the range of 7–10%. While
most systems in operation and under construction are point-
to-point connections, the first multiterminal HVdc systems
have already been commissioned. As a next step, HVdc
grids are being considered as a cost-effective solution to
transmit power. These HVdc grids are expected to gradu-
ally develop from existing point-to-point links, mirroring
the development of ac grids throughout the 20th century.
Such HVdc grids will be an integral part of the power sys-
tem, operating as a separate transmission layer of the future
hybrid ac/dc network.
DC substations will constitute an integral part of HVdc
grids. These substations will differ from the typical dc con-
verter station of existing point-to-point connections and from
ac substations. In this article, we discuss the similarities and
differences between dc substations and their ac counterparts
in terms of layout, technologies, and requirements.

By Dirk Van Hertem, Willem Leterme, Geraint Chaffey,

Mudar Abedrabbo, Mian Wang, Firew Zerihun,
and Mike Barnes
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2909006
Date of publication: 18 June 2019

56 ieee power & energy magazine 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE july/august 2019

 Equipment and Configurations for
Connection of HVdc Network Elements
HVdc Technology
HVdc is a well-established technology for grid reinforcements
that avoids some of the disadvantages associated with ac trans-
mission upgrades (increases ac system fault level, require-
ments for reactive power, and synchronized ac networks) by
transmitting electric energy over dc circuits. It has been used
commercially for more than 60 years, mainly to transmit bulk
power over large distances and connect asynchronous ac sys-
tems, and it is a favorable choice when long (undersea) cable
connections are needed.
HVdc transmission utilizes power-electronic converters to
transform ac to dc and dc to ac. The converters utilize either
thyristor or insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power-
electronic switches. Thyristors are used in line-commutated
converters (LCCs), the traditional HVdc technology, while
IGBTs are used in voltage-source converters (VSCs). While
both technologies can provide fast control of active power
and power transmission using overhead line or cable systems,
there are differences between the two. On the one hand, LCCs
are a more mature, cost-effective, and efficient technology
that is available for very large power ratings (on the order of
10 GW). Alternatively, VSC HVdc applications offer several
advantages, including a smaller overall footprint, fast active-
power reversal capability, flexible and independent control of
reactive power, easier integration into weak power systems,
and use of extruded cables, for instance, based on cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE).
Since the turn of the century, HVdc has seen a revival.
In countries such as China, India, and Brazil, LCC HVdc
installations transport bulk power over long distances, ful-
filling a need caused by fast economic growth. At the same
time, the development of VSC technology led to new appli-
cations that include using submarine cables to interconnect
oil platforms and offshore wind farms with onshore facili-
ties and underground cable and overhead line applications to
provide land-based links.
Recent advancements in VSC technology have enabled
the development of an HVdc grid with three or more con-
verters connected in parallel. Several such systems have
been developed or are under construction. Whereas point-
to-point systems are typically developed as projects using
an engineering-procurement construction procedure, future
HVdc grids will, in many cases, be developed gradually,
requiring interfaces among projects from different vendors.
Although LCC HVdc grids or hybrid VSC/LCC HVdc grids
july/august 2019
are possible, this article focuses on VSC HVdc grids, their
substation layout, and how they differ from their ac coun-
terparts. HVdc substations consist of a dc switchyard con-
necting multiple lines or cables and, possibly, one or more
converter stations. As with ac systems, devices can be cat-
egorized as primary equipment, which carries the power,
and secondary equipment, which provides interfacing
and control.
Primary Equipment
In a future dc substation, the primary equipment could con-
sist of various components for power transfer, protection,
and switching capabilities for system reconfiguration. Pro-
spective components include ac/dc converters, circuit break-
ers and other switchgear, cables, lines and their termina-
tions, means of discharging cables, and equipment to control
power flow, as shown in Figure 1.
AC/DC Converters
Converting ac to dc is an essential requirement for the power
system of the future, enabling the connection of HVdc sys-
tems to existing ac transmission networks for bulk energy
transfer. A VSC station consists of the VSC valve hall, in
which the electronic equipment is placed, as well as phase
inductors and measurement equipment. The ac transformers
and switchyard are typically placed outside the VSC area of
the substation.
Various VSC technologies can be used for ac/dc conver-
sion in multiterminal systems, which can be roughly clas-
sified into two main types: dc-fault feeding (for example,
a half-bridge modular multilevel converter) and dc-fault
blocking (for example, a full-bridge modular multilevel
converter). Both types can control the dc-side current dur-
ing normal operation; however, they can be differentiated by
their dc-fault response.
The dc-fault response by the converter can have a sig-
nificant influence on the design of other primary equipment
within the HVdc substation. Following a dc fault, dc voltage
collapse rapidly propagates across the network; the current
rises quickly as the rate of rise is limited by the otherwise
relatively low inductance, as opposed to the relatively high
impedance in an ac grid. Consequently, the power-electronic
devices in affected fault-feeding converters are switched
off (blocked), protecting them from damage without stop-
ping fault-current infeed from the ac grid. These topologies,
ieee power & energy magazine 57
58
HVdc Circuit Breaker Disconnector Switch
Inductor
During normal operation, current flows A switch applied for reconfiguration
through the low-loss conduction path. The air core
inductor used of system and for safety during
Following the fault, additional path(s) enable maintenance.
current commutation into energy dissipation. to limit the Measurement
rate-of-rise This is a mechanical switch with Voltage and current
Conduction Path of fault a requirement for interruption of sensors used to enable

ieee power & energy magazine

current. residual currents and voltage protection and control
Commutation Path withstand. decisions.
Energy Dissipation Path

+
+ –
+
+

~
– + +
=

DBS
–

Power-Flow Control Device

Dynamic-Braking System
Used for the dissipation of
energy, for example, for
pole rebalancing or for
using nonlinear resistor(s)
controlled by
power-electronic devices.
Used for the addition/subtraction
of voltage to actively control
power flow, for example,
using power-electronic
topology to modulate
voltage insertion into
each line.
Transfer Switch Grounding Switch
Applied when load-current Applied for safety and
commutation is required. reconfiguration of system.
This is a mechanical switch
This is a mechanical switch
with a requirement for
with a requirement for voltage
voltage withstand, making
withstand and connection
current and current
under voltage.
commutation.

Primary Equipment for Positive Pole

Primary Equipment for Negative Pole (Duplicate of Positive Pole)

figure 1. A prospective primary-equipment layout per pole for a symmetric monopolar system. Note that not all equipment is required in all substations and that the

july/august 2019
configuration is given as an example and is not indicative of an optimal system layout.
thus, require other equipment to interrupt the fault current.
By contrast, fault-blocking converters do not need to rely on
other equipment to interrupt fault currents, as they have the
capability to either block or control the current contribution
through the converter.
Circuit Breakers and Switchgear
Within a dc substation, there are several requirements for
switching, which can be grouped according to functionality:
grounding, disconnecting, current commutation, and current
interruption. Fault-current interruption devices at the dc side
(HVdc circuit breakers) are essential to achieve selective
protection of multiterminal HVdc systems by isolating only
the faulty element.
The requirements for interrupting a dc current lead to
challenges with HVdc circuit breakers not observed in ac
systems. The absence of naturally recurring current-zero
crossings requires the HVdc circuit breaker to drive the dc-
fault current toward zero and absorb the energy that remains
in the system at the moment the circuit breaker opens. To
perform these functions, an HVdc circuit breaker typically
makes use of parallel paths with auxiliary circuits to enable
current commutation and energy absorption. In addition,
high switching speeds require fast mechanical operation or
power-electronic switches in the circuit. Recently proposed
HVdc circuit breakers can operate within 2–10 ms, an order
of magnitude faster than an equivalent ac device.
The dc-fault current can reach destructive values within mil-
liseconds and exceed the HVdc circuit breaker’s interruption
capability. Therefore, series fault-current limiters (for instance,
a line inductor) may be required to limit the rate of rise of fault
current. Such inductors, for conducting a dc current, are air
cored, physically large, and require additional space to avoid
interference with neighboring equipment.
Apart from dc fault-current-interruption devices, several
other important HVdc switching applications operate 10–100
times slower than a typical dc fault-current interruption.
Applications include grounding a cable, disconnecting a con-
verter, reconfiguring a dc substation, and isolating a faulty ele-
ment (for example, following fault-current interruption using
fault-blocking converters). For these operations, disconnector,
grounding, and transfer switches can be used.
Energy Dissipation
There is often a requirement for discharging cables and over-
head lines, either for safety when taking a line out of ser-
vice for maintenance, for dissipating excess energy during a
momentary fault (for example, from a wind farm, for which
power cannot be instantaneously decreased), or for balancing
unequal pole voltages in a symmetric monopolar network.
For planned maintenance, a grounding switch can be uti-
lized, which could take seconds to discharge the line and
reopen. This is acceptable given that this operation has no
stringent time constraints. In the case of pole balancing, how-
ever, there is a requirement to resume power flow as quickly
july/august 2019
as possible (in the post dc-fault case) or continue normal
operation (for balancing in nonfault conditions). Different
solutions based on power electronics or nonlinear resistors
have been suggested to meet these demands.
DC Power-Flow Control Devices
Controlling the power flow enables the use of any power sys-
tem at its full capacity. The topology and configuration of
the passive network and the voltage at each node determines
power flow unless active devices are applied. While flexible
ac transmission systems already dynamically control power
flow in ac grids, there are currently no commercially avail-
able products for HVdc grids.
In an HVdc grid, the voltage difference and resistance
between two nodes determine the power flow through a trans-
mission line. Therefore, the power flow can be controlled by
adding resistance (although incurring additional losses would
be unattractive) or modifying the node voltages at each end
of a line. On a meshed system, for which each node voltage
affects the power flow on multiple lines, it is not possible to
maximize the power flow on all lines, resulting in some lines
inevitably being underutilized. Some proposed solutions insert
a controllable voltage in series with a line, with the absorbed
energy transferred to an adjacent line using an equivalent but
opposing voltage. The voltage requirement would be of similar
magnitude to the voltage drop across the line, small compared
with the pole-to-ground voltage.
DC power-flow control devices are still in a conceptual
phase as they will influence losses and system reliability
and could be expensive. Within the substation, these devices
might consume considerable space and add to the complex-
ity of system design and operation.
DC/DC Converters
Transferring energy between different dc voltages requires a
different solution compared to the ac transformer, which pro-
vides effective passive-voltage transformation. While there
are no HVdc dc/dc converters in operation today, there could
be benefits in connecting HVdc systems of different voltages.
An example would be increasing operational flexibility by
interconnecting networks that were built at different times.
DC/DC converters could either be directly connected or pro-
vide galvanic isolation when using an intermediary ac stage.
Furthermore, they would also have the ability to control
power flow. A dc/dc converter might also be able to prevent a
fault from propagating across the network, although this may
come at additional costs.
Bushings
Bushings, which are insulation devices, allow the HV con-
ductor to pass safely through the grounded tank and isolate
energized primary components and substation buswork
from the ground. A bushing consists of a conductor sur-
rounded by insulation material, which is typically made
from porcelain.
ieee power & energy magazine 59
 HVdc circuit breakers are likely to have more intelligent functions,
such as self-diagnostics, leading to potential coordinated protection
through the communication of breaker failures to nearby IEDs.
Design procedures from the insulation system used in
HVac bushings cannot be directly applied to HVdc bush-
ings due to differences in electric-field distributions between
ac and dc systems. Additionally, various connected compo-
nents in dc substations employ different types of bushings.
For example, the design of wall bushings, which connect the
valve hall with other primary components, is different from
that of the bushings used in HVdc circuit breakers.
Secondary Equipment
Secondary equipment in dc substations can be expected to
require more computational power and communications
than in ac substations, given the greater complexity of the
many control and protection functions needed to operate an
HVdc grid.
Measurement Devices
Conventional instrument transformers based on electromag-
netic-induction technology are the most widely used primary
sensors in ac grids. The bandwidth of such transformers is usu-
ally limited to a few kilohertz, as, beyond these frequencies,
the conversion ratio of these devices is nonlinear due to reso-
nances and capacitive couplings. For HVdc applications, non-
conventional instrument transformers (NCITs) must be used.
Zero-flux current sensors, combined shunt and Rogowski
coils, and fiber-optical current sensors can be used to mea-
sure currents in HVdc grids. Resistive-capacitive (RC) volt-
age-divider technology is most commonly adopted for HVdc
voltage measurement. The future trends of NCITs for HVdc
grids include compact and possibly integrated options through
modern technologies, such as RC dividers for gas-insulated
switchgear (GIS) and integrated optic sensors. Compared to
ac substations, a larger number of current and voltage instru-
ment transformers are likely to be used in dc substations. This
is because these substations contain more components that
must be controlled or protected, such as dc/dc converters, dc
lines, inductors, and HVdc circuit breakers. In a digital sub-
station, instrument transformers are interfaced with merging
units, which digitize the measured quantities and send the
sampled values to control and protection devices via peer-to-
peer communication or multicasting to multiple subscribers.
Control
HVdc grid control ensures stable operation by controlling
the dc voltage, which presents itself as a global parameter
within the grid. Many dc-voltage control approaches are
60 ieee power & energy magazine
expected to be used for HVdc grids, which can be divided
into centralized and distributed approaches. In the central-
ized approach, one converter responsible for the control of
direct voltage acts as a dc slack bus, while the other con-
verters regulate active power. This approach is not suitable
for larger HVdc grids because dependence on a single slack
converter could lead to reliability issues. In the distributed
approach, all the converters in the HVdc grid control share
the active power balance by employing a voltage-droop
scheme. However, this requires coordination among substa-
tion controllers and HVdc grid controllers. The distributed
approach is more appropriate for larger HVdc grids but can
also be used for smaller HVdc grids if needed.
HVdc substation controllers are relatively fast regulators
that include primary voltage-power control in each converter
station in the HVdc grid. This control may take the form of
voltage-droop characteristics and, thereby, enable automatic
power sharing among several converters without depend-
ing on external communication. This approach is similar
to power-frequency-droop control in ac grids. The substa-
tion controllers have time constants on the order of a few
to tens of milliseconds and, in turn, require high-bandwidth
communication channels. The substation controllers might
consist of pole- or station-level controllers responsible for
setting the active power, reactive power, and ac or dc voltage
orders to the outer controllers of each converter.
The HVdc grid controllers are higher-level equipment;
this equipment includes the secondary and tertiary con-
trol. The secondary control is responsible for correcting the
active-power set points after a contingency, with a response
time of a few seconds. The HVdc grid tertiary control is
responsible for optimal power flow that considers the state
and requirements of the combined ac and dc grids. These
controls might be implemented as a master at a single physi-
cal location at any one time or as a distributed spread across
different physical locations. The HVdc grid controller pro-
vides set points to the local substation controllers. These
controllers generally have slower response times, tens to
hundreds of milliseconds or longer, and require relatively
low communication channel bandwidth.
The control signals and set points are communicated
to the converters via dedicated communication channels,
which might allow operator interactions from one central
location or from multiple locations within the system dur-
ing steady-state operations, or from automatic set point or
control-parameter modifications during transients. The
july/august 2019
functionality of the HVdc grid controller depends on the
design philosophy of the particular grid, the structure of
the ac grid, the regulatory framework in place, and net-
work codes.
HVdc converters that are part of HVdc grids should
have plug-and-play characteristics to guarantee effective
operation in a multivendor environment. This requires the
converters to handle a loss of communication by relying
on local measurements via autonomous converter control.
These control perspectives have a direct consequence for
the control hierarchy in the system and the communication-
system requirements.
Intelligent Electronic Devices for Protection
Relay technologies have evolved from early electrome-
chanical to static, digital, and numerical relays. Modern
numerical relays, or so-called intelligent electronic devices
(IEDs), use one or more digital signal processors optimized
for real-time signal processing and capable of running a
wide range of protection functions. Numerical IED perfor-
mance greatly surpasses that of other technologies in terms
of accuracy, range of parameter settings, built-in communi-
cations, and multiple functionalities that include monitoring
and self-diagnostics.
The main differences between ac and HVdc IEDs encom-
pass the protection algorithm, operational speed, and the
input/output requirements. AC IEDs are typically interfaced
only with their associated ac circuit breakers and coordi-
nated among local and remote terminals. However, HVdc
IEDs might be required to carry out more complex func-
tions to coordinate protection and restoration, such as send-
ing fault detection and fault-clearing signals to the converter
or pole rebalancing equipment. In addition, HVdc circuit
breakers are likely to have more intelligent functions, such
as self-diagnostics, leading to potential coordinated pro-
tection through the communication of breaker failures to
nearby IEDs.
In Figure 2, a decentralized protection configuration is
given in which each IED is responsible for protecting one
component. A centralized protection configuration is also an
option, where all protection functions are implemented phys-
ically on one computer. The benefit of the former is higher
reliability because the failure of one IED most likely leads to
a backup IED operation. The latter likely provides simplified
design and protection coordination; however, failure of the
central protection might lead to unacceptable consequences.
Communication
Since existing HVdc links were built as turnkey projects by a
single company, communication protocols for control and pro-
tection are, to a large extent, vendor specific. For the develop-
ment of large meshed HVdc grids, standardization is essential

Digital HVdc Substation (Based on IEC 61850 Architecture)

Communication
Channel for HVdc Grid
Station Control and and Station Controls
Substation HVdc Grid Control
Monitoring
Level

Station Bus (e.g., 10/100/1,000-MB Ethernet)

Converter Converter Line/Busbar

Bay Level IED IED IED
Control Protection Protection
Teleprotection
Channel Between
Process Bus (e.g., 0.1/1/10-GB Ethernet) Substations

Sampled Values Trip

Signal

Process
Level MU MU MU MU MU

figure 2. An example of digital dc substation protection and control architecture based on IEC 61850.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 61

 to ensure interoperability between vendor equipment. Similar
standards, such as IEC 61850 for digital substations, IEC 61869
for instrument transformers, and IEC 60834 for teleprotection,
could also be adapted for HVdc applications. However, the
required communication speed and channel bandwidth are
likely to be higher for HVdc grids compared to ac grids.
The protection and control architecture of a future dc sub-
station can, from a communication perspective, adopt a simi-
lar structure as defined by IEC 61850 (Figure 2). Communi-
cation can be optimally designed for the whole dc substation
using technologies such as fast Ethernet. The required perfor-
mance of the communication for ac grids is 80 samples/cycle
and 3 ms for sampled values and generic object-oriented
substation event message, respectively. This requirement for
HVdc grids should be on the order of 100 kSamples/s and
hundreds of microseconds to fulfil the requirement of fast
control and protection.
Communication between remote dc substations includes
dispatching, control signals, and teleprotection signals. Digi-
tal communication can be accomplished using fiber-optic
channels. Control set points and parameters at the dispatch-
ing level require the least bandwidth and communication
speed. Communication for teleprotection, and, in particular,
line-differential algorithms, requires the highest bandwidth
and communication speed.
Digital DC Substation
Existing ac substations are undergoing a transformation to
digital substations employing IEC 61850 standards in their
protection and control architecture. Future dc substations
can also employ a similar design principle, digitizing the
primary signals (such as current and voltage measurements),
switchgear-position status and control, and sending digital
signals to the protection and control devices using fast com-
munication channels. An example is shown in Figure 2.
DC Substation Design Considerations
Although there are more than 100 HVdc systems in operation
and multiterminal HVdc systems have been built, the concept
of dc substations is not well established. A substation in a VSC
HVdc grid is different from an ac substation or VSC HVdc
point-to-point connection. A dc substation contains the bays
of incoming cables, transmission lines, and converter stations.
The bays include line and cable terminations, switchgear,
measurement equipment, and other secondary equipment for
protection and control. Within the substation, the bays are con-
nected to busbars in a particular arrangement.
DC substation design may differ considerably from ac
substation design, given the increased dimensions and cost
of dc-side fault-clearing equipment and different options for
protection and configuration and grounding of the HVdc grid.
These aspects influence dc substation design because they
affect the balance between cost and expected availability as
well as considerations for the future growth of the HVdc grid.
We now briefly discuss factors affecting substation design
62 ieee power & energy magazine
choices for HVdc grids, including configuration, grounding,
protection philosophies, and technology.
HVdc Configuration and Grounding
The configuration of an HVdc grid influences the substation
layout because it establishes the number of bays per con-
nected circuit. DC substations must accommodate a single
pole or two poles for each circuit, with the addition of a pos-
sible ground connection and metallic return, as illustrated in
Figure 3. The case of one connected bay per circuit results
in the asymmetric monopolar configuration [Figure 3(a)]. In
this case, the current flows through one pole and returns via
the ground. This option is often not permitted for environ-
mental reasons. Two bays per connected circuit causes either
an asymmetric monopolar configuration with metallic return
[Figure 3(a)], which is low-impedance grounded, or a sym-
metric monopolar configuration [Figure 3(b)], where the dc
side is ungrounded or high-impedance grounded. Three bays
per connected circuit brings about a bipolar configuration
where one of the conductors is low-impedance grounded and
acts as a metallic return conductor [Figure 3(c)].
The grounding of the HVdc grid influences dc substation
design by determining the expected fault current and over-
voltage levels and, hence, the required substation equip-
ment ratings. When an asymmetric monopolar or bipolar
configuration is used, the voltages during the fault remain
limited, yet the prospective fault current is high. In systems
with symmetric monopolar configurations, the overvoltage
on the healthy pole could reach up to two times the nominal
voltage during faults in the absence of overvoltage protec-
tion, whereas the steady-state fault current would be zero.
The peak fault current and peak voltage that can occur
during dc short circuit faults depend on the speed of fault
clearing and fault-current-limiting equipment used within
the HVdc grid. These aspects enter the cost equation of the
substation as a whole. A tradeoff must be made between dc-
fault current or overvoltage-level reduction and the cost of
fault-clearing equipment.
HVdc-Protection Philosophies
The amount of protection equipment required in a dc sub-
station depends on the protection philosophy of the HVdc
grid. To avoid a large number of potentially expensive HVdc
circuit breakers, protection philosophies for HVdc grids may
differ from the traditional ac system-protection approach. In
ac systems, protection zones are set for each component (line,
transformer, bus, and so forth) to protect the system selec-
tively. The consequence of this approach is that, in ac sys-
tems, circuit breakers are typically placed such that they can
independently interrupt currents in each line terminal. This
may not be the best approach for HVdc grids. An HVdc grid
can adopt a nonselective, partially selective, or fully selective
protection philosophy, which, upon the occurrence of a fault,
clears the entire grid, a subpart, or only the faulted compo-
nent, respectively.
july/august 2019
 In the nonselective case, equipment capable of interrupting ment compared with nonselectively protected grids. In the
fault currents is only placed at the boundaries of the HVdc grid former case, HVdc circuit breakers in each substation bay
(for instance, the ac/dc converters), making it a single protec- cost more than the disconnectors or switches in the latter case.
tion zone for fault clearing. This results in the entire HVdc grid Similar to existing ac substation layouts, the dc substation bus-
being de-energized before the faulted component is isolated bar arrangement can adopt a single bus, a double bus-double
under near-zero voltage and current conditions. After isolating breaker, a main-and-transfer arrangement, a double bus-single
the component, the rest of the HVdc grid is energized again. breaker, a ring bus or breaker, and a half scheme. The schemes
The equipment needed in the transmission line bays to isolate providing a higher availability generally require a higher
the faulted component may be mechanical switches, such as number of switches. The use of HVdc circuit breakers
disconnector and fast disconnector switches. in the substation bays substantially increases the cost
In the fully selective case, which is similar to ac-system and the size of the substation. For selectively protected
protection, all substation bays require equipment capable of HVdc grids, the relative location of the circuit breakers and
interrupting fault currents to be
able to individually isolate faults
on every component of the HVdc
grid. Because HVdc circuit break-
ers are generally larger than their
ac counterparts and require the
B D
use of current-limiting equipment,
the dc substation layout is expected G G
to differ considerably from ac sub- A C
station layout.
In the partially selective case, G G
the protection zones divide the
(a)
HVdc grid into subgrids, encom-
passing multiple lines and con-
verters. The zones are within the
HVdc gr id bounded by fault
clearing equipment (for example,
HVdc circuit breakers and dc/dc
converters), which quickly isolate
B D
the faulted zone from the healthy
ones. Similar to a nonselectively
protected HVdc grid, the faulted A C
zone is de-energized and the faulted
component isolated using mechani-
cal switches. This protection phi-
losophy relies on two types of (b)
equipment: 1) mechanical switches
without fault-current interruption
capability in transmission line bays
that do not connect protection zones
and 2) equipment with fault-current B1 D1
interruption capability in bays that G G
provide the interconnection between
A1 C1
two protection zones.
G G
Busbar Arrangements B2 D2
The protection choice determines
the required equipment within the A2 C2
substation and affects the busbar
arrangement. In selectively pro- (c)
tected HVdc grids, the balance of
availability versus cost will likely figure 3. Configurations and grounding for HVdc grids: (a) asymmetric monopolar,
result in a different busbar arrange- (b) symmetric monopolar, and (c) bipolar.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 63

 is typically quoted as being around
100  km. A dc substation far off-
shore would need to be housed
in a large protective structure
with a controlled internal envi-
ronment that shields the equip-
ment against temperature varia-
tion, weather, wind, and waves.
(a) (b) (c) Figure 5 shows a typical off-
shore HVdc housing on a raised
figure 4. An example of busbar topologies and arrangements for breakers and platform, which is many stories
current-limiting inductors: (a) a single busbar/single breaker, (b) a ring bus, and (c) a high and the size of a sports field.
breaker-and-a-half scheme. Measurements and disconnectors are not shown. Substations have been constructed
in the relatively shallow waters
fault-current-limiting equipment may need careful deter- off the northwestern European coast where engineers use
mination to avoid creating damaging overcurrents in the fixed foundation legs on the seabed. The civil engineering
circuit breakers, for example, because of the discharge of and installation expenses dominate the overall costs of such
the connected cables. Figure 4 provides examples of dc platforms and lead to great demand for compact designs that
busbar arrangements, where care has been taken to avoid a minimize the station size. As a result, all offshore dc substa-
direct connection between the circuit breaker and the trans- tions have used VSCs and are likely to continue doing so
mission line. because of their smaller footprint compared with LCCs. An
While it is clear that the design of a dc substation will alternative solution is the construction of artificial islands,
depend on the adopted protection philosophy, it will also but examples of this do not exist yet.
hinge on the anticipated growth of an HVdc grid and a poten- Considerable work is being undertaken to reduce the
tial associated change of philosophy. Small-scale HVdc grids size of the housing (topside), which would further lower
will be protected in a nonselective way, as is done for the its cost. It would also decrease the size and cost of the
existing multiterminal systems, whereas larger-scale HVdc foundation. The size of lifting vessels could be lessened
grids will show an increasing need for dc-side selectivity. DC which, given the limited supply of very large lifting ves-
substation layout should provide sufficient space for fault- sels, could also potentially reduce construction lead time
clearing equipment, such as HVdc circuit breakers, in case and costs.
the HVdc grid is expected to grow. The other major cost factor, maintenance, results from
the challenges of transporting large equipment and person-
Substation Technology nel to a substation platform a long distance offshore. Several
The choice of substation technology will influence its lay- factors that must be considered include the following:
out because GIS technologies allow for reduced dimen- 1) Weather: Transporting large pieces of equipment to a
sions compared with air-insulated switchgear technologies. platform in poor weather conditions is troublesome.
Although GIS is a mature technology in ac grids, it is not The delivery of replacement parts will be constrained
widely used for HVdc. The ac GIS designs cannot be trans- by available weather windows.
ferred straight to dc due to the differences in electric-field 2) Logistics: For the transportation of smaller plant piec-
distributions. Currently, GIS technology for dc applications es, parts, and technicians, a helicopter may be fea-
is under development for voltage levels appropriate for future sible. Suitable vessels and crew must be procured for
HVdc grids. The first offshore application of dc GIS will be large equipment. Large equipment is designed to be
for the DolWin6 project in Germany; at present, measure- very reliable; if it fails at all, it may be just once during
ment technology, such as RC dividers for GIS, are also being the 20-plus-year life of the HVdc system. Despite the
developed and tested. equipment’s high reliability, procuring and managing
special vessels and crews would be required on the
Offshore Substations rare occasions of forced outages.
HVdc grids are expected to play a key role in future off- 3) Spare parts: Spare equipment inventories for large
shore grids requiring specific installations on platforms plants may be prohibitively expensive. Spare parts
where space and volume are precious. Since these substa- may need to be manufactured (or existing plant equip-
tions are located far from land, platform size and system ment repaired on site).
maintenance dominate design considerations and cost. DC 4) Platform access: The part to be replaced may need to
substations would typically be a long distance from shore be extracted from the platform, and this may affect the
because ac technology would be used for shorter distances. layout of items in the substation, complicating electri-
Although the break-even distance varies from site to site, it cal design.

64 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 5) Revenue loss: While a dc substation is out of service,
the power of the wind farm it connects to would be
blocked or curtailed.
Historically, operations and maintenance consider-
ations have led to different onshore and offshore system
designs. Figure 6 shows a simplified single-line diagram of
a two-level, point-to-point link. The onshore substation
design optimizes the system’s electrical performance.
The connection transformer has a tap changer to best
match the network ac voltage to the converter. Since
physically large transformers are essential components
of a plant and including a tap changer decreases a plant’s
reliability, offshore connection transformers do not have
a tap changer. A decrease in the offshore converter’s effi-
ciency is accepted to obtain lower costs in overall opera-
tions and maintenance.

figure 5. The HelWin 2 foundation next to the HelWin 1 platform. (Used with permission of Siemens, www.siemens
.com/press.)

ac Network
+Vdc

ac Breaker
and
Preinsertion Phase
Resistance
Reactor
Wind Farm

ac Filter
ac Filter

Onshore –Vdc Offshore

figure 6. A point-to-point, representative, single-line diagram of an HVdc two-level substation (based on published data
from the BorWin 1 HVdc offshore platform).

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 65


figure 7. The interior of the SylWin 1 offshore substation.
(Used with permission of Siemens, www.siemens.com/press.)
Where possible, equipment is not located offshore. Fig-
ure 6 shows the onshore location of dc chopper resistors,
which are used to ensure that the dc-connected cables do not
experience overvoltages. The space to house them is not part
of the offshore substation, again reducing costs.
Since multiterminal substations would be more complex
and larger, locating them offshore would increase the size
and cost of offshore substations. The greater complexity
would also increase the potential for component failure. The
application of HVdc breakers, with their large and complex
components, would further increase substation costs. These
increased costs are particularly high when the multiterminal
dc substations are located offshore on a platform, potentially
limiting the development of such substations.
There have been substantial investments in VSC HVdc
reliability. Converters now employ modular multilevel designs
using several submodules. As shown in Figure 7, each sub-
module is about the size of a large suitcase and can be replaced
individually. A converter can be designed with redundant sub-
modules; should one fail, it can be switched out and replaced
with another online.
The design of offshore converters requires special exper-
tise. Even with 99% efficiency, a 500-MW station still requires
cooling systems to handle up to 5 MW of heat. In addition
to thermal design, electrical-insulation design is a key factor.
Sufficient clearance must be left between components of the
converter and the topside structure to ensure proper electri-
cal isolation. This means that much of the structure inside the
topside is clear air. The authors anticipate the first applications
of DC GIS solutions to be deployed offshore.
While some onshore VSC HVdc designs use voltages up
to 500 kV, present offshore installations are limited to ±320 kV.
This is consistent with the voltage ratings of the XLPE sub-
sea cables that were available at the time of this writing.
Major manufacturers have undertaken a large number of off-
shore substations, and these have been functioning successfully
for a number of years. The authors anticipate further progress in
reducing station size and cost. In maintenance, the use of robots,
66 ieee power & energy magazine
already seen in some onshore substations and wind turbines,
will undoubtedly transfer to offshore environments.
Summary
Although the design principles for ac substations, such as sub-
station layout, are, in theory, applicable to the design of dc
substations, fundamental differences exist and depend on the
choices made in system topology, control, and protection. First,
the HVdc grid topology determines the number of transmis-
sion lines to route within a dc substation. Second, the primary
and secondary equipment required within the dc substation,
and its characteristics, depends on the adopted control and
protection philosophy. In addition, the location of the substa-
tion (for example, on- or offshore) influences the choices made
in construction and insulation technology (for instance, air or
gas insulated). Recent technological developments indicate
that most building blocks for future HVdc grids are in place or
advancing toward practical realization. Nevertheless, the con-
struction of a reliable and cost-effective HVdc grid will require
engineers to consider the many options for system protection,
operation, and control, and the implications that these have on
the practical realization of the underlying dc substations.
For Further Reading
M. Barnes, D. Van Hertem, S. P. Teeuwsen, and M. Callavik,
“HVDC systems in smart grids,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 105, no.
11, pp. 2082–2098, Nov. 2017.
CIGRÉ Joint Working Group B4/B5-59, “Local control
and protection of HVDC grids,” CIGRÉ, Paris, France,
technical brochure, 2018.
CIGRÉ Joint Working Group A3/B4.34, “Technical re-
quirements and specifications of state-of-the-art HVDC
switching equipment,” CIGRÉ, Paris, France, technical bro-
chure, 2017.
D. Van Hertem, O. Gomis-Bellmunt, and J. Liang, HVDC
Grids: For Offshore and Supergrid of the Future. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley-IEEE Press, 2016.
V. Akhmatov et al., “Technical guidelines and prestan-
dardization work for first HVDC grids,” IEEE Trans. Power
Del., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 327–335, Feb. 2014. doi: 10.1109/
TPWRD.2013.2273978.
Biographies
Dirk Van Hertem is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Belgium.
Willem Leterme is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Belgium.
Geraint Chaffey is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Bel-
gium.
Mudar Abedrabbo is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Bel-
gium.
Mian Wang is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Belgium.
Firew Zerihun is with KU Leuven/EnergyVille, Bel-
gium.
Mike Barnes is with The University of Manchester, Unit-
ed Kingdom.
p&e
july/august 2019
Offshore
Substation Design
By Vandad Hamadi,
Úna Brosnan,
Ingar Loftus,
and Gavin Montgomery
T
THE OFFSHORE WIND INDUSTRY HAS BEEN GAIN-
ing momentum on the East Coast of the United States as
its first U.S. offshore wind farm (OWF), off Block Island
(30 MW), has been in operation for nearly three years. States
such as Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Rhode
Island, New Jersey, and Maryland are all taking significant
steps forward in embedding offshore wind within their future
energy portfolios. BVG Associates predicts that the U.S. off-
shore wind market will develop rapidly between 2020 and
2030, with a high forecast of annual installed capacity sur-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2909008
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
july/august 2019 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE
High-Level Overview
of the Industry
Best Practices
passing 1 GW by 2026 and reaching 8.4 GW by 2030. As the
industry moves from demonstration- to commercial-scale
projects, there is growing interest in high-capacity farms sited
farther offshore in deeper waters (see Figure 1).
Finding the balance between resilience and the cost of an
offshore substation (OSS) is one of the key challenges for OWF
developers today. This is further complicated by the need to
©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/SMARTBOY10
keep the capital expenditures (CAPEX) and long-term oper-
ating expenditures (OPEX) low in a competitive market. The
decision drivers for an OWF design can be different from those
of utility systems. Clients have different needs for substation
development from both technical and commercial perspec-
tives, and they can vary from one country to another. Designers
ieee power & energy magazine 67
 need to establish a definite method from an early stage, which
will allow them to assess options and provide results that will
underpin economic decisions. Figure 2 shows an example of
the variance among some of the European approaches in the
United Kingdom, Germany, and The Netherlands.
With the emergence of the offshore wind industry in the
United States, this article provides a high-level overview
of the key drivers, design requirements, and industry best
practices for OSS design. The article also explores some of
the developments in electrical technology that are helping to
shape the offshore wind industry and contribute to its cost-
reduction challenge.
OSSs facilitate the collection and export of the power
generated by an OWF through specialized submarine cables,
which are essential components, especially at large, multi-
megawatt sites. OSSs are also critical to stabilizing and

figure 1. The Rampion OWF. (Source: Atkins; used with permission.)

Country Wind Turbines OSS OSS Subsea Onshore Onshore Onshore

and Array Cables (ac) (dc) Export Substation Substation Transmission
Cable (Grid and Distribution
Company) Grid

United Kingdom Offshore Built by the Offshore Wind Developer Work Undertaken by Onshore
Wind Developer (Late OFTO Model) and Then Transferred to Grid Company as Part of Enabling
Offshore Transmission Owner (OFTO) Company Work or Use of Existing Asset

Denmark Offshore Offshore Transmission System Developed by Work Undertaken by Onshore

Wind Developer Energinet as Offshore Transmission System Grid Company as Part of Enabling
Operator (TSO) Work or Use of Existing Asset
Germany Offshore Wind Offshore Transmission System Developed by Work Undertaken by Onshore Grid
Developer (Including the German TSOs (TenneT, 50 Hertz) as Offshore Company as Part of Enabling Work
Offshore ac Substation) TSO or Use of Existing Asset

The Netherlands Offshore Wind Developer Offshore Transmission System Developed by Work Undertaken by Onshore
(Including the Offshore Grid Company as Part of Enabling
Dutch TSO (TenneT) as Offshore TSO
ac Substation) Work or Use of Existing Asset

figure 2. European transmission approaches. (Source: Atkins; used with permission.)

68 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

optimizing the voltage generated offshore, reducing poten-
tial electrical losses, and transmitting the electricity to shore
in an economical manner. One of the key design challenges
is identifying the lifecycle cost implication of transmission
and availability losses (i.e., during downtime).
The primary purpose of an OSS (Figure 3) is to reduce
electrical losses on the system by increasing the voltage (i.e.,
stepping up) and then exporting the power to shore. Small
or precommercial projects (lower than 100 MW), nearshore
projects (lower than ~15 km), or projects with a grid con-
nection at collector voltage (i.e., lower than 36 kV) do not
require an OSS. As capacity increases and substations are
sited farther offshore in deeper waters, the requirement
increases, and one or multiple OSSs are needed to meet
project needs. Challenging decisions must be made, such as
those between high-voltage (HV) ac and HVdc, the amount
and type of offshore reactive compensation, and the size of
an OSS. System studies are the starting point to assess the
concept and connection options in the transmission and dis-
tribution network.
OSSs typically step up the voltage from the site distribu-
tion (30–66 kV) to a higher voltage (115–230 kV), which is
typically the connection voltage. This step-up dramatically
reduces the number of export circuits (subsea cables) between
the OSS and the shore. Typically, each export circuit may be
rated in the range of 150–200 MW. When designing an off-
shore electrical network, the following elements need to be
taken into consideration during the early development of the
transmission network for a wind farm:
✔ capacity
✔ distance from shore
✔ HVac/HVdc
✔ reactive compensation requirements
✔ the number of export cables to shore
✔ the number of transformers on the OSS (i.e., capacity
dependent)
✔ redundancy
✔ equipment failure rates
✔ traditional OSS or offshore transmission modules
(OTMs)
✔ the power supply for ancillary and low-voltage systems
✔ 33-kV versus 66-kV interarray cables
✔ OSS maintenance strategy
✔ interlinking multiple offshore OSSs and adjacent OWFs
✔ the availability target and requirements
✔ substation installation techniques.
As the offshore wind sector has matured, the project capacity of
projects has increased, and they have moved farther offshore. To
date, the majority of offshore wind projects have been built with
ac transmission (with the exception of a small number of collec-
tor hubs in Germany). However, the industry has been success-
ful in delaying the requirement for expensive dc transmission
through the introduction of midpoint compensation platforms.
Such a system requires an ac/dc converter station both offshore
and onshore, which are both large installations. In the next wave
july/august 2019
of U.K. projects in the 2019 contract-for-difference auctions,
the industry is likely to see an introduction of HVdc technology
take its first steps, such as the Dogger Bank area and Vatten-
fall’s Norfolk projects. The industry challenge will be to push
the limits of the technology through innovations while executing
projects cost-effectively through their lifecycles.
When to Use HVdc
When a connection to an OWF from onshore cannot be served
by an ac circuit (e.g., when transmission distance is excessive),
an HVdc system can be used. An HVdc system requires an
offshore HVdc converter station to house the insulated-gate
bipolar transistor valves, filters, and other equipment required
to convert the wind farm’s electrical ac output into dc for trans-
mission to shore. To date, such systems have been deployed in
German waters. However, they are now being considered for
farther offshore U.K. Round 3 OWFs. The nature of the instal-
lation means that the converter stations employed in these sys-
tems are large, with ratings up to 900 MW operating at dc
voltages of 320 kV.
In the German OWF transmission connection model, the
offshore converter is supplied, owned, and operated by the
transmission operator TenneT. In this case, the converters are
located at the wind farm boundary and can support a number
of separately developed wind farms with the converter. In the
United Kingdom, the offshore transmission connection for a
wind farm is typically specific to the OWF that is connected.
Offshore converter stations are generally constructed with
a jacket foundation because of the equipment’s considerable
weight. The topside (i.e., the platform and the equipment) can
be in excess of 10,000 t and requires large installation vessels.
Self-installing stations have been used for the projects, such
as the HelWin and DolWin platforms. Self-installing struc-
tures can be transported from their fabrication location to the
installation site and negate the requirement for a large instal-
lation barge and cranes.
figure 3. The Galloper Offshore Transformer Platform,
United Kingdom. (Source: Atkins; used with permission.)
ieee power & energy magazine 69
 Traditional OSS Versus OTMs
Transmission infrastructure for an OWF typically accounts
for 10–20% of the project’s capital cost. A large portion of
the cost can be directly related to the development, manufac-
turing, and installation of OSS platforms, which are needed
to convert the array voltage (33 or 66 kV) to a higher level
(115 or 230 kV). If offshore converter platforms are required
for HVdc transmission, the cost will be considerably higher.
A decrease in platform size and weight offers a massive
potential for cost reduction of the OSS. If the total weight of
a topside and substructure can be kept below 1,000 t each,
smaller and less expensive installation vessels can be used,
having a significant effect on the overall cost. The introduction
of a modular concept approach (the OTM) has made inroads
on projects such as the Beatrice OWF, where two OTMs were
installed in 2018, the first of its kind in the offshore wind sector.
The OTM design concept reduces OSS equipment down
to the bare essentials, allowing the substation components to
be placed on a smaller substructure. To create a capacity simi-
lar to a traditional OSS, multiple modules are utilized. This
approach then removes the need for large heavy-lift installa-
tion vessels to install OSS foundations and their topsides, and it
optimizes the selection and use of more cost-effective vessels.
Integrated OSSs
Another tactic currently being explored in the industry is inte-
grating two HVac substations along with one HVdc converter
platform on a single support substructure. This approach is
geared toward reducing the structure’s weight when com-
pared to current HVdc technology. While this technique has
yet to be applied to a live project, studies indicate a signifi-
cant opportunity for reduced CAPEX and OPEX because of
the leaner cost and service requirements from having one
platform instead of multiple ones. With the introduction of a
66-kV interarray cable in lieu of the current 33 kV, we expect
to see the ac array cables directly coming to a single platform
where ac-to-dc conversion happens.
Interlink of Offshore Platforms
Developers are assessing the risk and availability profiles of
new offshore wind capacity and determining how to best mit-
igate downtime. Some developers are considering a concept
where they install transmission cables (interlinks) to link the
OSSs of projects that connect to a single common substation.
These submarine cables would be held in open standby in
case of a failure of the cable to shore. With such a failure,
the associated project would still have the capacity to export
some (or all) of its power to shore through the interlink via
the adjacent project’s cable to shore (depending on the capac-
ity available on the cable and interlink).
This interlink would essentially provide a redundancy
mechanism in the event of a cable failure and offer a more
cost-effective alternative to using multiple cable connections
to a single common substation from each adjacent offshore
project. The costs would be shared between project owners,
70 ieee power & energy magazine
based on a formula representing each generator’s access the
interlink and the availability of cables to shore. Currently, in
the United Kingdom, the transmission tariff methodology
for offshore transmission costs considers only radial cables
to shore and, therefore, does not take into account any inter-
links that may be built. This interlink concept presents the
first view of an offshore grid’s potentially being created using
the dynamic market forces at play in energy generation.
Technology Considerations
What are the key market disruptors reducing the expense in
today’s valuation of the cost of offshore wind? Some leading
technology drivers and changes that are helping the industry
optimize OSS design are discussed next.
Increasing the Interarray Cable Voltage to 66 KV
In the past year, we have seen the adoption of 66-kV cables
on projects, primarily to reduce overall costs. A 66-kV sys-
tem increases the power transfer capability through the
cables relative to lower-voltage systems, resulting in a more
cost-effective cable system through a more efficient and eco-
nomical transmission of power from OWFs to shore. Adopt-
ing a 66-kV system does incur increased unit costs for higher-
voltage cables, terminations, and switchgear. However, these
costs are outweighed with benefits, such as
✔ reduced array cable length (approximately 20–30%, de-
pending on site layout), resulting in lower CAPEX for
radial and ring configurations of an interarray design
✔ decreased number of OSSs required for a higher-volt-
age system
✔ additional design options that can be considered, in-
cluding connecting all the power cables to a single
platform and the possible use of less-expensive alumi-
num cables as an alternative to copper.
HVac: Adoption of the Midpoint
Reactive Compensation Platforms
Longer distances to shore drive the need for significant reactive
compensation because of the long lengths of submarine cables
connecting the wind farm to the onshore stations. On projects
such as Hornsea 1, the developer had three collector platforms
and a reactive compensation platform located between the wind
farm and shore. The midpoint reactive compensation structure
facilitates the installation of electrical reactors, which improve
voltage performance and limit electrical losses over the length
of the HVac transmission by reducing reactive power flows.
Midpoint reactive compensation platforms can be avoided with
the adoption of HVdc technology. However, HVdc applications
can bring significant costs and reliability risks.
Adoption of Larger Turbines
The introduction of larger turbines has had an impact on
overall substation design power, resulting in higher voltages
experienced on the system. This, in turn, has affected cable
requirements, thus increasing the cost of the transmission
july/august 2019
system. These costs have been balanced by the increased
electrical output of the bigger turbines.
Standardization of OSS Structures
One of the biggest and most cost-prohibitive issues asso-
ciated with OSSs was that substations were being custom
designed for each project. This resulted in a higher cost per
substation and provided an avenue to improve efficiencies
with innovative technologies to reduce overall costs. Devel-
oping standard designs across a series of substations, opti-
mizations in fabrication processes, and streamlining toward
serial fabrication all contributed to the cost reduction.
Adoption of Gas-Insulated
Switchgear Over Air-Insulated Switchgear
The adoption of gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) as an alternative
to air-insulated switchgear (AIS) has led to significant cost
reductions when assessed over the lifetime of the asset. The
classic reason to use a GIS instead of an AIS is that there is
a limited installation footprint available. GIS systems may
be marginally more expensive in terms of their initial cost
(CAPEX), but when considering the total cost (CAPEX plus
OPEX) of a substation during its lifespan, it can be more cost-
effective because of its smaller offshore footprint.
New Technologies
Several new technologies are being developed for OWFs,
and some are more advanced than others. Low-frequency
ac (LFac) systems are being proposed to transmit power
at a frequency lower than the standard grid frequency to
enable an increased transmission distance of subsea cables.
While such systems have been applied in rail systems across
Europe, no LFac system has been deployed to service off-
shore wind generation. LFac systems use an onshore fre-
quency converter to reduce the frequency of a 50–60-Hz
grid by one-third for the subsea component of transmis-
sion to the OSS and then on to the wind turbine generators
(WTGs). This lower frequency results in lower capacitance
in the cable circuit and a greater ability to deliver power
through the subsea cables.
The principles behind an LFac OSS are the same as those
for a standard 50- or 60-Hz HVac OSS. Both kinds collect
power from the WTG arrays and transform and export it
to the grid through export cabling. The required electrical
equipment is essentially the same: transformers, switchgear,
reactors, auxiliary systems, and emergency systems. How-
ever, the lower frequency means that some items will require
modification. In particular, the physical size of transform-
ers on the substation and within the wind turbines become
significantly larger due to the lower magnetic flux linkage
in the transformer cores, which could necessitate the use of
single-phase units as opposed to three phase.
Although the increased transformer size and weight
will impact the design of the OSS structural elements, the
concept of the jacket substructure and topside will remain
july/august 2019
as per the standard HVac design. The equipment layout on
the topside structure will also remain as per a typical HVac
design, with the heavy transformers located in the center
of the structure and other equipment around the periphery.
A typical topside would comprise four levels: cable, main,
mezzanine, and roof decks. An example of an LFac OSS lay-
out is shown in Figure 4.
Other concepts or early ideas in industry that could pos-
sibly change the dynamic of offshore wind in the decades
ahead are as follows.
✔ Floating substations: These could assist greatly in areas
with environment challenges (e.g., exposure to typhoons
and seismic activity or areas sensitive to piling solutions).
The concept could also have cost advantages around in-
stallation, and it may assist in areas such as the United
States where there are installation restrictions regarding
the Jones Act, which inhibits the use of foreign vessels.
✔ An offshore hub development approach: TenneT (an
offshore grid operator in Germany and The Nether-
lands) is exploring a concept in which an offshore arti-
ficial island is developed as a central hub for installa-
tion, operation, and maintenance activities.
✔ Utilizing existing offshore infrastructure: This in-
volves transmitting power over existing offshore in-
terconnector runs or connecting into an offshore load,
such as an offshore oil and gas platform.
✔ dc exportation: This would explore whether offshore tur-
bines could export dc directly from the individual turbines.
✔ A submerged substation: Microsoft deployed a sub-
merged data center off the coast of Scotland in 2018.
While a similar approach could be applied to OSSs,
there are challenges around operations and mainte-
nance (O&M) considerations and the cable connection.
Construction and Operations
Considerations
Moving away from the design side, we provide a high-level
overview of commissioning, installing, and operating an
OSS. We also address considerations for the end of a struc-
ture’s lifetime.
Switchgear
Transformer 1
MV
HV Switchgear
Switchgear
MV
Transformer 2
figure 4. A typical layout of an LFac OSS. MW: medium
voltage. (Source: Atkins; used with permission.)
ieee power & energy magazine 71
 Preenergization Commissioning
This stage defines the situation where the OSS has been
transported to and installed at the final offshore site with
array power cables as well as export power cables connected.
At this stage, final tests and inspections take place before
the grid connection is established and the WTGs are set
into operation. Outstanding items that still remain from the
onshore commissioning stage are subject to clarification.
Typical tasks related to this stage are
✔ a visual inspection
✔ checks of the following:
• low voltage and safety systems
• communication systems [e.g., supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA) as well as very high
frequency/ultrahigh frequency radio]
• insulation resistance of primary electrical equipment
• transformer tap changer operation
• transformer auxiliaries
• helideck readiness for operation
• the readiness of davits and lifeboats for operation
• platform cranes’ readiness for operation
✔ HV tests for power cables.
Postenergization Commissioning
Postenergization commissioning defines the situation of the
OSS once the grid connection is established or the WTGs
have been successfully commissioned and put into operation.
Typical tasks related to this stage are
✔ monitoring
• the transformer operation as well as additional tests
and checks, including oil sampling
• the switchgear operation as well as additional checks
on cable connections and auxiliary systems
✔ checking the control and cable marshaling panels and
the emergency generator set.
O&M of an OSS System
The OSS contains the electrical equipment and also often
provides some maintenance facilities for the electrical works
and turbines, such as spare parts and technician workshops.
O&M requirements for the different elements of an OSS
platform are as follows.
Offshore Platform Structures
The offshore topside and foundation of the OSS are gen-
erally considered separately, distinguishing the subsea
and splash-zone inspections needed for the foundation.
Foundation Structural Integrity
For the jacket foundation, specialist surveys are required
to ensure structural integrity. Routine surveys are likely to
be undertaken in the first two years. Once the site has been
characterized, subsequent surveys are very infrequent, with
many required on a five- or ten-year cycle. It is unlikely that
structural repairs will be needed.
72 ieee power & energy magazine
Subsea Operations
Surveying the status of the scour protection installed to pre-
vent sediment erosion where the jacket meets the seabed
can be carried out by remotely operated underwater vehi-
cles (ROVs) from a survey vessel or, in exceptional cases,
by divers. Activity requiring subsea operations may include
infrequent inspections of the structure and J-tube cathodic
protection, and it can generally be carried out using ROVs.
Diving, although currently relatively commonplace, is labor
intensive and relatively expensive and required only in
exceptional circumstances. Efforts are being made to maxi-
mize the use of safer remote techniques.
Topside Paints and Coatings
OSS topsides and splash zones are expected to have high-
specification paint to prevent corrosion. While the integrity
of the paint may be suitable for 10 –15 years, paint guarantees
are shorter, and areas of corrosion will need to be addressed
regularly based on visual inspections. Over the 20-year life
of the assets, at least one major repainting program would
be expected.
Topside Structures
The topside structure will need regular surveys of the integ-
rity of the steelwork, welds and joints, and equipment mod-
ules. It is unlikely that major structural repairs will be needed.
Maintenance will include boat landings and ladders, walk-
ways, external gates, and railings. This will include annual
cleaning and the removal of bird guano.
The davit crane on the topside will require periodic
maintenance in accordance with the manufacturer’s O&M
manual. The crane will require some form of maintenance
or recertification every three years through its lifetime. The
topside structure may include a helipad or helihoist platform,
depending on the strategy for operation and maintenance
of the wind farm as well as for the OSS. If present, it will
need to be inspected and maintained. The maintenance and
inspection information of specific safety equipment, such as
fall-arrest systems and lifeboats, is included in the “Offshore
Platform Ancillary Assets” section.
Fire Safety
For passive fire protection, walls and decks must meet mini-
mum fire integrity standards. In terms of active fire protec-
tion, a fixed water mist, gaseous system, or deluge system
is installed to cover the following areas and equipment
as applicable:
✔ HV equipment, such as main transformer(s), switch-
gear, and semiconductor converters, require a water
mist or gaseous system.
✔ Emergency generators need a water mist or gaseous
system.
✔ Areas of storage of cylinders with compressed gas
(e.g., oxygen and acetylene) use a deluge system.
✔ Helicopter decks (if present) use a foam system.
july/august 2019
These all need to be maintained as part of the overall
operational and maintenance requirements for the off-
shore topside.
Offshore Platform Electrical Systems
OSS maintenance consists primarily of nonintrusive inspec-
tions of topside switchgear and transformers with a require-
ment of infrequent intrusive services or repairs, depending
on the type of switchgear and transformers installed. It is
typically carried out by the original equipment manufacturer.
More serious repair operations, such as replacing transform-
ers, will require the use of heavy-lift vessels.
Planned maintenance activities are likely to result in a
temporary reduction of available electricity export capacity.
The duration of maintenance is dependent on the type and
design of the transmission infrastructure and the degree of
system redundancy. For the transformers located on the off-
shore platform topside, generally no intrusive maintenance
will be required. However, there are several real-time moni-
toring devices attached to the transformer that will require
periodic maintenance.
Typical maintenance tasks for offshore transformers include
✔ transformer oil tests (which analyze water content, car-
bon, and so on) every five years for the initial 10 years
and then every two years
✔ Buchholz tests (checks for internal faults, such as over-
heating or arcing, low oil level, or a leak) every three years
✔ periodic checks of the monitoring equipment and the
silica gel breather
✔ protection trip tests from the transformer to the pro-
tection system every three years
✔ protection and control tests every three years
✔ general cleaning of the transformer
✔ oil leak checks on every visit to the substation
✔ paint touch-ups.
OSS platform asset operation depends on SCADA monitor-
ing, which is used to optimize performance and, potentially,
identify component faults. In addition to enabling 24/7 monitor-
ing and occasional remote manual intervention (which requires
several dedicated employees per wind farm), data can also be
analyzed in depth offsite for condition monitoring purposes.
GISs are sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breakers char-
acterized by their simple and robust construction. They have
a long life expectancy. Their operating mechanisms have
a low maintenance requirement, and the interrupters are
maintenance free during their working life. Their servicing
intervals and scope are determined by environmental influ-
ences, switching sequences, and the number of short circuit
breaking operations. Under normal operating conditions and
with carefully performed inspections and servicing work, cir-
cuit breakers, depending on the type, have a service life of up to
approximately 20,000 operating cycles.
Typical maintenance tasks for GISs include the following:
✔ timing tests for electrical equipment, such as circuit
breakers, disconnectors, and earth switch contacts
july/august 2019
✔ operations testing or cycle testing of the circuit break-
er (spring or pneumatic) and disconnector and earth
switch (motorized)
✔ verification and testing of auxiliary switch positions
and visual position indicators
✔ interlocking mechanisms test
✔ tests of tripping mechanisms, including simulated
trips from the protection relay
✔ electrical integrity testing of the GIS (typically every
two years for a marine environment)
✔ general cleaning of the baffles
✔ protection and control tests (every three years).
There is also a requirement to maintain secondary electri-
cal and ancillary services, such as lighting; navigation light-
ing; emergency lighting; heating, ventilation, and air-condi-
tioning systems; dc supplies and battery systems; SCADA;
and emergency generators. While most of these secondary
systems will require limited maintenance, the emergency
generator will require regular on-load running, refueling,
and servicing in accordance with the manufacturer’s require-
ments to ensure adequate service when needed. The genera-
tor would also require battery replacement during its 20-year
service life.
Offshore Platform Ancillary Assets
The category of ancillary assets is for the allowances associ-
ated with additional equipment on the platform that requires
maintenance. This may, for example, cover
✔ meteorological masts mounted on the platform
✔ weather forecasting equipment and software
✔ facilities for use by turbine technicians, such as stores
of spare parts.
There will also be specific maintenance and inspections of
safety equipment, including
✔ fall arrest systems
✔ external evacuation equipment (e.g., lifeboats)
✔ navigational aids.
Inspections must be carried out by qualified personnel,
either as part of the primary turbine maintenance or by a
team of independent inspectors. Inspection frequency will
be annual or biannual, depending on the equipment. Emer-
gency response drills for health and safety incidents should
be a routine part of the operation and maintenance process.
Health and safety equipment, such as first-aid kits and fire
extinguishers, will need to be replenished.
Offshore Transmission Stage
Workboats are an essential part of any shore-based offshore
wind O&M strategy. These vessels transport technicians and
equipment from shore when wave conditions allow and provide
the backbone of logistical services to the turbines and other
elements of the wind farm. For near-shore projects, workboats
are likely to be the sole means of regular access. For more dis-
tant projects or where wave conditions are particularly severe,
they may be supplemented by helicopter access. Far offshore
ieee power & energy magazine 73
 sites that use an offshore base may use workboats to ferry tech-
nicians between an offshore base and turbines.
Current workboats are stable catamaran vessels 12–24 m
long overall with a passenger capacity of approximately 12.
They can typically transfer technicians in up to 1.2 m of signifi-
cant wave height and carry 5–20 t of deck cargo. They are usually
classified as Maritime and Coastguard Agency category 2, limit-
ing them to 60 nmi (110 km) from base. Alternatively, some
vessels follow the DNV GL Windfarm Service 1 R1 category,
which are suitable for up to 150 nmi (280 km) from shore.
The cruising speed of the current fleet of workboats is in the
range of 20–25 kn (37–46.3 km/h). For turbine maintenance, it
is standard practice for the supply of workboats, skippers, and
mates to be contracted to a wind farm operator on a long-term
basis. For maintenance of the OSS, visits will be less frequent.
Workboat-only strategies are expected to be typical at up
to 12 nmi (22 km). The superior speed and stability of small-
waterplane-area twin hull vessels and other new designs may
increase the range of workboat-only operation and mainte-
nance strategies where regulatory, commercial, or other fac-
tors limit the use of helicopter support. Helicopters can allow
access in otherwise inaccessible sea conditions with faster
transit times, although they are inherently more expensive
and have lower load-carrying capacity compared with work-
boats. Nevertheless, helicopters can be economical in provid-
ing access for fault repair in harsh weather, especially at the
farther locations, and they can reduce lost production from a
lack of turbine or equipment availability at a substation.
To date, helicopters supporting maintenance for OWFs
mainly fly to and from the wind farm and only rarely land
on the OSS. (The provision of a helideck on a platform is
reviewed at the design stage in line with the developer’s O&M
strategy and a review of its distance from shore.) For this type
of work, small twin-engine four- to six-passenger helicopters
have been used, such as the Eurocopter EC135, ferrying one
or two crews each of two to three technicians between the
onshore helicopter base and the OWF. This will change as
more OSSs have helipads.
Decommissioning Considerations
Decommissioning of offshore electrical systems should be rel-
atively straightforward in that the topside on which the electri-
cal systems are located will be dismantled in a controlled envi-
ronment, such as a shipyard. This will generally encompass
dismantling the electrical equipment and removing it from the
shipyard for disposal or recycling, as applicable.
The electrical equipment is manufactured from materials
that can be readily recycled, such as steel, aluminum, and
copper. This is usually undertaken by specialist contractors
because, in some circumstances, dangerous materials can
remain present. Care must be taken, as the equipment con-
tains substances that will require special handling and dis-
posal. These items include
✔ SF6 gas (HV switchgear)
✔ battery acids from the uninterruptable power supplies
74 ieee power & energy magazine
✔ diesel and oil from the emergency generator
✔ transformer oil and oil-impregnated papers.
All hazardous substances will need to be disposed of in line with
regulatory requirements in place at time of decommissioning.
Summary
As the offshore wind sector grows and matures, so will the
need for the industry to develop new design approaches for
offshore transmission assets. Key considerations for future
transmission assets include developing new technology and
balancing capital and operating expenses. With the market
moving to turbines that generate more than 10 MW, we are
seeing larger developments sited farther offshore. New off-
shore developments will pose transmission challenges and
require more efficient O&M techniques.
Several new technologies are being developed for OWFs,
and some are in more advanced stages than others. New design
approaches for the coming wave of projects will drive reduc-
tions in cost, transmission losses, and risk. With the build-out of
more wind farms in closer proximity, we are likely to see devel-
opers use interlink models to improve economies of scale and
further reduce risk profiles. Approaches to O&M are likely to
evolve in the coming years. Remote monitoring systems and
automated maintenance and fault identification systems could
greatly reduce the required frequency of offshore inspections.
For Further Reading
E. Olsen, U. Axelsson, A. Canelhas, and S. Karamitsos,
“Low-frequency ac transmission on large scale offshore
wind power plants,” in Proc. 13th Wind Integration Work-
shop, Berlin, Germany, 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.033.
DNV GL, “Power frequency optimisation for offshore
wind farms,” in Proc. EWEA Offshore 2015, Copenhagen,
Denmark, 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.ewea.org/
offshore2015/conference/allposters/PO053.pdf
P. B. Wyllie, Y. Tang, L. Ran, T. Yang, and J. Yu, “Low
frequency ac transmission: Elements of a design for wind
farm connection,” in Proc. 11th IET Int. Conf. ac and dc Power
Transmission, 2015, pp. 367–371.
Offshore Wind Programme Board, “Lightweight off-
shore substation designs,” ORE Catapult, 2016. [Online].
Available: https://ore.catapult.org.uk/app/uploads/2018/02/
Lightweight-Offshore-Substation-Designs.pdf
R. A. Walling and T. Ruddy, “Economic optimization of
offshore windfarm substations and collection systems,” Of-
gem, 2005. [Online]. Available: https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/
ofgem-publications/51782/14680-economic-optimization-
offshore-windfarms.pdf
Biographies
Vandad Hamadi is with Atkins, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
Úna Brosnan is with Atkins, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
Ingar Loftus is with Atkins, Epsom, United Kingdom.
Gavin Montgomery is with Atkins, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
p&e
july/august 2019
Managing
the New Grid
Delivering
Sustainable
Electrical
Energy

T
THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUS-
try is experiencing an unprecedented
evolution, driven largely by changes
to the generation portfolio and the
interconnection of renewable gen-
eration technologies in transmission
and distribution (T&D) grids. These
changes are introducing a variety of
opportunities and challenges related
to how power delivery systems are
engineered, planned, and operated.
In response to these opportuni-
ties and challenges, the U.S. Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC) organized the Reliability
Technical Conference (Docket
No. AD18-11-000) on 31 July 2018
and asked the IEEE to partici-
pate and provide a balanced and
©ISTOCKPHOTO.COM/DANIJELALA
unbiased viewpoint on the panel

By Julio Romero Agüero, Damir Novosel,

Emanuel Bernabeu, Bill Chiu, Jay Liu, Veronika Rabl,
Thomas Pierpoint, Doug Houseman, Babak Enayati,
and Sharma Kolluri
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2908097
Date of publication: 18 June 2019

july/august 2019 1540-7977/19©2019IEEE ieee power & energy magazine 75

 50 2,500
Share of Total Generation (%)

40 2,000

kWh (Billions)
30 1,500

20 1,000

10 500

0 -
2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018
(a)

West South Midwest Northeast

80 80 80 80
70 70 70 70
60 60 60 60
50 50 50 50
(%)

40 40 40
(%)

40

(%)
(%)

30 30 30 30
20 20 20 20
10 10 10 10
0 0 0 0
2006 2020 2006 2020 2006 2020 2006 2020

Coal Natural Gas Nuclear Nonhydro Renewables Hydropower Other

AK WA
West MT ND ME

OR MN VT
ID NY NH MA
SD WI
0 550 mi WY
MI NortheastRI
Midwest IA CT
NE PA NJ
West
NV OH
UT IL IN DC MDDE
CA CO WV
KS MO VA
KY
NC
TN
AZ OK AR State
NM SC
South Region
AL GA
MS Midwest
TX LA
HI Northeast
FL
0 100 mi West South
0 95 190 380 mi West
N

(b)

figure 1. (a) The total U.S. electricity generation by energy source. (b) The regional share of total electricity generation by
energy source. Nonhydro, nonhydroelectric. (Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration.)

76 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

“Managing the New Grid.” This panel explored power subsidies for coal, nuclear, and renewable generation. The mar-
system planning and operations challenges and oppor- ket would be streamlined by including consumers, prosumers,
tunities as a result of changes to the power generation and aggregators in the short-term markets for energy and ancil-
resource mix, taking into consideration the steps initiated lary services.
by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation Extreme care must be taken so that the adoption of new
(NERC), regional entities, industry, and FERC. The IEEE generation technologies does not undermine the reliability
Industry Technical Support Task Force provided a written and resilience of the electric grid. To address some of these
testimony and had an IEEE representative participating issues, FERC commissioners asked the following questions
on the panel. Although the testimony had a focused scope at their reliability conference.
and reach, the authors have expanded it through this arti- ✔ Are essential reliability services (ERSs) adequately
cle to discuss in-depth issues and potential solutions to quantified to augment existing measures of reliability
ensure reliable, secure, and safe operation of the electric such as reserve margin?
power system. ✔ Is there an opportunity to further refine ERSs so that
they can be used to develop and deploy solutions to the
Generation Portfolio Trends and specific challenges facing the grid?
Essential Reliability Services ✔ Is there a need to better quantify ERSs so that they can
The electric power industry is experiencing a rapid transition be provided through a market mechanism rather than
from conventional generation to renewable and cleaner tech- a reliability standard?
nologies. The U.S. trends are shown in Figure 1. This evolu- It is critical to ensure that new generation technologies [par-
tion is driven by regulatory and policy mandates as well as byticularly inverter-based resources (IBRs), such as wind, solar,
and distributed energy resources (DERs)] have the capability
maturing alternative technology and associated cost reductions.
to provide ERSs to the electric power system. Quantifying the
For instance, in the United States, the Eastern Interconnection
has experienced a significant adoption of cleaner generation value of ERSs in a technologically neutral manner (not only
technologies (natural gas and, increasingly, renewables) and for conventional generation but for IBRs) would be beneficial
the retirement of many coal and nuclear plants. The Electric for improving reliability and resilience. For example, IBRs
Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) and California markets can provide reserve margins if the ERS is properly addressed
have experienced a substantial interconnection of renewable and recognized by system operators and in the marketplace.
generation. Wind generation is dominant in the ERCOT mar- Market mechanisms would require proper reliability standards
ket and largely localized in the Texas Panhandle area, while to price the ERSs provided by all technologies. Furthermore,
solar generation has modified the load-curve profile of the IEEE Standard 1547-2018 (IEEE Standard for Interconnection
California Independent System Operator (CAISO) and created and Interoperability of DERs with Associated Electric Power
steep-ramping needs for operators during sunset and poten- Systems Interfaces) defines the ERS (i.e., frequency response,
tial overproduction risks during daytime. Figure 2 shows the ramping, and voltage support) capabilities for DERs intercon-
nected to the distribution grid.
effect of high solar penetration on the demand for fast-ramping
resources in early morning and late
afternoon and the overgeneration
potential that would require curtail-
30
ment of renewable resources. Distributed Solar
25 Utility-Scale Solar
By 2030, the European Union 20 Imports
GWh

(EU) targets at least 40% reduc- 15 Other Renewables

tion in greenhouse gas emissions 10 Thermal
compared with 1990 and expects 5 Nuclear
Hydroelectric
to meet over 27% of energy con- 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
sumption by renewables. A large
Hour of the Day
contribution toward this goal is (a)
expected to come from renew- 60
US$/MWh

able generation, electrified heat- 40 Real-Time

20 Average
ing and cooling (including heat 0 Hourly Price
pumps), and transportation. –20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
While continuing to pursue GHG
Hour of the Day
emissions goals, the EU has also
(b)
proposed restructuring its power
system. Objectives include ensuring figure 2. Examples of (a) the California ISO duck curve and (b) negative whole-
smooth interconnections; mandating sale prices on 11 March 2017. (Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration.)
regional planning; and eliminating See also Hobbs et al.

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 77

 Other questions posed were
✔ What actions could be taken to ensure that enough
ERSs are available while the resource mix continues
to evolve?
✔ Are there specific benefits or risks posed by variable
energy resources and distributed energy resources?
The risks of fuel scarcity, supply interruption, and disrup-
tion must be fully recognized in the assessment of transmission
security and ERSs for the grid. This assessment should dif-
ferentiate between fuel security and just-in-time fuel sup-
plies that address fuel scarcity during extreme events. For
instance, during several days in January 2018, the New Eng-
land area continued to operate only because oil-fired generation
facilities could increase production from their typical contribu-
tion (i.e., lower than 1% of total generation annually) to more
than 35% of total generation in the region. These facilities are
at severe risk of retirement, and their likely loss triggers the
need for developing a new set of generation alternatives. Simi-
lar to a diversified stock portfolio, a diverse generation mix can
help protect against price spikes and the volatility associated
with an overreliance on any individual generation source at
any given time. A diversified generation mix includes all tech-
nologies: natural gas, clean coal, nuclear, hydro, and renew-
able resources as well as energy storage. There is a critical link
between energy security, energy independence, grid resilience,
and ultimately, national security. As planned attacks designed
to inflict maximum disruption to electric grid operations
become a growing concern, a diverse electricity generation
mix better absorbs, withstands, and recovers from an attack
than a single generation technology or fuel source.
The following are conclusions and recommendations
addressing generation mix.
1) An adequate mix of fuel-secure and fuel-independent
technologies is key to maintaining enough ERSs able
to withstand primary resource (e.g., water, solar, wind,
natural gas, and so on) disruptions, price volatility,
and natural disasters and human-made disturbances
on the electric grid. For this reason, conventional gen-
eration resources are expected to remain critical for
system reliability in the future.
2) It is important to define updated reliability standards,
which account for changes in the generation mix.
NERC (N-1) planning and operation criteria are diffi-
cult to satisfy without reliable generation to redispatch
and mitigate criteria violation. For example, there are
no systematic reliability criteria for the planning and
operational effects of the natural gas delivery system
on the electric power system.
To properly address modern grid resilience and reliability
needs, in addition to the effect of a changing generation
resource mix on ERSs, it is necessary to consider extreme
natural events [such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, fires,
and geomagnetic disturbances (GMDs)], cyber and physical
security vulnerability, asset management and maintenance,
and the need for a skilled workforce.
78 ieee power & energy magazine
In summary, it is critical to have a consistent regulatory
framework that supports investments in grid moderniza-
tion (including the deployment of monitoring, protection,
automation, and control technologies; telecommunications
infrastructure; power electronics; energy storage; and new
materials) at the state and federal levels to address the afore-
mentioned challenges.
The Rise of DERs and Lessons Learned
The adoption of DER technologies at the T&D system level
has become one of the key drivers for transforming the elec-
tric utility industry. Although the term DERs is commonly
used in the industry, there is no uniform definition. The
National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners
uses the following broad definition:
A resource sited close to customers that can provide
all or some of their immediate electric and power
needs and can also be used by the system to either
reduce demand [such as energy efficiency (EE)] or
provide supply to satisfy the energy, capacity, or an-
cillary service needs of the distribution grid. The
resources, if providing electricity or thermal energy,
are small in scale, connected to the distribution sys-
tem, and close to load. Examples of different types
of DERs include solar photovoltaic (PV), wind, com-
bined heat and power (CHP), energy storage, demand
response (DR), electric vehicles (EVs), microgrids,
and EE.
As of 2017, the contribution from behind-the-meter PV-
distributed generation, small-scale CHP, residential smart
thermostats, EVs, and energy storage reached 46.4 GW dur-
ing the U.S. summer peak (compared to the 769-GW summer-
peak load reached by the entire U.S. power system in 2016).
By 2023, this contribution is expected increase to 104  GW,
which would represent a very valuable source of flexible
capacity enabled by using smart inverters.
The interconnection of DERs (particularly of renewable
distributed generation technologies such as PV and wind)
may impact the operations and planning of T&D grids. Dis-
tribution grids, in particular, may experience greater effects
because, traditionally, they have not been designed to inte-
grate these types of technology.
The suboptimal integration of IBRs can trigger hid-
den costs and operational risks, as demonstrated during
the Southern California 2016 and 2017 events, when a
number of PV plants disconnected from the grid, result-
ing from their inability to ride through voltage and fre-
quency variations caused by faults on the transmission
system. Some of the findings from these events include
the following:
1) Issues can arise from inverter settings and the way in
which the inverter calculates voltages (e.g., root mean
square versus peak) and frequency. It is important for
inverters to accurately calculate instantaneous fre-
quency during power system disturbances.
july/august 2019
 2) A momentary overvoltage occurred during one distur-
bance and caused the loss of generation from an entire
PV plant instead of just one cluster of PV arrays.
3) Many inverters appear to be set to temporarily shut
down if voltage is outside the normal operating range
of 0.90–1.10 per unit. These inverters remain offline
until the voltage returns to within the normal operat-
ing range.
4) The IBRs have very different response characteristics
than the traditional rotating machinery, and these new
response characteristics should be incorporated into
the ride-through capabilities.
5) The NERC PRC-024-2 standard currently allows in-
verters to instantaneously trip if the system conditions
are outside a defined set of boundaries; this is an area
that should be reevaluated because the existing PRC-
024-2 standard was created in the context of tradition-
al rotating machinery.
6) To protect the inverters, a “momentary cessation” mode
is used during system disturbances. In this mode,
solar plants are “technically” still connected to the sys-
tem and have not tripped (in compliance with NERC
reliability standards), but they do not inject current into
the system during and immediately after the fault to
support frequency, voltage, and short circuit duty. This
momentary cessation mode should not be used for new-
ly interconnecting resources to the bulk power systems
(BPSs) and should be eliminated to the greatest extent
possible for existing resources on the BPS because of
the reliability risk that the operating mode poses.
In general, the ride-through and mandatory operation
requirements set forth by IEEE 1547-2018 should be suffi-
cient to avoid tripping large amounts of DERs because of dis-
turbances related to inverter issues; this assumes that voltage
and frequency measurements are done properly.
Planning and Operational Needs
Impacts on DERs are typically identified during intercon-
nection studies, along with suitable mitigation measures
that ensure adequate integration considerations. Most of
these studies focus on steady-state aspects at the feeder/cir-
cuit or distribution system level; there is not a readily avail-
able vehicle or tool set for performing integrated T&D inter-
connection studies, where the aggregate amount of DERs
on an interface point basis is considered. As DER penetra-
tion increases, impacts may affect the operation of BPSs.
Therefore, it is important to better understand and model
the dynamic behaviors of DERs. There are strong incen-
tives designed to integrate DERs into wholesale market
operations, but there are no definitive studies of the impact
of wholesale market participation, especially in ancillary
services such as regulation of the distribution system. This
type of study will require developing suitable models of
T&D systems and using advanced simulation tools, includ-
ing time-series and probabilistic analyses. Jointly model-
july/august 2019
ing T&D systems, and accounting for all of these aspects,
is quickly becoming an important study area for the indus-
try. For instance, according to the recommendations issued
by NERC, PV plant owners are required to provide trans-
mission operators with dynamic model updates. This will
allow for model benchmarks against actual events to vali-
date accuracy and then to test the transmission system with
more severe disturbances to determine if the grid is stable.
As the industry continues to interconnect larger DERs, this
dynamic system performance analysis must become a part
of the review and interconnection process in the future.
A very important aspect of integrating IBRs to improve
system reliability and performance is reserving active power
headroom for operating reserve margin. This is a market
mechanism challenge, rather than a technical obstacle. There
are many discussions on the negative impact of IBRs on iner-
tia, which limits the frequency changes immediately after
disturbances. However, the practical issue is not about assur-
ing “inertia” but about attendant potential issues in balancing
load and generation to provide frequency response. Conven-
tional rotating generators, when they have operating reserve
margins, naturally respond to imbalance between generation
and load through governor action. Smart inverters can react
immediately and much faster than conventional generation in
balancing load and generation, but they need to have reserve
margin with which to operate. This may not be as easy as rely-
ing on natural, slower response by synchronous generation,
which acts to slow down frequency response. Smart inverters
will require new functionalities to facilitate their autonomous
response. Therefore, a new NERC standard is needed, which
clarifies and expands current reliability requirements for
IBRs to support the grid during system disturbances. Those
standards are required to price the ERSs provided.
In summary, IBRs bring new features and operational
challenges to power grid planning, operation, and control.
Three technical domains are expected to have an immediate
reliability impact on BPSs: voltage/reactive power support,
frequency response and control, and power system protec-
tion coordination with a low fault current. A useful reference
document is the IEEE report to NERC, “Impact of Inverter
Based Generation on Bulk Power System Dynamics and
Short-Circuit Performance,” which identifies solutions to
these potential conditions and provides guidance to users for
addressing these issues reliably.
Energy Storage
Energy storage resources (ESRs) are emerging as a non-
wire alternative (NWA) that mitigates the effects of renew-
able DER variability, addresses transmission congestion,
improves the utilization of T&D infrastructures, and
improves resilience and reliability by providing end users
with the ability to self-supply during contingency condi-
tions. This has led to ongoing debates regarding the future
of power delivery systems and the relevance of T&D grids.
Despite the increase of DERs and ESRs, T&D grids will
ieee power & energy magazine 79
 play a critical role as part of the overall delivery system
because not every DER is located near critical load centers,
e.g., business districts in large metropolitan areas. Hybrid
electrical systems combining T&D with DERs and ESRs
hold promise for the overall efficient and reliable delivery
of electric service to customers.
As energy storage becomes more cost-effective and a viable
NWA, it is increasingly important to address the following:
1) The technical, regulatory, and economic barriers still
impede the adoption of ESRs, even in states with ag-
gressive programs for deployment. It is widely under-
stood that “shared applications,” i.e., the utilization of
the same energy storage asset for various applications,
is key to realizing the best economic potential from
the technology. Regulatory paradigms should enable
the rapid adoption of these technologies and their most
effective applications. Energy storage fits into the gen-
eration, transmission, distribution, or customer buckets
and should not be forced to follow rules established for
just one asset class. Energy storage is a new asset class
of its own.
2) Procedures and tools need to be developed that opti-
mize the siting and sizing of ESRs as well as perform
accurate benefit-cost analyses, including lifecycle
economics and market participation benefits. New
and advanced modeling and simulation methodolo-
gies and tools, including time-series analyses, are re-
quired for accurate evaluation.
3) It is important to understand the impacts of operating
the ESR from the wholesale level of the market, when
they are installed on the distribution grid. At times,
what is best for the wholesale market may actually be
counter to what is needed on the distribution circuit to
which the ESR is attached.
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
TWh
Electrification
Electrification, where energy used for a service is changed
from a nonelectric source of energy to electricity, holds signifi-
cant promise for increasing EE and reducing carbon footprints.
As such, electrification also has the potential to increase elec-
tricity usage and reverse trends of flat electrical energy growth.
Rapid changes in technology are impacting how and why end-
use customers consume electricity, including the selection of
energy source. In addition to growing the use of electrical
transportation, there are additional opportunities in the indus-
trial, commercial, and residential sectors as well.
The adoption of electric transportation is expected to con-
tinue increasing. In addition to personal light-duty vehicles,
transportation electrification includes public and commercial
transportation, such as buses, fleets (e.g., United Parcel Service
and FedEx), trucks, and light rail. As adoption increases, this
technology has the potential to provide flexible load-manage-
ment opportunities for T&D grid management. Transportation
electrification represents a business opportunity for utilities
and requires a proactive approach to address business, tech-
nical, regulatory, and implementation concerns. A thorough
understanding and development of solutions that address tech-
nical issues on the T&D grid is vital. As shown in Figure 3,
renewables and natural gas-fired generation are expected to
meet the growth of demand and compensate for the retirement
of nuclear and coal-fired generation.
Demand Response
Using DR to alter electric load shapes has been common for
decades, and its strengths and weaknesses are well known. The
best candidates for DR are commercial/industrial customers.
Numerous residential DR programs are in operation as well;
however, not all of them provide meaningful contributions
to ERSs. Although the effects of load-shifting programs are
fairly predictable, multiday forecasts for interruptible/curtail-
able programs may be more difficult to provide with adequate
certainty. With advances in communications and control
technology, such forecasts will become simpler to accom-
plish. The aggregators could then be asked for a forecast, or at
least a model forecast, of what DR resources would be avail-
able at any given time. In the meantime, ERS applications of

800
DR should focus on commercial/industrial loads. Because of
600
potential gas interruptions, one of the ERS options to consider
400 Coal Natural Gas is an analogous program aimed at natural gas loads: natural
200 Nuclear Renewable
gas DR. As numerous examples show, including Southern
0 Connecticut Gas Company, Excel Energy, Colorado Springs
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49

Utilities, and Puget Sound Energy, many natural gas distribu-

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

tion/retail companies already offer interruptible service for

figure 3. The U.S. Energy Information Administration’s
2018 Annual Energy Outlook Reference Case Forecast
of Net Generation from Coal, Natural Gas, Nuclear, and
Renewable Resources. [Source: The Department of Energy,
Energy Information Administration, 2018 Annual Energy Out-
look, Reference Case Electricity Supply, Disposition, Prices
(2019); Nicholson and Quinn (2019).]
business customers and, in some cases, multifamily residential
customers. Gas DR could at least be a temporary option until
the requisite gas pipelines and storage are built.
Managing Modern and Future Grids
Energy management systems (EMSs) and their correspond-
ing supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

80 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Electrification, where energy used for a service is changed from a
nonelectric source of energy to electricity, holds significant promise
for increasing EE and reducing carbon footprints.
systems that are used on the BPS must have standards to
comply with applicable laws, regulations, and operating
practices. A fundamental underpinning is that an EMS/
SCADA system has monitoring and control of key electric
system components so that the operating states of transmis-
sion lines, substations, and generation can be directly known
and managed. Rules are in place for monitoring and control
and must be implemented for any type of generation attached
to the BPS, including wind and solar. A well-managed EMS/
SCADA system operating on the BPS is largely determinis-
tic with a manageable level of randomness. It is critical that
existing rules be maintained and enhanced where needed for
generation that is attached to the BPS.
The situation is very different for the distribution grid.
There is continued growth in the quantity and aggregate
capacity of renewable distributed generation interconnected to
utility distribution systems; these include intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs) such as microprocessor-based relays, reclosers
and switches, voltage regulator and capacitor bank control-
lers, smart meters, and advanced sensors (including voltage,
current, and combined voltage/current sensors for active/
reactive power metering, power quality meters, temperature,
irradiance, and wind speed sensors, along with phasor mea-
surement units). These smart grid technologies could help
improve metering and operational observability in distribu-
tion networks with DERs. Generally, local laws and guide-
lines do not require that the utility be provided with monitor-
ing and control for each device. Some utilities have SCADA
implemented in the distribution system that can provide deter-
ministic results; however, the inability to monitor and con-
trol individually distributed generation plants has resulted in
distribution operations that are increasingly dynamic in areas
with high penetration of these devices. The development of
new software solutions that model the uncertainty associated
with the output variability of distributed generation will be
required through close work and partnerships with the utility
industry, vendors, R&D organizations, and government.
With a high penetration of DERs, the traditional EMS
applications at control centers will require adequate
observability/visibility for generation resources normally
not directly presented in today’s operation model or behind
the equivalent load zones. Under the interoperability require-
ment, EMSs shall be able to monitor/control DERs in the
same fashion that traditional generators are monitored today,
i.e., through/from a DER aggregator/facilities or hierarchi-
cally via interaction with distribution management systems
(DMSs) and DER management systems (DERMSs). EMS
july/august 2019
applications may also need to include suitable distribution
system models to account for DER effects, a task that could
require extensive computational resources and SCADA
infrastructure enhancement. DMSs and DERMSs will address
operation and dispatch control issues at the DER point of
interconnection and provide reliable, operational data sup-
port to BPSs’ EMSs. DMSs will not need to model and mon-
itor DER facilities and also assess distribution load models
near the DERs to ensure adequate local power flow and volt-
age profiles.
Accurate monitoring of the fast system dynamics intro-
duced by renewables and DERs is vital for the safe, secure, and
reliable operation of modern and future T&D grids. Deploy-
ing GPS-based synchrophasor technology enables improved
visibility because it records voltage and current at high rates of
30–120 times/s (much faster than existing SCADA systems)
and can very accurately compute and time-synchronize
parameters, such as phase angle and frequency, across the
grid as well as power quality parameters. Tools that use syn-
chronized measurements have been implemented globally to
improve the reliability, performance, and security of power
systems. In addition to wide-area monitoring, protection,
and control, their use is expanding to distribution system
applications including state estimation with DERs, inten-
tional islanding, and emergency response during natural
disasters. Achieving cost-effective DER visibility and con-
trol will depend upon the use of public Internet or existing
utility communications systems, which pose regulatory and
security challenges.
Monitoring and controlling smart inverters via DMSs,
DERMSs, and/or EMSs will help mitigate impacts on the grid
and enhance DER hosting capacity (HC) of distribution sys-
tems and allow electric utilities and end users to take advan-
tage of DER benefits. DER HC is expected to become an
important constraint for distribution systems around the world
in the next decade, as shown in Figures 4 and 5. In this regard,
utilizing smart inverter functions defined by IEEE 1547-2018,
such as volt-var control (VVC) and volt-watt control (VWC),
are expected to play a vital role in helping utilities manage
DER proliferation. Smart inverter control and implementing
VVC and VWC can help enhance HC for a variety of secu-
rity-related criteria, including thermal and voltage constraints.
Additional criteria must be considered when evaluating HC,
such as protection, power quality, and reliability.
As monitoring and controlling power delivery systems
becomes more pervasive, the volume of data to be col-
lected, processed, and analyzed will grow significantly.
ieee power & energy magazine 81
 Grid analytics will become even more important and allow
electric utilities to better understand the key drivers of system
performance while implementing preventive and prescriptive
solutions to improve efficiency, reliability, safety, security,
Performance Index
and resilience. Different types of grid analytics may be imple-
mented by using data provided by IEDs, sensors, smart meters,
and smart system components, as shown in Figure 6.
BPS planning and operation processes will be able to
identify DERs’ reliability impact from its interconnection
request through implementation and commissioning, cul-
minating with normal operation. It is foreseeable that the

reliability impact of DERs could be locational and opera-

C tional condition based. The intermittent nature of renew-
able DERs will also be centered in this reliability matrix.
HC 2 For example, PJM and CAISO have integrated distributed
solar into the long-term load forecast. PJM also has a real-
B time wind and solar forecast, and DR/DERs have been
integrated into postcontingency, local-load relief warning
HC 1
procedures. To better address resource adequacy and per-
formance, it is recommended to 1) expand the use of proba-
bilistic approaches to further develop resource-adequacy
A
measures reflecting variability and overall reliability char-
acteristics of the resources and composite loads, including
nonpeak system conditions, and 2) improve load forecast-
Amount of DERs ing that considers behind-the-meter resources, generator
C: DERs of Any Capacity in This Region Are Not
modeling, and coordination between BPSs and distribution
Allowed, Regardless of Location system planners and operators. This is best done by ana-
lyzing necessary data requirements to ensure that there is
Maximum HC sufficient detail on the capability and performance of the
B: Some Capacities (Amounts) of DERs in BP because it is impacted by DERs.
This Region Are Acceptable to Specific Locations Eventually, the industry may need to implement a grid
management system (GMS) that deals with the whole grid,
Minimum HC from transmission to distribution and the individual cus-
A: All Capacities (Amounts) of DERs in tomer. This may be the only way to avoid gaps in coverage at
This Region Are Acceptable, Regardless of Location the seams between T&D and distribution and the customer.
The GMS may also have to bridge the gap between market
figure 4. The HC according to limit. (Source: Cho et al.) economics and the physical grid.

The Importance of
Interoperability
When Is DG HC Expected to Be Reached? Interoperability will play a key
60
54% role in the future power system,
which is expected to consist of a
50
hybrid energy system with a mix
40 of traditional synchronous genera-
tion, IBRs, DERs, energy storage,
28% microgrids, and dynamic/active
(%)

30
distribution grids with conven-
20 tional and new loads (e.g., EVs).
13% The IEEE is playing an important
10 role in developing standards that
5%
help ensure the interoperability of
0
HC Already HC Will Be HC Will Be HC Limit Is Not system components. For instance
Reached Reached Within Reached Within Foreseen to Be ✔ The IEEE P2030, Smart
Ten Years 15 Years Reached Grid Interoperability Guide,
has provided a philosophi-
figure 5. Survey results of opinions from more than 100 distribution system opera- cal reference (data map) for
tors in 23 countries about when they expect to meet their HC limits. DG: distributed interoperability data sources
generation. (Source: S.M. Ismael et al.) and communication.

82 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 ✔ IEEE 1547-2018 defines interoperability require-
ments and capabilities for DERs regardless of their
size and type. These requirements enable utilities to
monitor and control DERs at their discretion. The
new IEEE Standard 1547 also mandates DERs to
comply with one of three “local” communication
protocols: IEEE Standard P2030.5 (SEP2), IEEE
Standard 1815 (DNP3), or SunSpec Modbus. These
protocols enable utilities to integrate DERs with
their DMSs or DERMSs. Other communication pro-
tocols (e.g., IEC 61850) are also allowed as long as the
DER complies with one of the three protocols. IEEE
Standard 1547.1 will pro-
vide guidance on the imple-
mentation and commission-
ing of interoperability from
DERs to local electric power
systems and BPSs.
Standards organizations, both
industry and government, should
continue addressing gaps and
develop required standards, e.g., the
standard mentioned in this article.
Skill Levels
resilience concept and the specific requirements that imple-
ment mitigation measures.
To summarize, as the electric power system evolves into
an increasingly complex and dynamic hybrid energy sys-
tem, it is vital to adequately prioritize and address existing
and emerging challenges and associated risks, including
✔ changing the generation resource mix
✔ BPS planning, adequacy, and performance
✔ joint T&D systems planning and operation
✔ monitoring and controlling DERs in T&D grids
✔ extreme natural events such as earthquakes, hurri-
canes, floods, fires, and GMDs
Types of Analytics
Learning
Optimization Cognitive
Prescriptive
Predictive

Summary Information Discovery

A modern hybrid energy system,
mixed with traditional synchro-
nous generation, high-penetra-
tion DERs, storage and smart
grid technology–enabled T&D
networks with conventional and
smart energy-efficient loads,
offers a method of delivering elec-
trical energy in a sustainable and
environmentally friendly man-
ner but faces challenges. Those
challenges can be addressed with
advanced technology and interop-
erability standards, accompanied
by appropriate regulatory frame-
works and infrastructure invest-
ments. IBRs have the capability
of providing ERSs, if properly
addressed and supp or t e d by
market mechanisms, which, in
turn, would require reliability
standards to price the ERSs. An
adequate mix of fuel-secure and
fuel-independent technologies
helps with maintaining ERSs
and assuring resilient and reli-
able power system operation.
Incorporating resilience into the
T&D planning process is recom-
mended, including defining the
Foresight
Diagnostic
Descriptive
Insight
Hindsight
Value
• Descriptive Analytics: Describe past performance of distribution grid by analyzing
historical data, e.g., use service interruption records to calculate reliability indices
(SAIFI, CAIDI, SAIDI, etc.).
• Diagnostic Analytics: Diagnose root cause of distribution system performance,
e.g., to identify the root cause of service interruptions and equipment outages.
• Discovery Analytics: Provide additional insights about distribution grid performance
to identify unknown issues, particularly in areas of the grid that traditionally have had
limited real-time visibility and awareness, e.g., assess grid edge performance.
• Predictive Analytics: Estimate expected distribution grid performance based on
historical and real-time data, e.g., estimate potential equipment overloads that might
occur as a consequence of extreme weather patterns.
• Prescriptive Analytics: Use historical and real-time data along with system analysis
capabilities to provide recommendations regarding preventive measures that would
allow precluding or minimizing performance disruptions, e.g., advice on most resilient
system configuration to withstand major weather events.
• Cognitive Analytics: Use computational intelligence technologies inspired by human
learning (e.g., artificial intelligence techniques such as machine learning, deep learning,
etc.) to collect, process, analyze, and manage qualitative (e.g., natural language) and
quantitative data from diverse sources. Cognitive analytics may be used to develop
adaptive self-learning solutions whose accuracy improves over time.
figure 6. The different types of grid analytics. (Source: ICFAI Business School.)

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 83

 ✔ cyber and physical security vulnerability, including
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) events
✔ asset management and maintenance
✔ human performance and skilled workforce needs.
All of these challenges and associated risks should not
be treated as isolated concerns but should be viewed in the
holistic context. When addressing them, the industry must
continue to be diligent in prioritizing mitigation investments
to achieve reliability and resilience targets in the most effec-
tive way. For instance, while not losing sight of efforts that
address high-impact, low-probability threats such as GMDs
and EMP events, investment priorities must consider pre-
venting and managing challenges from more likely events,
such as natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, flooding, wild-
fires, tsunamis, and snowstorms) as well as making sure that
the T&D infrastructure is upgraded through asset manage-
ment programs. To minimize these risks, the power system
must be modernized as well. Having a consistent regulatory
framework that supports these investments is an important
policy endeavor.
In general, despite these challenges and risks, the future
presents an exciting opportunity as we continue to work
together on advancing a grid that has become inextricably
linked with our well-being.
For Further Reading
NARUC. (2016). National Association of Regulatory Util-
ity Commissioners manual on distributed energy resources
rate design and compensation. Nat. Assoc. Regulatory Util-
ity Commissioners. Washington, D.C. [Online]. Available:
https://pubs.naruc.org/pub/19FDF48B-AA57-5160-DBA1-
BE2E9C2F7EA0
NERC. (2018). Reliability guideline power plant model
verification for inverter-based resources. North Amer. Elect.
Reliability Corp. [Online]. Available: https://www.nerc
.com/comm/OC_Reliability_Guidelines_DL/PPMV_for_
Inverter-Based_Resources.pdf
IEEE Power & Energy Society. (2018). Impact of inverter
based generation on bulk power system dynamics and short-
circuit performance task force report. IEEE Power & Energy
Soc. Piscataway, NJ. [Online]. Available: http://resourcecen-
ter.ieee-pes.org/pes/product/technical-publications/PES_
TR_7-18_0068
D. Novosel, V. Madani, B. Bhargava, K. Vu, and J. Cole,
“Dawn of the grid synchronization,” IEEE Power Energy
Mag., vol. 6, pp. 49–60, Jan./Feb. 2008.
NASPI. (2018). Synchrophasor monitoring for distribution
systems: Technical foundations and applications. North Amer.
Synchrophasor Initiative. [Online]. Available: https://www
84 ieee power & energy magazine
.naspi.org/sites/default/files/reference_documents/naspi_
distt_synchrophasor_monitoring_distribution_20180109.pdf
N. C. Tang and G. W. Chang, “A stochastic approach for
determining PV hosting capacity of a distribution feeder
considering voltage quality constraints,” in Proc. 18th Int.
Conf. Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP), 2018. doi:
10.1109/ICHQP.2018.8378864.
S. M. Ismael, S. H. E. Abdel Aleem, A. Y. Abdelaziz, and
A. F. Zobaa, “State-of-the-art of hosting capacity in modern
power systems with distributed generation, Renewable En-
ergy, vol. 130, no. C, pp. 1002–1020, 2019. [Online]. Avail-
able: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.07.008
B. F. Hobbs and S. S. Oren, “Three waves of U.S. re-
forms: Following the path of wholesale electricity market
restructuring,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 17, no. 1, pp.
73–81, Jan./Feb. 2019. doi: 10.1109/MPE.2018.2873952.
E. Nicholson and A. Quinn, “Wholesale electricity mar-
kets in the United States: Identifying future challenges facing
commercial energy,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 17, no. 1,
pp. 67–72, Jan./Feb. 2019. doi: 10.1109/MPE.2018.2872304.
G.-J. Cho, C.-H. Kim, Y.-S. Oh, M.-S. Kim, and J.-S
Kim, “Planning for the future: Optimization-based distri-
bution planning strategies for integrating distributed energy
resources,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 77–
87, Nov/Dec 2018. doi: 10.1109/MPE.2018.2864228.
ICFAI Business School, “Business Analytics,” Febru-
ary 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.slideshare.net/
ibsggn2016/business-analytics-72038035
A. Hoke, et al., “Integrating more solar with smart invert-
ers,” in Proc. 2018 Grand Renewable Energy Conf., NREL/
CP-5D00-71766. [Online]. Available: https://www.nrel.gov/
docs/fy18osti/71766.pdf
Biographies
Julio Romero Agüero is with the Jacksonville Electric Au-
thority, Florida.
Damir Novosel is with Quanta Technology, Raleigh,
North Carolina.
Emanuel Bernabeu is with PJM, Norristown, Pennsylvania.
Bill Chiu is with Grid Modernization and Resiliency.
Jay Liu is with PJM, Norristown, Pennsylvania.
Veronika Rabl is with Vision & Results, Alexandria, Virginia.
Thomas Pierpoint was with Exelon, Washington, D.C.
Doug Houseman is with Burns & McDonnell, Plymouth,
Michigan.
Babak Enayati is with National Grid, Waltham, Massa-
chusetts.
Sharma Kolluri is with Entergy, New Orleans, Louisiana.
p&e
july/august 2019
 2019
IEEE PES
GENERAL MEETING

4-8 AUGUST
ATLANTA, GA USA

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a student program and companion activities.

As always, IEEE PES has put together an outstanding

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Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2917740
 history
A
AT LEAST THREE BIOGRAPHIES
on Frank J. Sprague have been pub-
lished within the last 10 years. For more
than 100 years, Sprague has been the
subject of countless articles and chap-
ters in books dealing with the history
of technology. All of this is with good
reason. Sprague was a major contribu-
tor to modern technology and is con-
sidered the father of electric traction.
But not all of his contributions were a
resounding success. Just look closely at
the Richmond trolley line motors for
evidence of this.
In “Lessons of the Richmond Elec-
tric Railway,” Sprague wrote, “It was
a daily occurrence to see a loaded car
climb a grade with a lurid green glare
lighting up the track.” He continued
with, in addition to brush/commutator
problems, “every armature was un-
wound, the bodies shortened, and then
rewound. Disabled armatures were
numberless, and to keep the road in op-
eration tons of machinery were shipped
by express.” In short, although he right-
ly deserves the title father of electric
traction, and the Richmond project is
credited as the first practical electric
trolley system that set the pattern for
most subsequent electric trolley sys-
tems around the world, Sprague’s Rich-
mond motors were not a success.
Some of Sprague’s biographers noted
this motor problem; some haven’t. In The
Birth of Electric Traction, Rowsome, Jr.
said, “The electric motors, his beloved,
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2910424
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
86 ieee power & energy magazine
Robert D. Barnett
a lurid green glare
Sprague’s motors in Richmond, Virginia
In previous IEEE Power & Energy Magazine “History” columns, we examined
aspects of the contributions of Frank J. Sprague to the electrical power industry,
primarily in the area of rail electrification. Past articles include:
• “A Frank Sprague Triumph: The Electrification of Grand Central Terminal”
by J.L. Sprague and J.J. Cunningham (vol. 11, no. 1, 2013)
• “A Sprague Invention: Multiple Unit Train Control” by J.L. Sprague
(vol. 13, no. 6, 2015)
• “Frank J. Sprague Invents: The Constant-Speed dc Electric Motor” by
J.L. Sprague (vol. 14, no. 2, 2016).
Sprague’s first large-scale installation in 1888 was with the Richmond Union
Passenger Railway in Virginia. This was considered the birthplace of the electric
railway and designated as an IEEE Milestone in 1992. In this column, we take a
deeper look into some of the technical details and challenges of one of the key
components in the Richmond application: the Sprague motor.
We welcome back Robert D. Barnett for the third time to this “History”
column. A Senior Member of the IEEE, Robert graduated from the University
of Waterloo, Canada, and Niagara College, Canada. In 1982, he formed the Ni-
agara Society for Industrial History as a support group for a proposed museum
in a former Niagara Falls power plant, and he has written about the history of
this topic.
John Paserba
Associate Editor, “History”
beautifully-calculated, ingeniously- the motors.” In “Frank J. Sprague Invents:
designed motors simply did not work The Constant-Speed dc Electric Motor,”
very well. They overheated, their costly Sprague’s grandson, John L. Sprague,
new gears jammed, and they endlessly noted that, on the Richmond project, “It
fell prey to ‘crosses’ and grounds.” As was a nightmare from the start and a fi-
Dalzell wrote in Engineering Invention: nancial disaster when completed … his
Frank J. Sprague and the U.S. Electri- beautiful motors kept burning out, com-
cal Industry, “commutators proved mutators pitted and failed, and brushes
particularly trouble prone. In the shop, had to be continually changed.”
they performed adequately. Subject to Even so, most writers give the impres-
operating conditions … they broke down sion that Sprague eventually sorted out
constantly—burning, blistering and if not his motor problems. However, an account
cleaned … immediately, short circuiting by one of the Richmond superintendents,
july/august 2019
 S.W. Huff, in Sibley Journal of Engi-
neering, tells a different story. Huff
said that, in 1890, “the operators of the
pioneer electric railroad in Richmond,
Va., had announced … that after a
thorough test, they were forced to ad-
mit that electricity as a means of pro-
pelling cars was a failure.” According
to Huff, there were times when “only
one or two cars were in operation” and
that “field coils required constant re-
winding.” This motor problem often
gets lost in the list of Sprague’s impor-
tant accomplishments. Nonetheless,
Sprague’s motor, the heart of the Rich-
mond trolley system, was not a success.
To understand why it missed the mark,
we need to look at the technological fo-
cus of the late 19th century.

Early Motors
By the mid-1880s, there were many mo- figure 1. A typical Sprague industrial motor circa 1886. (Source: L. Bell, The Electric
tor designs on the market. Many of these Motor and Its Applications, New York: W.J. Johnston, 1892, p. 167.)

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july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 87
 were “cut and try.” Sprague was one
of the few that used some theoretical
basis for his work. Although the elec-
tric motor had many advantages over
the stationary reciprocating steam en-
gine, the demand for motors to replace
steam engines was not yet compelling.
In 1888, when Tesla gave his induction
motor paper to the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers (as described in
J.J. Cunningham’s article “89 Liberty
Street: The Birthplace of Commercial
Polyphase Power”), the reciprocat-
ing stationary steam engine was the
motor used for virtually all industrial
power requirements. Steam engines
figure 2. A drawing for a Sprague motor using a fly-ball governor to produce
constant motor speed. (Source: U.S. Patent 295454, 18 March 1884.)
88 ieee power & energy magazine
had become a highly
sophisticated, mature
Sprague was a 300 hp was produced
by steam. In many
technology, as they major contributor industries, electric mo-
had been developed tors did not replace
more than a century to modern steam engines until
earlier. The 1890 U.S.
Census showed that
technology and well into the 1920s.
These motors had
there was fewer than is considered a physical appearance
3,000 hp in electric very different from the
motors in New York the father of motors we know today.
State but more than
397,000 hp in station-
electric traction. Figure 1 shows one of
Sprague’s machines
ary steam engines. of the mid-1880s. The
And these were the engines in the iron fundamentals were the same as today:
and steel industry only. For every 1 hp two magnetic fields (from the field poles
produced by electric motors, at least and armature) interacted to produce
torque. Also, voltage drop followed Ohm’s
law. However, the effects of changing
magnetic fields were poorly understood
by virtually everyone. This gave rise to
some strange machines that reacted to
their electric circuit much differently
than machines of today. The electric
motor’s takeover of the steam engine
would have to wait until the processes
by which motors operated were better
understood, not just by researchers but
also by practicing engineers.
Another problem was the high ar-
mature resistance. It was significantly
higher than in a modern machine. There
were several reasons for this. Poorly de-
signed armature cooling was one factor.
Heat was generated both by current flow
in the armature conductors and by eddy
currents in the unlaminated armature
core. This heating further increased the
resistance of the armature conductors.
Also, the conductors were often con-
nected in series around the armature
rather than in a number of parallel paths.
These series—or lap windings, as they
would later be called—allowed the use
of only two brushes, but they increased
the armature resistance.
In 1887, the year the Richmond project
began, the most common motor was a dc
machine with the field poles connected in
parallel with the armature. This type of
machine came to be called a shunt motor.
Because of high armature resistance, a
motor’s speed could drop 5% from no load
to full load. This speed regulation was not
considered acceptable for an electric mo-
tor to replace a steam engine.
july/august 2019
 Virtually all steam engines were used wealthy. Several individuals were try- speed drive. They needed a motor that
to drive mills or machine tools whose ing, and Sprague was one of them. acted like a horse: when the going got
owners made their living on how much Streetcars did not require a large tough, the horse slowed down. Horses
work could be done in a unit of time. As amount of horsepower. This lined up didn’t try to maintain a constant speed.
business improved, more machines were well with the 10–20-hp capacity of con- Instead, they just pulled harder. Ulti-
added to a steam engine’s line shaft. temporary motors. But streetcars were mately, the successful streetcar motor
Each driven production machine would not like the machinery driven by steam would do the same: pull harder. In other
require a certain amount of torque to engines: they did not require a constant- words, they would produce more torque.
produce parts at a certain speed. With
more machines, more torque would be
required from the steam engine. This
increased load torque would cause the
steam engine to slow down and the en-
tire production line with it. If some de-
vice was not devised to automatically
increase the output torque of the engine,
production levels would be reduced.
In 1788, James Watt invented the
steam engine governor for just that
purpose. Within the control limits
of its governor (it was often a simple
proportional controller), the steam en-
gine was a constant-speed machine. Its
torque/speed curve was (mostly) flat.
Because of the electric motor’s poor
regulation, it was thought that some ®
governing means, such as that of the
steam engine, would be needed to keep
the motor speed as close to a constant
speed as possible. In 1889, Francis B.
Crocker wrote “Electric Motor Regu-
lation,” in which various luminaries
put forth ideas regarding the best way
to hold constant the speed of an elec-
tric motor.
Sprague was no different. In Fig-
ure 2, one of his early patents shows
control of a motor by means of a fly-
ball governor. Later, as theoretical
knowledge advanced, the motor would
be redesigned to reduce armature re-
sistance and magnetic losses and, thus,
improve regulation. However, this was
a slow process. Moreover, the incentive
to design a better motor would have
to wait until the industrial market re-
quired it.
For street railway motors, however,
the market was different. The streetcar
of that time used horses as power. But
horses were very expensive to main-
tain, and their exhaust products were
becoming difficult to manage. The per-
son who was able to install an electric
motor on a horse car could become

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 89

 FP

FP

FS FS
A
A A

VS VS VS

(a) (b) (c)

figure 3. A field pole and armature
flux interact to produce motor torque.
(Source: L.W. Gant, Elements of Electric
Traction for Motormen and Others,
New York: Van Nostrand, 1907, p. 81.)
figure 4. Three types of motors: (a) a shunt motor, with the field connected in
parallel with the armature; (b) a series motor, with the field connected in series
with the armature; and (c) a compound motor, with one field connected in par-
allel with the armature and the other in series.

However, because of the preoccupation
with replacing the steam engine, this
was not recognized at that time. As a re-
sult, the ordinary dc motor was applied
to the streetcar.
In 1888, the ordinary motor was, with
few exceptions, a shunt motor. This was
not the best choice for streetcar work. To
appreciate what the problems were, we
need a brief review of motor operation.
Motor Operation
Motor operation is best understood in
terms of torque produced by the in-
teraction of two magnetic fields: one
field from the field poles (Bp) and one
from the armature (Ba) (see Figure 3).
The torque equation also involves the
sine of the angle between the fields;
but for a dc motor, the commutator
ensures that this angle is very nearly
90°. Therefore, strengthening either
(or both) of these fields will increase
motor torque.
There are three types of dc motors:
shunt, series, and compound, as il-
lustrated in Figure 4. In a shunt motor,
the field windings (F) are connected
in shunt or in parallel with the arma-
ture windings (A). This shunt field
is made from many turns of a small
diameter wire. Figure  4(a) shows this
connection. The motor is operated from
a constant potential supply (Vs). With a
streetcar system, the potential is never
constant. It varies with the number of
cars on the line and the distance from
the powerhouse. However, for our pur-
poses, the assumption of constant po-
tential is valid.
In the series motor, the field is con-
nected in series with the armature, as
shown in Figure 4(b). The series field is
wound with a small number of turns of
a large diameter wire. This configura-
tion has been used for more than 100
years. As with the shunt motor, it is also
operated from a constant potential sup-
ply. The compound motor, shown in
Figure  4(c), has both series and shunt
fields. The series field can be connect-
ed in two ways: to aid the shunt field or
buck it.

90 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

 Motors don’t produce horse-
power, even though they are gen-
erally rated in horsepower. Mo-
tors produce torque. Rated torque
at rated speed is what gives rated
horsepower. Figure 5 shows speed
torque curves for four types of
dc motors.
Let’s first look at torque pro-
duced by a shunt motor. As load
torque requirement increases, the
tendency is for the armature to
slow down. This reduction in speed,
in turn, reduces the counter-electro-
motive force (EMF) generated by
the moving armature conductors
and momentarily allows more
current to flow through the arma-
ture, strengthening the armature
field. This stronger field produces
more torque, which causes the
motor to increase speed until a
balance of motor torque and load
torque are reached. This balance
will occur at a speed somewhat
lower than that present when the
additional load torque occurred.
This moderate speed droop is a
characteristic of the shunt motor.
The cumulative compound
motor has a series and a shunt
field. An increasing load torque
causes an increase in armature
current similar to the shunt mo-
tor. This increased armature cur-
rent also flows through the series
field, which strengthens the shunt
field. As a result, the armature’s
counter EMF is developed at a
somewhat lower speed than for a
shunt motor. This motor is usually
viewed as a shunt motor with some
series characteristics. It is often
used in elevator service; the series
field is used for starting the eleva-
tor car and is frequently shorted
out once it’s up to speed.
The series motor’s field passes
the same current as that taken by
the armature. As with the other
motors, as load torque increases,
the speed drops, allowing more
current flow. In this case, however,
this current flows through both
the series field and the armature.
Professor of
Energy Systems Analysis
→ The Departments of Mechanical and Process Engineering
(www.mavt.ethz.ch) and Information Technology and Electrical
Engineering (www.ee.ethz.ch) at ETH Zurich and the Paul Scherrer
Institute (www.psi.ch) invite applications for a joint professorship in
Energy Systems Analysis. The new professor will act as Head of the
Energy Systems Analysis Laboratory at PSI, in a joint appointment
with ETH Zurich. The professorship will be associated with one of the
above-mentioned departments and will contribute to the teaching of
ETH Zurich. The main research activities are centred at PSI.
→ This position gives the successful candidate the opportunity to
closely engage in research efforts and collaborate with colleagues
in two of the worldwide leading research institutions in the field
of energy. This special combination and the funding committed to
this position provide excellent conditions to carry out high quality
fundamental but also applied research. Furthermore, ETH Zurich
and the Paul Scherrer Institute are well connected with local industry,
utilities and governmental bodies providing an environment which
not only supports fruitful and relevant research but also provides the
basis to directly impact policy making.
→ The new professor should have demonstrated an exceptional
potential to develop an innovative and collaborative research pro-
gramme in Energy Systems Analysis. He or she must have an
excellent track record of research in the area of energy systems
analysis, including but not limited to technology, economics, policy,
society and risk. The emphasis is on the analysis of the complex
interdependencies in energy systems which leads to results that
can inform policy makers and stakeholders in their decision making.
Besides scientific leadership, the successful candidate has proven
management and administrative skills and has acquired and coordi-
nated national and international projects with internal and external
participants. Generally, at ETH Zurich undergraduate level courses
are taught in German or English and graduate level courses are
taught in English.
→ Please apply online: www.facultyaffairs.ethz.ch
→ Applications should include a curriculum vitae, a list of publications
and current projects, a statement of future research and teaching in-
terests, and a description of the three most important achievements.
The letter of application should be addressed to the President of ETH
Zurich, Prof. Dr. Joël Mesot. Submissions will be reviewed starting
on 31 July 2019, but applications are welcome until the position
is filled. ETH Zurich is an equal opportunity and family friendly
employer and is responsive to the needs of dual career couples. We
specifically encourage women to apply.

figure 5. Torque versus speed curves for the four types of dc motors.
Because of the large amount of armature
current, the series field is much stronger
than the similar shunt field. The armature’s
92 ieee power & energy magazine
counter EMF is developed at a signifi-
cantly lower speed than with the other
motors. This large speed droop is a char-
acteristic of the series motor, making it
unsuitable for many applications. On the
other hand, the series motor draws less
current to produce a given amount of
torque and produces maximum torque at
zero speed. This makes it the ideal motor
for traction applications.
The fourth motor is known as the dif-
ferential compound motor, and it oper-
ates quite differently than the others.
With an increase in load torque and the
resulting initial increase in armature cur-
rent, the series field opposes and weak-
ens the shunt field. This means that the
counter EMF is reduced without (much
of) a speed drop. The counter EMF is ac-
tually decreased by a reduction in field
strength rather than by a drop in speed.
This lower counter EMF allows an in-
crease in armature current, bringing the
motor torque to a point where it matches
the load torque. Differential compound
motors are seldom used. They tend to be
july/august 2019
 To understand ent description is very similar to how
Sprague describes his motor in litera-
why Sprague’s ture of that time.
In Sprague’s 1888 article in The
motor missed Electrician, he wrote about his design,
the mark, “Their fields were wound with three
sets of coils, varying in the number of
we need to turns, the cross section of the wire, and
the resistance; these are connected with a
switch, so that when the motor is thrown
into circuit the field coils are all in series
and have a definite high resistance. The
coils are progressively commutated till
they are finally thrown into a multiple
(i.e., parallel) circuit and have a resis-
tance one-ninth that first existing.”

look at the
technological
focus of the late
19th century.
hughesbros.com
unstable. If large surges of current occur,
the series field can overpower the shunt
field and cause the armature to rotate quality forged daily
backward. Its one salient feature, how-
ever, is its very flat speed–torque curve.
However, the downside is that, when
heavily overloaded, it will draw a very
large armature current in its attempt to
maintain constant speed.

Richmond, Virginia,
1887–1888
Sprague’s Richmond motors were very
similar to the motors he had been
manufacturing for several years. Fig-
ure 6 shows one of his motors installed
in a trolley car. They were differential
compound motors. Sprague’s U.S. Pat-
ent 315180, issued 7 April 1885, de-
tails his design. Figure 7 is a diagram
showing the connections for the fields. testing
The letter A denotes the armature wind-
ings, and B indicates the windings of services
the field poles. In this diagram, which
accompanied the patent application,
Sprague said this is “an arrangement
whereby the simple shunt motor may
be made a differential one … the rela-
tion between the shunt and series field-
coil may be changed.” The commuta-
tor used by the operator for switching
the field connections is shown at D. In
this case, the word commutator was
used in its general sense: a device that
storm kits
switches. The commutator shown at
A is what switches the armature coils
and is still referred to as a commuta-
tor in modern terminology. This pat-

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 93

 Primary Gearwheel
Field Winding (Outline)
Horseshoe Magnet Secondary
Armature Gearwheel

Mounting
Spring

Axle

Bogie Transom Road Wheel

Top of Rail

figure 6. Sprague’s wheelbarrow motor mounting arrangement that solved

the problem of meshing gears with a moving wheel axle. [Copied with
permission from Dr. Piers Connor, PRC Rail Consulting Ltd., The Railway
Technical Website, “The Early History of the DC Traction Motor” (http://
www.railway-technical.com/trains/rolling-stock-index-l/the-early-history-of-
the-dc.html).]

Transformer

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figure 7. A drawing for a Sprague mo-
tor showing the method of reconnecting
fields to allow for motor starting and
constant-speed operation. (Source: U.S.
Patent 315180, 7 April 1885.)
CUSTOM FITTED
U.V. STABILIZED In “Some Facts About Electric Trac-
FIRE RETARDANT AVAILABLE tion,” Sprague said about the Richmond
WEATHER PROOF motors, “No resistance coils whatsoever
are used by us in handling the motors,
the entire regulation being performed
by commutations of the circuits, and
by the character of the regulation which
is characteristic of a series motor on
a constant potential circuit, which as
it slows down takes more current and
pulls very much harder.” He obviously
understood how a field in series mo-
tor armature will produce more torque
for starting. However, he switched the
series connection out after the car was
underway. This would explain why his
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problems were more prevalent when
the car was moving. When climbing a

94 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

hill, he would have no series field com- of series motor was may have been the con-
ponent, with the resultant large arma- intended to allow mo- The design temporary mind-set
ture current damaging the commutator tors to be installed in regarding the govern-
and brushes. manufacturing plants parameters for ed steam engine that
Thus, it’s clear that Sprague used a with series lighting. the motor field blinded Sprague to
differential compound motor. What’s Its operation was not the need for a series
not so evident is his reason for not using a at all like the constant proportions motor. With his dif-
series motor. There are several possibili- potential series mo- ferential compound
ties. Although the series motor was well tor, and it was consi- were known motor, its speed was
known at that time, it was almost entirely dered by most to be a as Sprague’s self-regulating: no gov-
used on constant-current arc lamp cir- dead technology. ernor was requi red.
cuits. That series motor was actually Also, Sprague had law, and he From this standpoint,
a shunt motor converted to run on a expended a consider- it was better than the
constant-current circuit by connecting able amount of intel- may have been straight shunt motor.
what was really a shunt field in series with lectual capital patent- reluctant to However, for traction
the armature. Therefore, the pole wind- ing and promoting applications, Sprague’s
ings would have been a similar (small) his differential com- drop a design differential compound
gauge like any ordinary shunt field. pound motor. The de- motor was worse than
When used in a constant-current circuit, sign parameters for for which he the shunt motor. It was
it would act like an arc lamp. As the load the motor field propor- was famous. the worst motor he
increased, more street lights turned on. tions were known as could have chosen. This
As more torque was required from the Sprague’s law, and he high current not only
motor, the generator voltage increased may have been reluctant to drop a design overheated the brushes and commu-
to hold the current constant. This type for which he was famous. A third factor tator, it also skewed the magnetic field,

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 changing the position
of the neutral axis. This
By the turn regulation.” In The Mak-
ing of the Electrical
gy were well established. Power resistors
were switched in and out of the circuit
axis change caused the of the 20th Age: From the Tele- to control acceleration. Series motors be-
armature coils to be graph to Automation, came the standard form of traction mo-
commutated when there century, the Sharlin stated that tor control. This was a departure from
was a significant voltage
between segments.
fundamental “the first stage in the
development of the
Sprague’s differential compound motor
that used no resistance coils whatsoever.
Outside of motors concepts steel rolling mill mo- Figure 8 is a typical series–parallel mo-
for Sprague’s own us- tors was on the streets tor control scheme. On the first step of
age, the differential of traction of Richmond” is not the controller, the motors and their
compound motor did
not find widespread ac-
technology correct. Steel rolling
mill motors were and,
accelerating resistors are connected in
series. This maximum resistance lim-
ceptance. In Dynamo were well in many cases, still its the inrush to the motor to approxi-
Electric Machinery, are series or cumula- mately 1.5 times the full load current
Hausmann said, “A established. tive compound mo- while developing an adequate amount
large starting torque tors. They bear virtu- of starting torque. As the motors come
cannot be obtained from ally no resemblance up to speed and the counter EMF re-
this motor” because “the series winding to Sprague’s Richmond motors. duces motor current, the starting re-
greatly decreases the field strength.” sistance is progressively removed, go-
He continued, “These motors are rarely Standard Traction ing through several steps from R1 to
used in practice, as improvements in Motor Design R7. This is shown Figure 8(a) and (b).
the design of shunt-wound motors have By the turn of the 20th century, the fun- In Figure  8(c), the two armatures are
given the latter sufficiently good speed damental concepts of traction technolo- connected in parallel with part of the

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figure 8. Controller steps for series–parallel motor

control. (Source: L.W. Gant, Elements of Electric Traction
for Motormen and Others, New York: Van Nostrand,
1907, p. 155.)

starting resistance (R4–R7) reconnected. In Figure

8(d), all of the starting resistance is again removed, but
now the motors each have full voltage applied to their ART Series
armature-field connection, and they are operating at Current Sensors
full speed. The actual speed that the motors attain will
ART Series sensors are the first
depend on the operating characteristics: line voltage at
to combine easy-to-use flexible
that point and load torque requirements. The motors
Rogowski coil technology with
are connected for movement in the reverse direction in
Figure 8(e). Dynamic braking is shown in the connec- Class 0.5s accuracy. When it comes
tion in Figure 8(f), where the motors are disconnected to measuring energy production,
from the line and allowed to send current through the monitoring substation transformer
stating resistor and ground. This is different than what health or real-time allocation of energy
Sprague called series–parallel control. He recon- costs and usage in smart buildings,
nected the motor fields in series and parallel in vari- ART Series sensors set the standard.
ous combinations to achieve a constant-speed motor.
Figure 8 is an oversimplification of the connec- At the heart of power electronics.
tions. The major part missing is how a closed-circuit
transition is made between two motors running in
series and the same two motors suddenly running in
www.lem.com
parallel. For that detail, the reader is referred to several
of many texts written on the subject.
 For Further Reading
F. J.Sprague, “Lessons of the Richmond
electric railway,” Eng. Mag., vol. 7,
pp. 787–805, Sept. 1894. [Online]. Avail-
able:  https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/
pt?id=mdp.39015020063080;view=1up;
seq=779
F. Rowsome Jr., The Birth of Elec-
tric Traction. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE His-
tory Center, 2013.
F. Dalzell, Engineering Invention:
Frank J. Sprague and the U.S. Electrical
Industry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
2010.
S. W. Huff, “A concise statement of
the development of electric railroads,”
Sibley J. Eng., vol. 27, pp. 1–19, Oct. 1912.
F. B. Crocker, “Electric motor regula-
tion,” Trans. Amer. Institute Elect. Engi-
neers, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 237–263, 1889.
doi: 10.1109/T-AIEE.1889.5570226.
98 ieee power & energy magazine
L. W. Gant, Elements of Electric
Traction for Motormen and Others. New
York: Van Nostrand, 1907.
F. J. Sprague, “The Sprague Motors
at Richmond and Mr. Albion Snell’s crit-
icism,” The Electrician, vol. 22, pp.84–
86, Nov. 23, 1888. [Online]. Available:
https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp
.32101050973542;view=1up;seq=111
F. J. Sprague, “Some facts about elec-
tric traction,” Street Railway J., vol. 4, pp.
153–154, June 1888. [Online]. Available:
https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id= njp
.32101051126553;view=1up;seq=181
B. G. Lamme, Electrical Engineer-
ing Papers. East Pittsburgh, PA: West-
inghouse Electric, 1919, pp. 721–753.
H. I. Sharlin, The Making of the Elec-
trical Age: From the Telegraph to Auto-
mation. New York: Abelard-Schuman,
1963, pp. 170–190.
W. D. Middleton, The Time of the
Trolley. Milwaukee, WI: Kalmbach,
1967.
P. Connor, “The early history of the
dc traction motor,” The Railway Techni-
cal Website. Accessed on: May 9, 2019.
[Online]. Available: http://www.rail
way-technical.com/trains/rolling-stock-
index-l/the-early-history-of-the-dc.html
J. L. Sprague, “Frank J. Sprague
invents: The constant-speed dc electric
motor,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol.
14, no. 2, pp. 80–96, 2016. doi: 10.1109/
MPE.2015.2501085.
J. J. Cunningham, “89 Liberty Street:
The birthplace of commercial polyphase
power,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol.
16, no. 6, pp. 88–101, Nov./Dec. 2018.
doi: 10.1109/MPE.2018.2863618.
p&e
july/august 2019
book reviews
I
IN THIS ISSUE’S “BOOK REVIEW”
column,  Microgrid Dynamics and
Control, written by Hassan Bevrani,
Bruno Francois, and Toshifumi Ise,
is reviewed. This book, the reviewer
writes, “is required reading for anyone
who is interested in comprehensively
learning about all aspects of microgrid
modeling, operation, and control.”
Microgrid Dynamics
and Control
By Hassan Bevrani, Bruno Francois,
and Toshifumi Ise
Utilities around the world are gradually
moving toward distributed renewable
energy sources to reduce their carbon
footprints and meet energy demands.
Microgrids offer an efficient way to
integrate renewable variable energy
sources into the grid and address local
reliability concerns.
The increased use of distributed vari-
able energy resources and a changing
electric market can stress transmission
systems. It is becoming necessary to
account for system changes that result
from the following factors:
✔ growth in utilizing variable energy
resources, such as wind and solar
✔ flow pattern changes and bidi-
rectional flows on certain paths
✔ system maintenance work com-
pressed into a few months, which
minimizes adverse market im-
pacts while continuing to avoid
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2907341
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
july/august 2019
managing microgrids
variable energy integration and distribution
power outages during critical op-
erational periods
✔ restrictions due to deratings and the
replacement of aging infrastructure
✔ steadily increasing energy trans-
fers as power is bought and sold to
meet load, especially during peri-
ods of fuel scarcity or major price
differences between systems
✔ f luctuating demand that re-
quires an increased response
and additional distributed en-
ergy resources
✔ retiring old generation facili-
ties that are located close to
load centers.
Microgrids are the building blocks of
smart grids. They can provide solu-
tions to some major system problems
and defer the need for large-scale sys-
tem and distribution-system capital
improvements. The load, generation,
and storage components are very close
to each other in a microgrid, which
further reduces operating expenses by
decreasing the use of, and associated
losses from, the transmission system.
A properly designed microgrid also
greatly improves reliability. However,
engineers must first have the ability
to study microgrids and integrate them
with the overall system.
Microgrid Dynamics and Control
is required reading for anyone interest-
ed in comprehensively learning about
all aspects of microgrid modeling, op-
eration, and control. This book covers
the modeling of different equipment
used in the microgrid and the controls
required to operate the system reli-
ably. It begins with a discussion of the
modeling of renewable energy sourc-
es, including solar, wind, hydro, bio-
fuel, and geothermal, and then shifts
to cover the fundamentals of primary
and secondary control mechanisms.
The interconnected and isolated op-
erating modes of a microgrid are also
fully addressed.
Modeling concepts that are required
for interconnecting the main grid with
the microgrid are discussed as well as
simulation results. Stability equations
used to assess dynamic performance
and an efficient approach to hierarchi-
cal control are presented.
DC micogrids have recently be-
come a major area of interest to electric
ieee power & energy magazine 99
 power engineers and poor damping in response cial neural networks, genetic algorithms,
developers. Compared
Overall, this very to system events. This and other types of analyses. Emergency
with ac microgrids, dc compressive book includes a method control and load-shedding techniques to
microgrids have lower to create virtual synchro- maintain a microgrid’s reliability are given.
losses and reduced op- book is suitable nized machines using Overall, this very compressive book
erating and capital costs. energy storage devices is suitable for experienced power system
Microgrid Dynamics and
for experienced and discusses applying engineers who are involved with design-
Control presents the power system these virtual machines ing and analyzing microgrids. Graduate
means of integrating a for stability and regu- students who are taking a course in mi-
dc microgrid with the engineers who lation support, includ- crogrids also would be well served by this
existing grid. ing control mechanisms book. An easy read, Microgrid Dynamics
As installations of
are involved and models. and Control presents modeling principles
inverter-based variable with designing Microgrid Dynamics and solution techniques that can be read-
energy resources in- and Control thorough- ily applied. It is an excellent reference for
and analyzing
crease, the system’s inertia ly discusses successfully power system engineers and students who
decreases. The dynamic planning and implement- are interested in learning techniques to
response problem is fur-
microgrids. ing microgrids. Tech- operate and control a microgrid.
ther exacerbated by ro- niques for operating and
—Ramu Ramanathan
tating mass distributed energy resources controlling microgrids are described,
p&e
that have very little inertia and exhibit including the use of fuzzy logic, artifi-

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100 ieee power & energy magazine july/august 2019

awards
T
T H E I E E E M E DA L I N P OW E R
Engineering was established in 2008.
It is presented to an individual for out-
standing contributions to the technol-
ogy associated with the generation,
transmission, distribution, application,
and utilization of electric power for the
betterment of society. The award con-
sists of a gold medal, bronze replica,
certificate, and honorarium.
The medal is sponsored by the
IEEE Industry Applications, Industrial
Electronics, Power Electronics, and
Power & Energy Societies. The 2019
IEEE Medal in Power Engineering
was awarded to Lionel O. Barthold “for
outstanding contributions to and lead-
ership in advancing the technologies of
electric power transmission.”
Lionel O. Barthold
Barthold’s continued
advancements in pow-
er transmission tech-
nologies have played
a prominent role in the
reliable and efficient
operation of today’s
high-voltage transmis-
sion systems. His early work on transmis-
sion system design parameters ranged
from circuit breaker reclosing times to
insulation levels of both lines and high-
voltage equipment. He was an early pro-
ponent of statistical methods in insulation
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2897810
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
july/august 2019
Lionel O. Barthold
2019 IEEE Medal in Power Engineering winner
coordination and was a developer of the
digital method for transmission line radio
noise prediction. As the technical direc-
tor of General Electric’s Project EHV, he
redirected work to higher voltages, re-
named it Project UHV, and organized its
eventual transfer to the Electric Power
Research Institute, beginning to work on
a series of major extra high voltage line
design reference books.
Barthold founded Power Techno-
logies, Inc. (PTI) in 1969, which served
as a technical consultant to utility com-
panies around the world during a very
rapid expansion of transmission sys-
tems at high voltages. Barthold provided
the first source of advanced solution
methods outside the purview of electri-
cal equipment manufacturers and in-
troduced the first interactive software
for load-flow and dynamic analysis of
large power systems (PSS/E), which
remains the preeminent world resource
for that purpose. PTI also established
an advanced testing center focusing
on special challenges in transmission
technology ranging from thermome-
chanical bending protection in under-
ground pipe-type cables to limits to com-
paction of medium-voltage overhead
lines and feasibility demonstrations of
high-capacity, high-phase- order ac
power transmission.
Barthold’s recent work has centered
on a capacitor-based dc-to-dc transform-
er, which functions within a dc grid the
same way a magnetic transformer does
within an ac grid. This transformer has
been considered as a key requirement for
developing high-voltage dc macrogrids
proposed as overlays to ac transmission
systems and an important enabler in the
shift to renewable energy sources. Other
achievements include converting one of
four 380-kV ac circuits on a common
line from northern to central Germany
to high-voltage dc to give central Ger-
many access to a large block of North
Sea wind-farm energy.
Barthold is an IEEE Life Fellow
(1972) “for contributions to EHV and
UHV technology” and a member of the
U.S. National Academy of Engineers
(1981) for “outstanding leadership and
innovation in electric utility power sys-
tems engineering, particularly in trans-
mission technology at extra high voltage
and ultrahigh voltage.” He is also an
inventor and consultant in Queensbury,
New York.
p&e
ieee power & energy magazine 101
 calendar
T
T H E I E E E P OW E R & E N E RGY
Society’s (PES’s) website (http://www
.ieee-pes.org) features a meetings sec-
tion, which includes calls for papers
and additional information about each
of the PES-sponsored meetings.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2909009
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
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PES meetings
for more information, www.ieee-pes.org
July 2019
IEEE PES Transactive Energy Sys­
tems Conference 2019 (TESC 2019),
8–10 July, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
United States, contact Ron Melton, ron
.melton@pnnl.gov, https://ieee-tesc.org/
August 2019
IEEE PES General Meeting (GM
2019), 4–8 August, Atlanta, Georgia,
United States, contact Matt Stryjewski,
matthew.stryjewski@ieee.org, http://
pes-gm.org/2019/
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Symposium (ESTS 2019), 13–16 Au-
gust, Washington, D.C., United States,
contact Scott Sudhoff, sudhoff@purdue
.edu, https://ests19.mit.edu/
IEEE PES/IAS PowerAfrica (Power­
Africa 2019), 20–23 August, Abuja, Ni-
geria, contact Tunde Salihu, tunde.s@
ieee.org, https://ieee-powerafrica.org/
September 2019
IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies Latin America (ISGT LA
2019), 15–18 September, Gramado, Brazil,
contact Gabriel Arguello, garguello@
cenace.org.ec, https://attend.ieee.org/
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Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2919087

 in my view (continued from p. 108)
Digitizing the substation leads to
smaller, lighter, and higher quality sen­
sors that are expected to replace today’s
standardized substation equipm e n t
(e.g., instrument transformers). This
will also reduce the substation’s over­
all footprint and its adverse environ­
mental impacts. Continued improve­
ments in processing power (with the
advent of quantum computing) will
enable substation platforms to not just
gather and share data but also possi­
bly manage and identify issues and po­
tential solutions additionally.
Robots Are Coming
AI has seen improvements by leaps
and bounds in recent years, by apply­
ing advances in processing power and
improving the underlying algorithms.
The combination of data available from
various substation equipment, the sur­
rounding grid, and generation resources
on a single platform will enable AI
to monitor, manage, and even self­heal
substations. While this might sound a
bit far in the future, even today AI is
starting to permeate our daily life and
slowly improving its quality. We can ex­
pect that AI advances will lead to more
efficient, reliable, and better substations
that each manage a local area, support­
ing the overall resilience and safety
of the larger grid. The standardization
figure 1. Engineers designing in a VR environment. (Source: SNC-Lavalin; used
with permission.)
104 ieee power & energy magazine
and wider adoption of generic object­
oriented substation event messaging
based on the control model, defined un­
der the IEC 61850 protocol, is moving
us in this direction quickly. Although
many utilities are adopting the standard
slowly due to interoperability issues,
many original equipment manufactur­
ers realize the necessity of making their
equipment compatible with competitors
to enable the utility deployment of pro­
cess bus­based systems. Organizations
like the New York Power Authority cre­
ate and test AI­based systems to man­
age the grid efficiently. It may not be
far­fetched to think that in the very near
future, local substations will act as a
node on a larger grid managed more ef­
ficiently by AI.
Virtual Reality
In addition to AI, the increased pro­
cessing power also enables a wider vir­
tual reality (VR) adoption. We already
see applications of VR in the nuclear
industry, in which a virtual image of
constrained and hazardous environ­
ments (a digital twin) is created to train
personnel prior to exposure in danger­
ous environments. The experience with
VR is slowly being translated to other
industries, including the designs of new
substations (Figure 1). New substations
can be designed in 3D, which could be
translated to a VR environment. This
environment can be used to visualize
equipment and enable the creation of
full simulation models capable of test­
ing AI platforms and operations in a
safe environment. The industry expects
VR models to be fully intelligent (i.e.,
incorporating detailed equipment pa­
rameters) and used for training the
workforce of tomorrow. We anticipate
that the VR environment will encour­
age more innovative ideas to be tested
and then implemented in fields that use
AI. Within 15 years, AI will be used
in a VR environment to design, build,
and operate a very space­efficient and
human­centric substation.
Cybersecurity
Since most sectors of the economy de­
pend on a reliable energy source like
electricity, the threat of cyberbreaches
is perhaps the most concerning chal­
lenge for the electric grid. We can ex­
pect that the growth of cybersecurity
tools will be used to tackle these issues
as substations become more data cen­
tric and software based. The need for
security protocols will also influence
the software platform designs for fu­
ture substations.
DC Substations
The DOE is investing in research and
development for the deployment of low­
and medium­voltage dc substations. This
would entail building a new class of
power electronics to support dc substa­
tions that would be energy efficient and
could offer other advantages, if they can
be implemented cost­effectively. The
need for ac/dc converters could be elimi­
nated for household and industrial equip­
ment loads operating on dc power, such
as power electronic devices. This would
enable the integration of DERs, energy
storage, and electric vehicles at a faster
rate and greatly reduce system losses.
Some other benefits of dc substations in­
clude reduced system fault levels, easier
grid reconfigurations, scalability, modu­
larity, flexibility, and a smaller footprint.
july/august 2019
 The New Trading Floor for
Electricity
Substations capable of collecting sup­
ply and demand metrics near custom­
ers will be the ultimate trading floor
of electricity in the new world of DER
integration. Substations will provide
information to investors seeking to op­
timize the expansion and operation of
generation and storage. Utilities will
use this information to manage asset­
loading cycles, perform maintenance,
and plan system improvements.
We are seeing growth in peer­to­
peer generation and the sale of electric­
ity in some areas in the United States
and internationally. Local demand and
supply aggregators are innovating and
managing the real­time optimization
of consumption and the production of
electricity. These market­based innova­
tions are expected to lead to the creation
and growth of independent electricity­
trading platforms that interact with AI
platforms. These platforms will operate
the substations and the grid by redirect­
ing the power flow to where the demand
and market price are greatest. The sub­
station AI will ensure that the grid oper­
ates efficiently and reliably. The great­
est challenge would be resolving any
conflicts between the two systems.
Individual customers will not only
consume electricity but may also gen­
erate and participate in local electric­
ity markets by using trading platforms
and AI. The trading platforms will also
present their own set of concerns and
challenges to be addressed, ranging
from regulatory reform to public per­
ception. Adopting this customer para­
digm is inevitable.
Sustainability
As the use of carbon­free resources
for electricity generation increases,
we become more mindful of the effect
our activities have on the environment
around us. Adopting the various tech­
nologies discussed here would lower
carbon emissions by using resources
more efficiently and reduce the physi­
cal footprint of the equipment the sub­
stations use. These gains will acceler­
ate as older assets are refurbished over
the next two decades, which will also
improve asset utilization and lead to
long­term sustainable outcomes.
Another aspect of sustainability is
environmental compatibility. Substation
designs are becoming more environ­
mentally friendly, especially in urban
areas where they blend into the local
background. We are also seeing a trend
toward underground substations, which
frees up valuable real estate for other
uses while also providing better physical
security of the critical infrastructure.
What an exciting time to design fu­
ture substations! Consistent with the
S­curve for new technology adoption,
the electric grid is almost at the tip­
ping point for technological innovation
and will then spread at an exponential
pace in the very near future. A VR­de­
signed, AI­enabled solid­state compact
modular substation will be developed
soon, ultimately solidifying the substa­
tion’s critical role at the center of the
new grid.
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Company page# URL Phone

ABB Power Grids 15 new.abb.com/us/power-td

AFL Global 7 AFLglobal.com/Substation +1 864 433 0333

ASPEN, Inc. CVR 4 www.aspeninc.com +1 650 347 3997

Bigwood Systems, Inc. 10 www.bigwood-systems.com +1 607 257 0915

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EasyPower LLC 21 www.EasyPower.com/Reliability

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ETH Zurich 91 www.facultyaffairs.ethz.ch

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Hughes Brothers, Inc. 93 www.hughesbros.com

LEM USA, Inc. 97 www.lem.com

NR Electric Co., Ltd 98 www.nrec.com +86 25 8717 8888

NuScale Power 20 nuscalepower.com

Omicron Electronics Corp. 87 www.omicronenergy.com/puc

P & R Technologies 95 www.pr-tech.com +1 800 722 8078

Polycast International 6 polycast.ca +1 800 665 7445

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PowerWorld Corporation 18 www.powerworld.com +1 217 384 6330

PSCAD a product of MHI 11 mhi.ca

Reef Industries 94 reefindustries.com +1 800 231 6074

RTDS Technologies, Inc. 9 www.rtds.com

Siemens PTI - RUGGEDCOM 17 siemens.com/digitalsubstation

SKM Systems Analysis, Inc. 5 www.skm.com +1 800 500 4SKM

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Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2918653

july/august 2019 ieee power & energy magazine 107

 in my view
S
SUBSTATIONS HAVE TRADITION­
ally been treated like supporting actors
in the electricity sector. But they are
critical for integrating resources, serv­
ing the customer load, transforming
voltages, supporting situational aware­
ness, and providing system protection.
Substations that use new technologies
exhibit greater efficiency, reliability,
and safety. Advances such as in artifi­
cial intelligence (AI) enable the inte­
gration of digital platforms, distributed
energy resources (DERs), and efficient
energy­management systems, with the
potential to upend the traditional class
of electricity­transmission assets. In the
future, the electrical grid will ask sub­
stations to provide many more services
than ever before, and they will become
central rather than on the sidelines.
This changed role of substations has
been years in the making due to exter­
nal and internal factors in the electric
power industry.
In an industry that historically took
decades to evolve, substations are under­
going a rapid transformation. Micropro­
cessor­based protection systems have
replaced the older electromechanical
relays, and copper wires used for com­
munication have been replaced with
fiber optic connections. Supervisory
control and data­acquisition systems
have been implemented with the lat­
est digital equipment and technology.
Open­air insulated equipment has been
replaced with gas insulated switchgear,
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2019.2910423
Date of publication: 18 June 2019
108 ieee power & energy magazine
substations
transformations and improvements
and much more. These changes have
moved substations to the forefront of
the industry.
Backbone of
Economic Growth
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
states, “The electric power industry is
the backbone of America’s economic
sectors, generating the energy that em­
powers its people and businesses in
global commerce” (United States Elec-
tricity Industry Primer, https://www
.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/12/
f28/united­states­electricity­industry­
primer.pdf). The electric grid has key
interdependencies with all critical sec­
tors and essential resources. The same
points are recognized worldwide; most
countries acknowledge that electricity,
increasingly from clean resources, can
enable their citizens to become more
productive and competitive in the glob­
al environment.
The adverse effects of an electric­
ity shortage cannot be understated, as
is directly observable from recent ex­
tended blackouts. For example, in 2019,
a blackout in Venezuela shut down the
oil production and exports the country
depends on for its basic needs. Energy
poverty has been recognized as the
most critical deficit that hampers eco­
nomic growth and productivity. How­
ever, by reducing or eliminating energy
insufficiency, other factors that lead to
poverty can be readily addressed by
various initiatives around the globe,
including the terrific IEEE Smart Vil­
lage. Substations, both small and large,
Ramy Azar
now play a central role, not only by en­
abling energy distribution but also by
orchestrating the energy flow from dis­
tributed resources, storage devices, and
demand response.
Processing Power
Improvements
The first practical and commercially
available microprocessor­based relay
was made in the 1980s. Wider adop­
tion of these relays did not occur until
the late 1990s, once they were proven
sufficiently reliable to implement in the
electric grid. Subsequently, almost all
electromechanical relays in the industry
have been replaced with microproces­
sor­based ones, which has prepared the
substations for their next evolutionary
stage. Data are now collected, stored,
and shared digitally for system protec­
tion and control and for several automa­
tion functions. The data availability and
rapid increase in processing power have
also led to the creation of platform­
based control functions for substations
that use IEC 61850 standards and pro­
gramming languages that are easy to
understand and use. Implementing the
IEC 61850 process bus standard in a
substation replaces almost all copper
control cables with fiber optic ones.
This implementation also enables easier
integration of distributed and intermit­
tent power­generation resources, lead­
ing to substations that act as the new
nodal hub of grid operations.
(continued on p. 104)
july/august 2019
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