Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Combustion of pelleted sewage sludge with reference to coal and

biomass
Agnieszka Kijo-Kleczkowska ⇑, Katarzyna Środa, Monika Kosowska-Golachowska, Tomasz Musiał,
Krzysztof Wolski
Czestochowa University of Technology, Institute of Thermal Machinery, Armii Krajowej 21, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The increasing production of sewage sludge and its properties and methods of disposal are impacting the
Received 28 July 2015 environment and legislation in Poland. According to Regulation of the Economy Minister of 16 July 2015
Received in revised form 1 October 2015 on procedures for the release of waste for landfilling of waste [29], thermal disposal of such waste has
Accepted 2 December 2015
become extremely important due to its gross calorific value, which is greater than 6 MJ/kg, as well as
Available online 28 December 2015
problems regarding its use and application. Consequently, increasingly restrictive legislation (beginning
1 January 2016) has been introduced concerning sewage sludge storage in Poland.
Keywords:
Sewage sludge incineration is an attractive option because it minimizes odour, significantly reduces the
Sewage sludge
Coal
volume of the starting material and thermally destroys organic and toxic components of the off pads.
Biomass Additionally, it is possible that ashes could be used. Currently, as many as 11 plants use sewage sludge
Pellet as fuel in Poland; thus, this technology must be further developed in Poland while considering the ben-
Combustion efits of co-combustion with other fuels.
This paper presents the results of experimental studies from a comparative analysis of the mechanisms
and kinetics of the combustion of pellets of sewage sludge, coal and biomass. The process of fuel-pellet
combustion, which was conducted under air-stream conditions, operates via kinetic diffusion under the
predominant influence of diffusion factors. In comparison with biomass, a higher temperature is required
to ignite sewage sludge by flame. The properties of biomass and sewage sludge result in intensification of
the combustion process. Unlike coal, the combustion process for sewage sludge not only involves char
combustion but also devolatilisation and the combustion of volatiles.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
According to a Law that took effect on 14 December 2012 [1],
sewage sludge is a waste. Wastes are defined as substances that
the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard.
As characterised by Polish standard PN-EN 12832: 2004 [27], sew-
age sludge is a mixture of water and solids that are separated from
various types of plants as a result of natural or artificial processes.
According to the EU definition [5], sewage sludge is the same entity
as biomass. Experimental research regarding the combustion of
sewage sludge compared to biomass and coal is, therefore, neces-
sary. On the one hand, sewage sludge is treated as waste; on the
other hand, it is treated as a full-fledged energy fuel that exhibits
dry combustion kinetics similar to brown coal. According to Regu-
lation of the Economy Minister of 16 July 2015 on procedures for
the release of waste for landfilling of waste [29], thermal disposal
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kijo@imc.pcz.czest.pl (A. Kijo-Kleczkowska).
of such waste has become extremely important due to its gross
calorific value, which is greater than 6 MJ/kg. The combustion
processes for coal and biomass and the properties and thermal util-
isation of sewage sludge and its combustion in relation to coal and
biomass fuels are presented in [2,7,8,10–14,17–21,24,28,31,32,34,
35,37]. Choosing an appropriate method for sludge disposal should
depend on the properties of the sludge. The physical, chemical,
sanitary, and technological properties of sewage sludge are impor-
tant and change depending on the type and method of sewage
treatment. Because of its unusual properties, sewage sludge is dif-
ferent from coal and biomass. Sewage sludge combustion (similar
to coal and biomass) includes drying, devolatilization and the com-
bustion of volatiles and char. Among other fuels, sewage sludge is
distinguished by its high hydration levels (92–99.5%), its high
organic-compound composition, and its primary dependency on
the types of plants and processes used for treatment. For example,
raw sludge contains 75–85% of the organic content in the dry
weight; sludge stabilised approx. 50% of organic matter in content
of the fertilizer compounds. Furthermore, sewage sludge exhibits

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.12.026
0016-2361/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
142 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160
higher secretion odour and bacteriological contamination and may
contain substances that are particularly harmful to the environ-
ment, including heavy metals [9].
Fig. 1 summarises the methods of sewage sludge disposal in
municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants in 2000,
2005, 2010, and 2013 in Poland [6]. Overall, the following conclu-
sions were made:
– Municipal sewage sludge and industrial sewage sludge were
managed differently depending on the year, with the greatest
interest in this method for the disposal of municipal sewage
sludge and industrial sludge occurring in 2010 and 2013,
respectively.
– Similar amounts of municipal and industrial sewage sludge
were stored.
– Larger quantities of industrial sewage sludge than municipal
sewage sludge were stored until 2013.
– Thermal treatment was subjected to more industrial sewage
sludge than municipal sewage sludge.
– Sewage sludge was only used for agricultural and industrial
purposes in 2000, when more industrial sewage sludge was
disposed of.
Fig. 1. Sewage sludge management methods in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2013 in Poland: (a) municipal, (b) industrial [6].
– Municipal and industrial sewage sludge were often used to
grow plants and produce agriculture compost; however, more
attention was given to this disposal method for industrial
sludge in 2013. Sewage sludge was used for land reclamation,
including for agricultural purposes after 2000.
The specific properties of sewage sludge result in a thermal util-
isation process that is not neutral to the environment. Among
other considerations, this is due to emissions of CO, SO2, NOx, par-
ticulate matter, PAHs, dioxins and furans, as well as the possibility
that the resulting ash has accumulated loads of heavy metals.
As shown in Fig. 1, the amount of sewage sludge recycled by
thermal methods increased for both municipal sludge and indus-
trial applications, potentially due to their nature, which was influ-
enced by contamination associated with heavy metals and
pathogenic organisms.
2. Thermal utilisation of sewage sludge
Depending on the fuel and the type of sewage sludge burned,
the combustion process can be divided into two types of thermal
utilisation processes, conventional burning and incineration. The
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 143

main objective of the combustion process is to obtain energy

(heat), while the primary purpose of the incineration process is
to eliminate or reduce the volume of the input material (waste that
is harmful to the environment). Of course, these objectives can be
combined via the use of waste as energy. Table 1 shows the classi-
fication of thermal processes provided in reference [22].
The thermal waste conversion technologies discussed herein
are mainly based on the specific combustion and pyrolysis meth-
ods used. In the case of combustion that is accompanied by other
processes, carbonising and gasification can be run concurrently
or staggered in time [3]. The author of [33] details the distribution
of thermal waste treatment processes in the system, taking into
account the amount of oxygen involved in the process, the use of
oxygen by substrates and the process temperature (Fig. 2.). The
carbonising process has been observed to occur at k = 0, while
the process of incineration occurs when k > 0. Gasification pro-
cesses occur when k < 1, and combustion processes occur when
k > 1 [3].
According to [34], the thermal degradation process can be
divided into successive stages of degradation of organic sub-
stances, depending on the temperature and other factors during
waste incineration. The steps required for transformation during Fig. 2. The processes involved in thermal degradation of the waste in the system:
the degassing of waste are as follows: the ratio of the amount of oxygen fed to the process based on theoretical
requirements (k), the amount of oxygen in the reactants (n ¼ n0O2 oxygen content in
– 100–200 °C – thermal drying hygroscopic and moisture the fuel), and the process temperature (T) [33].

removal,
– 250 °C – deoxidation; the structural breakdown of a substance
Thermal decomposition of sewage sludge occurs at significantly
due to water separation and its associated carbon atoms;
lower temperatures than coal. Like coal, a drying phase is required
depolymerisation; release of sulphur compounds and initiation
for separation and pyrolysis. During thermal decomposition of
of hydrogen sulphide decomposition,
these waste materials, gaseous, liquid, and char states are
– 340 °C – the beginning of the formation of aliphatic compounds
obtained. As the temperature distribution increases, the proportion
and the release of other aliphatic compounds and methane,
of gaseous substances increases and the proportions of liquid and
– 380 °C – carbonising phase,
char decrease [15,36].
– 400 °C – the beginning of the formation of compounds from CO
In contrast with the combustion of solid fuels such as coal, the
and C and N,
combustion of char from sewage sludge requires less material than
– 400–600 °C – the processing of bituminous compounds in oil
degassing and separated volatile matter combustion. This may be
and tar,
due not only to the slow rate of thermal decomposition of these
– 600 °C – the cracking of bituminous substances; formation of
wastes, but also due to a small share of the carbon in char (approx-
aromatic compounds (benzene derivatives),
imately 10%). Undoubtedly, this factor favours rapid char oxidation
– >600 °C – olefin–ethylene–butylene dimerisation; transforma-
and sediments with high porosities [36].
tion reactions of ethylene cyclohexane; dehydrogenation to
Particularly, the incineration of sewage sludge is important
butadiene; thermal aromatisation to benzene and hydrocarbons
when considering the benefits of recycling these wastes, including
of higher orders,
odours minimisation, significant reduction in the volume of the
– >1200 °C – the melting of inorganic substances, the formation of
input material, the possibility of further using the fly ash, and
liquid slag and the disintegration of the pyrolysis of methane
the thermal destruction of organic and toxic ingredients. In addi-
into hydrogen and carbon.
tion, sewage sludge is attractive for using as an energy fuel because
its calorific value is comparable to that of lignite. Consequently, it
Physical changes that occur during sewage sludge drying can be
is reasonable to burn the waste to recover its energy content. Given
distinguished by three states: wet (70–80% water), pitting (60–65%
the considerable development of combustion technology, the
water), and granular (20–25% water). Waste incineration furnace
competitiveness of this method relative to other sewage sludge
shelves and fluidized beds are used because sewage sludge can
disposal methods should be emphasised. However, incineration,
contain up to 60–65% water [15,36].
like all waste disposal methods, has its own various problems,

Table 1
Classification of thermal processes [22].

Process Drying Carbonisation Incineration

Sub-processes Evaporation Diffusion of moisture Pyrolysis Devolatilisation Gasification Combustion
Excess air Irrelevant Lack of outside air k<1 k>1
Products:
Gas Water vapour Combustible Combustible Non-flammable
Liquid Lack dry Combustible Lack Lack
Solid Material Combustible Lack Non-flammable
Energy Endothermic process Endothermic process or exothermic Exothermic process
process
Comments Lack of chemical reactions t < 105 °C t < 600 °C – half coking t > 600 °C –
coking
144 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160
Fig. 3. Diagram of test stand: 1 – combustion chamber, 2 – PtRh10 thermocouples, 3 – electronic balance, 4 – measurement card, 5 – computer, 6 – expansion chamber,
7 – flue gas exhaust, 8 – NiCr–Ni thermocouple (to measure temperature in the combustion chamber), 9 – microprocessor temperature controllers, 10 – float flow meter,
11 – control valves, 12 – gas heater, 13 – fuel sample, and 14 – power controller.
Fig. 4. Diagram of the measurement system: 1 – combustion chamber, 2 – fuel
sample, 3 – S-type thermocouples, 4 – K-type thermocouple, 5 – electronic balance.
including the presence of heavy metals and the need for exhaust
gas purification over a wide range. These problems result from a
variety of contaminants present in the sediments. The high mois-
ture content should be stressed, which limits autothermal inciner-
ation and necessitates providing additional fuel [36] or requires
suitable pre-treatment, such as drying.
The authors [3] detail the following sludge treatment processes:
thickening, stabilization, dewatering, drying (mechanical devices –
fluid dryers, belt dryers, drum dryers, disc dryers, cascading dryers,
thin-film dryers and solar driers) and disposal (using natural and
thermal treatment).
By choosing the right technology, sewage sludge combustion is
dictated by the BAT (Best Available Techniques) principle, which
states that fluidized bed technology is the best solution because
of its high combustion efficiency and production of exhaust gases
[23]. The following are examples of such structural solutions in
Poland: sewage sludge incineration in De˛bogórze-Gdynia [23]
and the first and most modern installation of hazardous waste
incineration, PYROFLUIDTM [38].
Sewage sludge co-combustion in rotary kilns in the cement
industry is ideal for disposing of organic compounds that are resis-
tant to high temperatures because the temperature of rotary kilns
can reach 2000 °C, the improved residence time of the gases in
high-temperature waste-free technology, the higher heat capacity
of the furnace, and the nature of the alkali-fired charge-on binding
present in the flue gas of the acidic components [4]. Sewage sludge
must meet two primary criteria to become a fuel in the cement
industry.
– The sewage sludge must have sufficient calorific value, which
should not be less than 11.5 MJ/kg (according to the ‘‘Lafarge”
– a company involved in producing building materials) or
14 MJ/kg (according to other cements) after drying.
– The chlorine content should not exceed 5% of the sewage sludge
weight [30].
In conclusion, incineration is an extremely effective method for
disposing of sewage sludge waste. The disposal of heterogeneous
fuels such as sewage sludge is possible; however, large amounts
of harmful substances, including poisonous substances, can be
released. The greatest threat is the formation of dioxins during
incineration at different types of waste incineration plants [21].
However, studies have shown that high-temperature combustion
processes and the time when the highest temperatures are reached
positively contribute to the destruction of dioxins and that such
favourable conditions can be obtained in cement kilns. Other extre-
mely dangerous air pollutants that result from sludge combustion
are NOx, SO2, CO2, and HCl, which contribute to the formation of
acid rain. In addition, the exhaust gas may contain heavy metals
in gaseous form, i.e., in active form [25].
Most of the research reported in the literature considers sewage
sludge combustion, including studies of coal and biomass, by ther-
mogravimetry. However, some studies have aimed to determine
the mechanisms and kinetics of sewage sludge combustion under
a stream of air under different thermal and flow conditions. This
paper presents the results of experimental studies that considered
the impacts of fuel sample size, combustion chamber temperature
and air flow velocity at volatile ignition and combustion to achieve
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 145

Table 2
Proximate and ultimate analyses of the tested sewage sludge, coal and biomass.

Fuel Proximate analysis (air dried) Ultimate analysis (daf)

Moisture Volatiles matter Ash Calorific Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Total sulphur Oxygen content
content content content value, LHV content content content content (calculated)
W (%) V (%) A (%) Q (kJ/kg) C (%) H (%) N (%) S (%) O (%)
Scots pine 7.0 76.8 0.6 17,631 50.9 5.8 0.0 0.01 43.3
Willow Salix 6.9 76.3 1.4 16,824 49.6 6.0 0.3 0.1 44.0
viminalis
Wheat straw 8.4 68.3 6.1 15,566 50.2 5.9 0.8 0.08 43.1
Sewage sludge 4.9 51.4 36.4 12,574 52.5 6.7 7.3 2.5 31.1
Brown coal 13.3 39.1 22.4 17,330 41.4 3.0 0.6 0.96 18.4
Hard coal 8.7 26.8 18.9 21,687 73.3 4.3 1.1 2.3 19.0

Table 3
Fuel combustion research programme (rotal-uniformal plan).

u ^
xk xk
^
x1 ^
x2 ^
x3 x1 x2 x3

1 1 1 1 6 820 2.3
2 1 1 1 9 820 2.3
3 1 1 1 6 880 2.3
4 1 1 1 9 880 2.3
Fig. 5. Flow diagram of fuel pellet production [16].
5 1 1 1 6 820 3.2
6 1 1 1 9 820 3.2
7 1 1 1 6 880 3.2
8 1 1 1 9 880 3.2
9 a 0 0 5 850 2.8
10 a 0 0 10 850 2.8
11 0 a 0 7.5 800 2.8
12 0 a 0 7.5 900 2.8
13 0 0 a 7.5 850 2
14 0 0 a 7.5 850 3.5
15 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8
16 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8
17 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8
18 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8
19 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8
20 0 0 0 7.5 850 2.8

Where:

2  a  ðxk  xk Þ
^xk ¼ ð1Þ
xk max  xk min

air stream depending on the thermal conditions and flow (temper-

ature range of 800–900 °C, air flow velocity range of 2.0–3.5 m/s,
and fuel sample diameters range from 5 to 10 mm) using a bench
test with a total capacity of 8.2 kW (Fig. 3). One interesting ele-
ment of this research is the need to visualise the sewage sludge
combustion process when using a combustion chamber with a
total capacity of 4.4 kW.

3.1. Research stand and measurement methods

Fig. 6. System for forming pellets; 1-upper punch, 2-matrix and 3-lower punch
[16].
maximum temperatures at the fuel surface and on the surface of
the fuel, as well as the maximum char combustion times and total
fuel combustion. Thus, this paper is innovative.
3. Experimental studies
This paper presents the results of experimental studies aimed at
determining the mechanisms and kinetics of fuel combustion in an
The research stand (Fig. 3) was built from two blocks made of
ceramic material (1, 12). The ceramic block (12) contains a gas pre-
heater that consists of three coils, each with a 2 kW of power and
arranged in six quartz tubes. These tubes were built in a quartz
tube with thermally insulated Al2O3 fibre material and a shielded
stainless steel sheet. The test chamber (1) consists of a quartz tube
with a height of 65 cm that was placed vertically in the ceramic
block and was further equipped with a heating coil power of
2.2 kW to eliminate heat loss. The ceramic block (1) was used to
obtain measurements 100 mm above the grate. The entire appara-
tus was blanketed with stainless steel. To achieve the desired
146 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Table 4 nected to regulator and a three-phase power controller LUMEL,

The characteristics of the rotal-uniformal plan depending on the number of input which were used to control of work of the heating elements and
values [26].
to maintaining the desired temperature around the fuel sample.
i 3 This study involved visualising, measuring, and recording the
a 1.682 fuel combustion in the sample, which was placed in a specially
nk 8
na 6
contoured ‘‘basket” that contained S-type thermocouples (Fig. 4)
n0 6 and was located in two thin quartz tubes that were simultaneously
n 20 placed on an electronic laboratory balance with a measurement
Where:
range of up to 20 g and an accuracy of 1 mg. Such a measurement
i – number of input parameters (values). system design could record the temperature changes in the centre
a – star shoulder value (Table 3: u = 9–14). and on the surface of the fuel sample and the weight loss during
nk – number of systems constituting a kernel of schedule (Table 3: u = 1–8). the combustion process. The tip of the first thermocouple was
na – number of systems based on which star points are formed (Table 3: u = 9–14).
located inside the fuel sample, while the second thermocouple
n0 – number of systems in the centre of the schedule (Table 3: u = 15–20), and
n – total number of systems in the rotary design. measured the surface temperature and served as a basket in which
the coal particle was places.
For measurements which were made in air stream, using the
research stand (Fig. 3), parameters of the flow (air velocity) were
such selected that not interfere the combustion process of fuel.
Table 5 In order to reset the measuring system, in the first place, the mea-
Values of the input data.
surement system (without fuel sample) was introduced into the
^
xk combustion chamber. Then, the measuring system was removed
a 1 0 +1 +a from the combustion chamber. After its cooled, the sample of fuel
xk xk min  xk max xk was placed on the thermocouples and introduced into the combus-
x1 5.0–10.0 5.0 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.0 tion chamber.
x2 800–900 800 820 850 880 900 The sample fuel was introduced into the combustion chamber
x3 2.0–3.5 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.5 through a specially designed chassis. To record the test results,
Where: the thermocouples were connected to a measurement card (4) that
x1 ¼ 7:5; 
 x2 ¼ 850; 
x3 ¼ 2:8. was connected to a computer (5).
The research material consisted of spherical pellets made from
hard coal, brown coal, three types of biomass and sewage sludge.
The fuel analysis performed in the study is shown in Table 2.
Initially, sewage sludge had the form of spherical granules
Table 6
Ancillary factors for determining the regression function based on the research plan obtained directly from the wastewater treatment plants accruing
[26]. large urban-industrial agglomerations and had moisture content
below 10%. Fig. 5 contains a flow diagram demonstrating how
i nK D E e F G
the pellets were produced. The first stage was preliminary size
3 8 0.1663 0.0568 13.6612 0.0694 0.0069
reduction, which consisted of cutting and crushing the fuel into
small pieces. Next, the fuel was milled in a laboratory mill. Subse-
quently, the milled fuel was sifted by passing it through a series of
standard sieves with sizes decreasing to 0.1 mm. Next, the sifted
temperature at the measurement point and eliminate heat loss, the fuel was mixed with potato starch as a binder (approximately 8%
combustion chamber was enclosed by segment heaters with a total by weight) and water. The mixture was compacted using a hydrau-
output of 2.2 kW, clad insulation, and a stainless steel sheet as a lic stamping press, which gave the pellet its spherical shape. The
shield. A special expansion chamber composed of stainless steel last stage was conditioning the pellets to remove moisture. Fig. 6
(6) and mounted on the combustion chamber was used to measure illustrates system for forming pellets. Pellets had sizes tailored to
the emissions during the combustion of the fuel samples. Com- the rotary-uniformal plan [26].
pressed air was fed into the quartz tube in the ceramic block Because it is necessary to obtain a correlation between the
(12) by using a float flow meter (10). input parameters of the process when deciding on the fuel com-
One interesting element of research is the registration of the bustion process, it was important to conduct tests according to
fuel combustion process (temperature and mass measurement of the rotal-uniformal test plan [26].
fuel) and the visualisation process, which allowed setting the var- The input process parameters were:
ious stages of the fuel combustion process and the precision inter-
pretation of the measurement results. This research was conducted x1: diameter of the fuel (5–10 mm),
using a combustion chamber with flat and fast visualisation. The x2: temperature combustion chamber (800–900 °C),
combustion chamber was constructed from a ceramic block with x3: air velocity (2.0–3.5 m/s, converted to high-temperature
heating elements mounted (in special grooves) inside with a total conditions).
capacity of 4.4 kW. In the combustion chamber and at 1/3rd of the
height, 70  80 mm glass was mounted to allow for observations Each measurement was repeated three times according to the
and visualisation of the combustion process. The input fuel sam- program of study (Table 3).
ples were measured at the side wall of the chamber and were The characteristics of the plan and the range of the specified
introduced into the combustion chamber through the chassis. input values are shown in Tables 4 and 5.
Gases resulting from the combustion process fuel ended up in Statistical analysis of the measurement results made based on
the chimney through the expansion chamber and as exhaust the paper [26]. The aim of this analysis was to select the most
fumes. adequate regression equation for the measurement results. This
Temperature control in the combustion chamber (near surface regression was calculated using the ancillary factors shown in
of fuel – Fig. 4) was achieved by using NiCr–Ni thermocouple con- Table 6, and with the dependencies (2)–(10).
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 147

Fig. 7. Visualisation of pellets combustion; I-heating and evaporation (1), II-devolatilisation and volatiles combustion (2–4), III-char combustion (5), ash (6); (a) hard coal, (b)
brown coal (c) sewage sludge, (d) energetic willow, (e) wheat straw, (f) pine-chips.

X
i X
n
b0 ¼ D  ð0zÞ þ E  ðkkzÞ; ð2Þ ðkzÞ ¼ ^xk=u  zðuÞ ; ð7Þ
k¼1 u¼1

X
n
ðkzÞ ðkkzÞ ¼ ^x2k=u  zðuÞ ; ð8Þ
bk ¼ ; ð3Þ
e u¼1

X
i X
n

bkk ¼ ðF  GÞ  ðkkzÞ þ G  ðkkzÞ þ E  ð0zÞ; ð4Þ ðqkzÞ ¼ ^xq=u  ^xk=u  zðuÞ ; ð9Þ
u¼1
k¼1

X
i X
i X
n
ðqkzÞ ðkkzÞ ¼ ^x2k=u  zðuÞ ¼ ð11zÞ þ ð22zÞ þ . . . þ ðiizÞ: ð10Þ
bqk ¼ ; ð5Þ
nK k¼1 k¼1 u¼1

where: where:
zðuÞ – mean measured output value for this measurement,
X
n
ðqkÞ – means: (12), (13), (23),
ð0zÞ ¼ zðuÞ ; ð6Þ
xk=u – value of ^
^ xk for u – measurement system.
u¼1
148 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Fig. 8. Example of how the output data were obtained during the sewage sludge combustion.

Table 7 Table 9
Output data during combustion of solid fuels briquettes (d = 10 mm). Coefficient values for the function approximating the time required for volatiles of
fuels to be ignited.
Measurement/fuel Hard Brown Sewage Wheat Scots Willow
coal coal sludgea straw pine Coefficient Coefficient value for ignition time for fuels
ss, s 451 244 169 61 50 86 Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown
sz, s 10 6 8 2 2 3 sludge pine straw coal coal
tz, °C 546 461 542 307 340 377
b00 7.80 4.44 2.95 3.25 5.63 6.30
stmax, s 52 56 47 19 16 26
b01 0.05 0.18 0.12 0.01 0.11 0.05
tmax, °C 1124 1169 1138 1119 1182 1195
b02 1.26 0.82 0.12 0.17 0.33 0.72
sczl, s 42 50 39 17 13 23
b03 0.92 0.13 0.39 0.14 0.41 0.89
sk, s 399 188 122 42 34 60
b11 0.04 0.16 0.04 0.09 0.97 0.45
sczl/ ss 9% 20% 23% 27% 26% 27%
b12 0.04 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.12 0.14
sk/ ss 88% 77% 72% 69% 68% 70%
b13 0.12 0.25 0.19 0.14 0.21 0.09
a
Data presented in Fig. 8. b22 0.27 0.07 0.26 0.14 0.32 0.19
b23 0.62 0.00 0.25 0.01 0.62 0.81
b33 0.30 0.07 0.02 0.17 0.08 0.21

Table 8
Coefficient values for the function approximating the combustion time of fuels.
Table 10
Coefficient Coefficient value for combustion time for fuels Coefficient values for the function approximating the temperature on the surface of
the particle at the moment that the volatile content of the fuel is ignited.
Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown
sludge pine straw coal coal Coefficient Coefficient value for temperature on the surface of the particle at
b00 125.75 43.46 50.25 61.87 323.93 179.32 the moment of ignition of volatiles for fuels
b01 40.82 11.42 11.53 15.62 100.99 53.32 Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown
b02 1.31 1.71 0.18 0.82 9.50 1.54 sludge pine straw coal coal
b03 3.90 0.17 2.53 3.08 5.08 17.75
b11 1.82 0.39 1.05 2.09 4.03 3.43 b00 450.78 322.90 413.14 321.50 412.32 559.25
b12 0.29 1.37 0.12 1.62 3.83 1.00 b01 22.78 11.15 37.60 28.71 3.21 22.74
b13 2.29 0.54 0.79 0.54 4.83 7.50 b02 0.70 8.67 6.79 8.98 10.68 14.16
b22 2.59 0.79 1.23 0.44 7.15 4.08 b03 12.94 9.14 39.72 36.10 12.58 20.68
b23 4.12 0.04 0.04 0.29 1.42 0.58 b11 9.37 14.04 17.33 19.56 32.97 31.42
b33 3.53 0.85 0.52 0.09 5.46 1.96 b12 12.16 2.00 46.29 28.46 10.17 25.71
b13 0.92 6.58 5.29 19.62 8.25 8.71
b22 22.86 27.55 21.50 5.71 3.68 22.85
b23 29.00 13.00 39.54 16.62 7.33 50.96
3.2. The results of experimental studies b33 5.77 0.85 0.17 30.94 4.92 25.53

Visualisation of the process is important to accurately interpret

the kinetics and mechanisms of combustion, which was a priority
in this study. The use of flat visualisation in the stand results in
accurate fuel combustion observations at different stages.
Fig. 7 shows the combustion process for the fuels analysed with
respect to recorded changes of temperature and mass, thereby
enabling thorough interpretation of the phenomena occurring at
various stages of combustion (heating, moisture evaporation,
devolatilisation and combustion of volatiles, and char combustion).
The ignition of volatiles evolved vigorously after the introduc-
tion of fuel into the combustion chamber. Visual observation of
this process indicates that it corresponds to the moment the flame
begins burning the volatile matter, and the changes in fuel temper-
ature indicate the acceleration of the heating fuel at this moment.
From the moment at which fuel ignition occurs via combustion of
the volatile matter, the surface temperature of the fuel increases
rapidly and, after a certain time, reaches a maximum value. Fuel
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 149

Table 11 Table 14
Coefficient values for the function approximating the time required to achieve Coefficient values for the function approximating the time required for char
maximum temperature on the fuel surface. combustion.

Coefficient Coefficient value for achieving time of maximum temperature Coefficient Coefficient value for char combustion time for fuels
on the fuel the surface for fuels
Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown
Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown sludge pine straw coal coal
sludge pine straw coal coal
b00 87.33 24.28 34.39 42.83 282.75 158.33
b00 38.42 19.17 15.75 19.04 41.17 19.77 b01 31.22 7.33 8.06 10.87 90.77 42.82
b01 9.61 4.09 3.39 4.75 10.22 10.50 b02 0.38 0.34 0.59 0.97 8.37 0.23
b02 0.92 1.37 0.70 0.15 1.12 1.77 b03 1.14 0.71 0.24 0.86 4.82 11.46
b03 2.76 0.54 2.69 2.22 0.26 6.28 b11 1.20 0.04 1.05 1.75 4.94 9.24
b11 0.62 0.34 0.007 0.34 0.91 6.22 b12 0.00 2.08 0.21 1.42 4.75 0.67
b12 0.29 0.71 0.04 0.21 0.92 0.33 b13 0.17 0.50 0.37 0.58 4.25 5.17
b13 2.12 0.04 1.04 1.12 0.58 2.33 b22 1.67 0.72 1.81 1.04 5.41 8.83
b22 0.91 0.07 0.60 0.60 1.74 5.16 b23 2.67 0.08 0.37 0.08 0.50 1.75
b23 1.46 0.12 0.21 0.21 0.92 1.17 b33 2.32 0.61 0.34 0.31 5.60 4.82
b33 1.21 0.24 0.17 0.22 0.15 3.28

the moment of ignition of the volatiles [°C], smax – time to reach

the maximum temperature by the surface fuel [s], tmax – maximum
Table 12
temperature on the surface of the fuel [°C], sczl – combustion time
Coefficient values for the function approximating the maximum temperature on the
fuel surface. of volatiles [s], and sk – char combustion time [s]. Fig. 8 shows an
example of how these variables were obtained during sewage
Coefficient Coefficient value for maximum temperature on the surface for
sludge combustion.
fuels
Table 7 summarises the values of the variables of interest dur-
Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown
ing the combustion of fuel for one of the system’s rotary-uniformal
sludge pine straw coal coal
plan. It was found that, in the case of sewage sludge, combustion of
b00 1119.26 1023.92 1188.68 1118.25 1116.59 1153.47 volatile matter constitutes 23% of the total process time, while the
b01 12.01 8.10 13.58 23.19 5.98 2.26
b02 35.67 37.99 12.12 8.12 25.58 28.84
burning of char constitutes 72% of the total process time. Consider-
b03 13.08 12.59 43.01 37.26 2.45 0.94 ing other fuels, the following values were obtained: for coal, 9% and
b11 8.41 52.29 2.38 0.93 16.51 14.15 88%; for lignite, 20% and 77%; for scots pine, 26% and 68%; for wil-
b12 6.06 13.56 4.30 1.42 3.28 0.41 low, 27% and 70%; and for straw wheat, 27% and 69%. It can be
b13 7.77 20.81 13.03 13.30 6.21 3.97
observed that, similar to biomass fuels, the devolatilisation and
b22 3.48 64.99 3.27 0.60 9.11 24.05
b23 26.01 15.22 5.90 2.68 0.95 4.14 combustion of volatiles are the important steps in sewage sludge
b33 2.93 45.87 1.97 5.05 3.23 18.13 combustion.
In preliminary studies, measurements were only taken when
changing one pair meter during the process, which made it possi-
Table 13
Coefficient values for the function approximating the time required for combustion of
ble to use the obtained values of the variables to approximate a
the volatile matter. polynomial function.
The approximation coefficient values (Tables 8–14) for the anal-
Coefficient Coefficient value for volatiles combustion time for fuels
ysed output parameters were determined according to their
Sewage Willow Scots Wheat Hard Brown dependencies (2)–(10). Insertion of coefficients into the regression
sludge pine straw coal coal
Eq. (11) allowed for calculating the predicted parameters.
b00 30.62 14.74 12.80 15.79 35.54 14.69 The following function (11) was found to approximate the mea-
b01 9.65 4.27 3.27 4.74 10.12 10.55
surement results
b02 0.33 0.55 0.82 0.02 0.80 1.05
b03 18.38 0.68 2.30 2.08 0.67 5.39 ^
b11 0.66 0.19 0.03 0.43 1.88 6.26
z ¼ b0 þ b01  ^x1 þ b02  ^x2 þ b03  ^x3 þ b11  ^x21 þ b22  ^x22 þ b33
b12 0.33 0.87 0.23 0.02 1.04 0.19  ^x23 þ b12  ^x1  ^x2 þ b13  ^x1  ^x3 þ b23  ^x2  ^x3 ð11Þ
b13 2.00 0.21 0.85 1.26 0.37 2.24
b22 1.19 0.13 0.34 0.46 1.42 4.56 where:
b23 2.08 0.12 0.46 0.19 0.29 1.97 ^
b33 0.91 0.31 0.19 0.40 0.06 3.07 z – approximated output value calculated from the function of
the subject of the study for this measurement,
ignition via the volatile components also leads to a temperature b0, bk, bkk, bqk – approximating polynomial coefficients.
increase in the centre of the fuel. Increasing the amount of volatiles
in the fuel enhances the combustion process. The combustion time Figs. 9–15 show examples plotted as a function of the variability
for volatiles released from the fuel was determined as starting with of two parameters during the process (at a constant mean value for
the appearance of the flame and ending when the flame goes out. the remaining three input values).
Especially in the case of high-carbon fuels, the longest combustion Based on Figs. 9–15 and Table 15, it was found that:
stage occurred during the burning of the char, which was deter-
mined as the percentage of the time required for the total process. – for all fuels, increased fuel diameters require increased times for
One important element of this study was to determine the fuel combustion and char combustion (for the entire range of
effects of various process parameters on fuel combustion in the temperatures in the combustion chamber and the entire range
air stream (research stand – Fig. 3). This study was conducted of air flow velocities) – Figs. 9a and b, 15a and b),
using a rotal-uniformal research plan, which is described in detail – temperature increases in the combustion chamber (mainly
in Chapter 3.1. The following are the output parameters of the pro- above 850 °C) lead to shortening of combustion and char
cess: ss – total combustion time [s], sz – fuel ignition time through combustion times for the entire range of air flow velocities
the volatile components [s], tz – fuel temperature on the surface at (Figs. 9c, 15c),
150 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Fig. 9. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and the air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on combustion time (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 151

Fig. 10. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the ignition time (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
152 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Fig. 11. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the ignition temperature (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 153

Fig. 12. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the time required to achieve the maximum temperature during combustion (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow,
V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
154 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Fig. 13. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the maximum temperature during combustion (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots
pine).
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160 155

Fig. 14. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the time required to burn the volatile content (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
156 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

Fig. 15. Effects of the diameter of the fuel and air flow velocity (a), the fuel diameter and temperature in the combustion chamber (b), the temperature in the combustion
chamber and air flow rate (c) on the time required for char combustion (I – hard coal, II – brown coal, III – sewage sludge, IV – willow, V – wheat straw, VI – scots pine).
Table 15
Correlation between input and output parameters of fuels combustion for considered process conditions (on the basis of Figs. 9–15).

Fuel The impact of input Change output parameters of combustion

parameter change on the
output parameter change
of process
Increase Decrease fuel ignition Decrease fuel temperature Decrease time to reach Decrease maximum Decrease Increase char
combustion time time through the volatile on the surface at the the maximum temperature on the combustion time of combustion time
components moment of ignition of the temperature by the surface of the fuel volatiles
volatiles surface fuel
Hard coal Diameter of the fuel

especially for range especially for range especially for range

d = 5.0–7.5 mm d = 5.0–7.5 mm v = 2.0–3.2 m/s and
for smaller fuel
particles
Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range

A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

T = 800–850 °C v = 2.0–2.3 m/s v = 2.0–2.3 m/s T = 800–850 °C T = 800–850 °C and T = 800–850 °C
for smaller fuel
particles
Air velocity

especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range
v = 2.3–3.5 m/s T = 800–820 °C T = 800–850 °C T = 800–820 °C T = 800–820 °C and T = 800–850 °C v = 2.3–3.5 m/s
for larger fuel
particles
Brown coal Diameter of the fuel

especially for range especially for range especially for range

d = 7.5–10.0 mm d = 7.5–10.0 mm d = 7.5–10.0 mm
Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for range especially for range especially for larger fuel especially for range especially for range especially for range
T = 850–900 °C v = 2.0–2.8 m/s particles T = 800–850 °C T = 800–850 °C T = 850–900 °C
Air velocity

especially for larger especially for range especially for range especially for smaller especially for range especially for larger
fuel particles T = 800–850 °C T = 800–850 °C fuel particles v = 2.0–2.8 m/s and fuel particles
T = 800–850 °C
Sewage sludge Diameter of the fuel

Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for range especially for larger fuel especially for range especially for especially for range
v = 2.8–3.5 m/s particles v = 3.2–3.5 m/s smaller fuel v = 2.8–3.5 m/s
particles
Air velocity

especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range especially for range
T = 850–900 °C T = 800–880 °C T = 800–850 °C v = 2.0–2.8 m/s T = 850–900 °C T = 850–900 °C

(continued on next page)

157
 158
Table 15 (continued)

Fuel The impact of input Change output parameters of combustion

parameter change on the
output parameter change
of process
Increase Decrease fuel ignition Decrease fuel temperature Decrease time to reach Decrease maximum Decrease Increase char
combustion time time through the volatile on the surface at the the maximum temperature on the combustion time of combustion time
components moment of ignition of the temperature by the surface of the fuel volatiles
volatiles surface fuel
Willow Diameter of the fuel

especially for range especially for larger fuel

v = 2.8–3.5 m/s and particles and v = 2.0–
T = 800–880 °C 2.8 m/s
Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for especially for range especially for larger especially for larger especially for range
smaller fuel T = 850–900 °C fuel particles fuel particles T = 850–900 °C and
particles for smaller fuel
particles
Air velocity

A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160

especially for range especially for larger fuel especially for larger fuel especially for range especially for range
v = 2.0–2.8 m/s particles particles v = 2.3–3.5 m/s v = 2.0–2.8 m/s
Wheat straw Diameter of the fuel

especially for range especially for range

v = 2.0–2.3 m/s and T = 850–900 °C
T = 800–820 °C
Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for range especially for larger fuel especially for smaller fuel especially for range especially for range especially for range
v = 2.0–2.8 m/s and particles and particles and v = 2.0– T = 800–850 °C T = 800–850 °C v = 2.0–2.8 m/s and
smaller fuel 2.8 m/s smaller fuel
particles particles
Air velocity

especially for larger especially for range especially for smaller fuel especially for larger
fuel particles v = 2.0–2.8 m/s and particles and T = 800– fuel particles
T = 850–900 °C and 850 °C
smaller fuel particles
Scots pine Diameter of the fuel

especially for range especially for range especially for range

v = 3.2–3.5 m/s and T = 800–820 °C v = 2.0–3.2 m/s
T = 800–820 °C
Temperature combustion
chamber
especially for range especially for smaller fuel especially for smaller fuel especially for range
T = 850–900 °C particles and v = 2.0– particles and v = 2.0– T = 850–900 °C
2.8 m/s 2.8 m/s
Air velocity

especially for larger especially for range especially for smaller fuel especially for range
fuel particles T = 800–880 °C particles and T = 850– T = 800–820 °C and
900 °C for larger fuel
particles
 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160
– increases in air flow velocities (above 2.8 m/s) lead to reduc-
tions in combustion times and char combustion times
(Figs. 9c, 15c),
– increases in air flow velocities, compared to changes in
combustion-chamber temperatures at the time of fuel combus-
tion, shift the combustion process in the direction of diffusion
(Fig. 9c),
– for most fuels, increasing the fuel diameter increases the time
required for fuel ignition for the entire range of air flow veloci-
ties, and increasing air flow velocities and temperatures in the
combustion chamber (in the whole range of the size of the fuel)
reduces the time required for fuel ignition (Fig. 10),
– increasing air flow velocities and temperatures in the combus-
tion chamber (for the entire range of fuel sizes) leads to
increases in fuel ignition temperatures (Fig. 11),
– increases in fuel diameters lengthen the times required for the
fuel surfaces to reach their maximum temperatures (for the
entire range of temperatures in the combustion chamber and
air flow velocities) (Fig. 12),
– temperature increases in the combustion chamber cause
increases in maximum fuel temperatures during combustion
(for the entire speed range of air flow velocities) – Fig. 13,
– increases in fuel particle size require longer times for volatile
matter to combustion (for the entire range of temperatures in
the combustion chamber and air flow velocities) – Fig. 14,
– all fuels show tendencies for the times required for volatiles
matter combustion to increase with decreasing air flow velocity
(for the entire range of temperatures in the combustion
chamber).
Optimisation of the combustion process was carried out with
regard to environmental aspects as well as the residence time
required for the fuel in the combustion chamber. Process condi-
tions were selected while considering the lowest ignition temper-
ature, the shortest ignition time, the lowest temperature on the
fuel surface occurring during combustion and the longest time
required for fuel combustion. For a fuel particle size of
d = 7.5 mm, the following conditions were optimal:
– for hard coal: T = 800–820 °C; v = 2–2.3 m/s
– for brown coal: T = 800–850 °C; v  2.8 m/s
– for sewage sludge: T = 800–820 °C; v  2.8 m/s
– for willow: T  820 °C; v = 2–2.8 m/s
– for wheat straw: T = 800–850 °C; v = 2,3–2.8 m/s
– for scots pine: T = 820–900 °C; v = 2–2.3 m/s
Fuels combustion occurs in the transition (kinetic-diffusion)
region. In the transition region, the chemical reaction rate and
the rate of diffusion into the pores are comparable with each other.
The penetration of oxygen through the pores into the char particles
is limited, and most of the oxygen is consumed at the surface. Dur-
ing diffusion-controlled combustion, rapid chemical reactions
decrease the oxygen concentrations on the fuel particle surface.
Consequently, the influx of oxygen from the ambient air is limited.
Fuels presented in this paper differentiate physicochemical
properties, inter alia, the organic and inorganic content, which
affect the devolatilisation and combustion. In the case of biomass,
the volatiles come mainly from lignocellulose (80%), a fibre mate-
rial, which consists of three components: cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are the components of
the cell walls of the biomass material, and lignin is the binder
occurring in the secondary cell wall. This composition of biomass
causes a rapid loss of its mass during the devolatilisation process.
Therefore, biomass fuels ignite faster and at a lower temperature,
in compared to coal fuels. Sewage sludge behaves similarly to bio-
mass. The reason for this behaviour is the origin of organic matter,
159
which consists of two factions: deriving from the initial sewage
sludge (cellulose from paper and vegetable fibres) and produced
by microorganisms (activated sewage sludge).
4. Conclusions
The Polish energy sector relies on hard and brown coals. How-
ever, other biomass or waste fuel solutions are needed, including
sewage sludge.
The experimental studies performed for this study resulted in
the following conclusions.
1. The process considered herein for the combustion of fuel
pellets, which occurred under a stream of air, occurs in
the kinetic-diffusion region and is predominantly deter-
mined by diffusion factors.
2. In comparison to hard coal, high of volatile matter content
of biomass and sewage sludge leads to intensification of
the combustion process of these fuels, by faster ignition
and the lower temperature of ignition. In comparison with
biomass, sewage sludge can be ignited by flame at a higher
temperature.
3. In the case of sewage sludge, the combustion of volatile
matter required 23% of the total process time, and the com-
bustion of char required 72% of the total process time. In the
case of sewage sludge, which is similar to that of biomass
fuels and brown coals, the devolatilization and combustion
of volatiles is an important step in the total combustion
process.
4. Based on Figs. 9–15, significant impacts of the following
input process parameters were observed: the times and
temperatures required for the ignition of volatile content,
the time required for combustion of volatiles, the time
required for the fuel surface to reach its maximum temper-
ature and the maximum temperature of the fuel surface, the
time required for char combustion and the total time
required for the process.
5. Optimisation of the process showed that, of the conditions
considered in this study, it is most advantageous to carry
out combustion of the fuels considered here in at lower
temperatures in combustion chamber and under lower air
flow velocities.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the National Science
Centre (Poland) based on decision No. DEC-2012/07/B/
ST8/03730). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Act on waste of 14 December, 2012 [in Polish].
[2] Bianchini A, Bonfiglioli L, Pellegrini M, Saccani C. Sewage sludge drying process
integration with a waste-to-energy power plant. Waste Manage 2015;42:
159–65.
[3] Bień JB, Wystalska K. Thermal processes in disposal of sewage
sludge. Czestochowa: Czestochowa University of Technology Press; 2008 (in
Polish).
[4] Brochure of Polish Cement Association (05.2015) [in Polish].
[5] Directive of the European Parliament and Council Directive 2009/28/EC of 23
April 2009 on the promotion of energy from renewable sources and amending
and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
[6] Environmental Protection from 2011 to 2013. GUS, Warsaw 2011–2013 [in
Polish].
[7] Folgueras MB, Dı́az RM, Xiberta J, Prieto I. Volatilisation of trace elements for
coal–sewage sludge blends during their combustion. Fuel 2003;82:1939–48.
[8] Font R, Fullana A, Conesa JA, Llavador F. Analysis of the pyrolysis and
combustion of different sewage sludges by TG. Journal of Analytical and
Applied Pyrolysis 2001;58–59:927–41.
160 A. Kijo-Kleczkowska et al. / Fuel 170 (2016) 141–160
[9] Fukas-Plonka L. Criteria for methods of treatment and disposal of sewage
sludge. IV Conf Schools, Starachowice-Kozienice; 2013. p. 22–31 [in Polish].
[10] Gajewski W, Kijo-Kleczkowska A, Leszczyński J. Analysis of cyclic combustion
of solid fuels. Fuel 2009;88:221–34.
[11] Jayaraman K, Gokalp I. Pyrolysis, combustion and gasification characteristics of
miscanthus and sewage sludge. Energy Convers Manage 2015;89:83–91.
[12] Kijo-Kleczkowska A, Kosowska-Golachowska M, Gajewski W, Środa K, Musiał
T, Wolski K. Incineration of sewage sludge for coal and biomass. Rzeszow
University of Technology Scientific Papers, Mechanics. Rzeszow; 2014. p. 383–
92 [in Polish].
[13] Kijo-Kleczkowska A. Combustion of coal–water suspensions. Fuel
2011;90:865–77.
[14] Kliopova I, Makarskiene K. Improving material and energy recovery from the
sewage sludge and biomass residues. Waste Manage 2015;36:269–76.
[15] Kordylewski W. Combustion and fuel. Wroclaw: Wroclaw University of
Technology Press; 2005 [in Polish].
[16] Kosowska-Golachowska M, Wolski K, Sieradzka M, Skrzypczyk D, Musiał T.
Analysis of physico-chemical properties of briquettes from agro biomass.
Current issues of energy, t.II, Wroclaw University of Technology Press,
Wroclaw; 2014 [in Polish].
[17] Li M, Xiao B, Wang X, Liu J. Consequences of sludge composition on
combustion performance derived from thermogravimetry analysis. Waste
Manage 2015;35:141–7.
[18] Li S, Li Y, Lu Q, Zhu J, Yao Y, Bao S. Integrated drying and incineration of wet
sewage sludge in combined bubbling and circulating fluidized bed units.
Waste Manage 2014;34:2561–6.
[19] Li W, Li W, Liu H, Yu Z. Influence of sewage sludge on the slurryability of coal–
water slurry. Fuel 2009;88:2241–6.
[20] Magdziarz A, Werle S. Analysis of the combustion and pyrolysis of dried
sewage sludge by TGA and MS. Waste Manage 2014;34:174–9.
[21] Malej J. Waste and sewage sludge. Characterization, treatment, management,
Koszalin University of Technology Press, Koszalin; 2004 [in Polish].
[22] Nadziakiewicz J. The combustion of solid waste. Gnome, Katowice; 2001 [in
Polish].
[23] Paja˛k T. VI Conference of drying and thermal treatment of waste. Warsaw;
2012 [in Polish].
[24] Pełka P. Modeling of mass loss of char particle during combustion on flow of
inert material. Fuel 2011;90:904–32.
[25] Piecuch T. Thermal waste treatment. Yearbook Environ Protection
2001;2:11–37 (in Polish).
[26] Polański R. Design of experiments technique. Warsaw: PWN Press; 1984 (in
Polish).
[27] Polish Standard PN-EN 12832: 2004 [in Polish].
[28] Ragazzi M, Grigoriu M, Rada EC, Malloci E, Natolino F. Health risk assessment
from combustion of sewage sludge: a case-study with comparison of three sites.
In: Proceedings of the international conference on risk management,
assessment and mitigation. RIMA ’10. WSEAS Press, Bucharest; 2010. p. 176–80.
[29] Regulation of the economy minister of 16 July 2015 on procedures for the
release of waste for landfilling of waste. [in Polish].
[30] Rosik – Dulewska C. Basics of waste management. PWN Press, Warsaw; 2008
[in Polish].
[31] Shimizu T, Toyono M. Emissions of NOx and N2O during co-combustion of
dried sewage sludge with coal in a circulating fluidized bed combustor. Fuel
2007;86:2308–15.
[32] Tutak W, Jamrozik A. Generator gas as a fuel to power a diesel engine. Thermal
Science 2014;18:206–16.
[33] Wandrasz JW. Thermal processes medium- and high-temperature waste
management. Karbo-Energochemia-Ecol 1998;43:354–9 (in Polish).
[34] Wandrasz JW. Medical waste management. Poznan: PZITS Press; 2000 [in
Polish].
[35] Werle S. Multivariate analysis of the possibilities of co-combustion of sewage
sludge in coal-fired power boilers. Arch Waste Manage 2011;13:21–38.
[36] Werther J, Ogada T. Sewage sludge combustion. Prog Energy Combust Sci
1999;25:55–116.
[37] Zielińska A, Oleszczuka P, Charmas B, Skubiszewska-Zie˛ba J, Pasieczna-
Patkowska S. Effect of sewage sludge properties on the biochar
characteristic. J Anal Appl Pyrol 2015;112:201–13.
[38] http://www.veoliawaterst.pl/onas/casestudy/orlen_eko.html.