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Mobile Computing Unit 4

Preface
This unit presents solutions for a mobile network layer. This layer can be used on top
of different transmission technologies as presented in unit II and III. While mobile IP
is the main topic of the chapter, it discusses also mechanisms such as the dynamic
host configuration protocol and routing in adhoc networks/. Because IP is clearly
dominating data communication networks, it is only natural to extend this protocol
to the mobile domain. The unit discusses the problems associated with IP and
mobility and shows some solutions.

4. Mobile Transport Layer

4 .1 TRADINTIONAL TCP

In this unit, difficulties involved in providing Internet support – browsing, email etc -
to the mobile devices such as pagers, PDAs and cell phones etc

Traditionally, TCP / IP protocol stack is used for providing connectivity to the


stationary devices. To provide support for the mobile devices, lower layers up to
network layers are not sufficient. While network layer addresses the host, port,
transport (TCP / IP) layer provides dedicated application (lying above them in
protocol stack) by way of multiplexing data to and from applications. In addition,
while UDP provides a connectionless, TCP can give certain guarantee such as in-
order delivery or reliable data transmission using retransmission technique etc.
However, these are designed non mobile applications.

Based on unique problems associated with the mobile nodes, a set of solutions have
been developed.

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These are:
 Indirect TCP,
 Snooping TCP, Mobile TCP,
 Fast Retransmit/fast recovery, Transmission / time out
freezing,
 Selective retransmission,
 Transaction oriented TCP etc

4.1.1 Traditional TCP:


To start with, a bit of under standing of the tradition protocol stack is
discussed. Salient features that enhance the TCP performance are:

i. Congestion Control:
Control
Once the network system (consisting of routers, bridges, hubs) is
established, the hardware and software become matured and they are not
likely to drop packets or flip bits (0 to 1 or vice versa). However,
temporary overload that occurs when a number of input data (different
input links) being addressed to a particular output link this results in a
congestion of a node. Congestion may occur from time to time. In this
case, the router drops the packets which are observed by the receiver.
When the senders do not receive the ACK for the lost packets, each of
them assumes congestion in the network. As sending the data at full rate
is unwise, each of the senders reduce the data rate which removes the
congestion over a period of time. So even under heavy load, TCP
guarantees at lest sharing of the bandwidth.

ii. Slow Start:

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An important features of as a response to congestion is Slow Start


mechanism. In this once, congestion is indicated, the sender reverts to
slow start mechanism. It works as follows:
The sender starts sending one packet and waits for its response. The
waiting period is equal to RTT. If ACK is received, he doubles the size of the
packet and waits of ACK. This process is repeated till he reaches a
threshold limit. That is till he reaches the threshold level, the message size
increases exponentially. Once it is reached, the increment changes to linear.
Here again, increment is not for ever. Now whenever time out occurs due to
missing ACKs, the threshold level is set to half and the congestion is set to
one segment and the sender start sending a single segment. Now the
exponential growth goes up to new threshold level.

iii Fast Recovery / Fast Retransmit:


Retransmit
In TCP, loss in receipt of the data at the destination can be due
to two reasons. One is occasional loss due to error. Other may be due
to congestion. In case of occasional loss, the receiver sends ACK for
the last packet repeatedly for three or four times. This is an indication
for the sender that a packet is lost and the sender now retransmits the
same. This is called fast retransmit which takes place without much
loss of time.

Contrary to this, when congestion takes place which results in non


receipt of ACK for a time which is much more than RTT, it reverts to slow
start mechanism which is called fast recovery.

iv Implications on Mobility:
Mobility

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While slow start is one of most useful mechanism in a fixed network, it


drastically reduces the efficiency of the TCP if used in a mobile receiver or sender.
The reason for this is that slow start mechanism may be initiated for wrong reasons.
Missing ACK in case of mobile nodes is very common which may be due to mobility
or due to any interruption.

Also error rates, packet loss on wireless links are order of magnitude and
cannot be always compensated by retransmissions or error correction mechanisms.

Mobility itself can cause packet loss. There are many situations when a soft
handover is not possible for mobile end system. This result in loss of packet that are
in transit to the old foreign agent while the nodes move to the new foreign agent.
This loss is nothing to do with wireless access but it is a rerouting problem.

As already brought out, receipt of the three or more ACK for the same
packet is identified as loss of a single packet and appropriate action is taken and loss
of ACK for a time that is much more than RTT is identified as congestion and slow
start mechanism is invoked. Both these cannot be applied for the Mobile devices as
more often, loss of packet can take place for reason other than these as well

Also, for the sake of mobile devices, on cannot change the TCP protocol that
encompasses the inter globe. Hence new methods were devised that are discussed
below:

4.2 CLASSICAL TCP

i) Indirect TCP (I-


(I-TCP):
This method has been developed based on two premises.

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1. TCP performs poorly together with wireless links


2. TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.
I-TCP segments a TCP connection to a mobile device into a fixed part and a wireless
part. As shown below. In this, the standard TCP is connected between fixed host
and the foreign agent (Access Point). Where as the ‘Wireless TCP’ is connected
between the Access point and the Mobile host.

IN this the access point acts as a proxy for both fixed and mobile nodes. In
case of fixed nodes, it is the mobile node proxy and in case of mobile host, it is the
fixed node proxy. Foreign agent (access point) is selected as proxy as it controls the
mobility of the most hosts. However one can identify the TCP connection separation
at a special server at the entry point to a mobile network (eg IWF - Inter Working
Function in GSM, GGSN in GPRS etc)

The foreign acts as proxy and relays all data in both directions. What is
important to note in this case is that the foreign agent itself responds to the receipt of
data from either hosts and send ACKs by itself. In case the packet is lost in the
wireless medium, the fixed (correspondent) node will not notice this as the ACK is
already sent by the foreign agent. However, the foreign agent tries to retransmit
this packet locally to maintain reliable data transport. Similarly while the mobile
node sends data to foreign agent, if it is lost, the mobile nodes identifies this much
faster as the RTT up to proxy is very much smaller and it retransmits the lost packet.

IN case of mobility of a mobile to a new access point, this is intimated to the


old access point and the data are cached. This data is rerouted to new access point
along with the current TCP state such as sequence number, address, ports etc.

There are several advantages of this method. These are :

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i) I-TCP does not require any change in the existing TCP.


ii) Transmission in the wireless link like lost packets cannot propagate
into the fixed network.
iii) With I-TCP, new mechanism can be introduced in the fixed network.
iv) Partitioning into two connections also allows the use of different
transport layer protocol between the foreign agent and mobile host.

Some of the disadvantages of the systems are listed below;


i) End to end semantics of TCP is lost. The correspondent always
assumes that the receiver has received the packet once it receives the
ACKs which always may not be case.
ii) Increased handover latency may be more problematic. The old
foreign agent needs to buffer the packet that are destined for the
mobile node till it receives any information regarding its current
position. This may strain the resources of the foreign agent.
iii) The foreign agent is to be a trusted agent. If the user applies end to
end encryption, the foreign agent has to be integrated into all security
mechanism.

ii) Snooping TCP:


In this method, the foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile
host and additionally snoops the packet flow in both directions to recognize
acknowledgements. Buffering enables the foreign agent to perform local
retransmission in case of packet loss on the wireless link. IF the FA does not receive
ACK within a certain amount of time, either the packet or ACK is lost. Also, FA
agent could reeive a duplicate ACK (similar to TCP) which alsl shows the loss of a
packet. Now the FA directly retransmits the packet. From the buffer which
considerably reduced the retransmission time if it was to be done by the

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correspondent node. In addition, end to end TCP semantics is maintained. Towards


this end, the ACK is not done by the FA. It only forwards the same in either
direction. However, the FA can filter the duplicate ACKs.
IN case of transmission of data from Mobile node to Correspondent node, the FA
snoops on the data sequence number and if it identifies a missing packet, it returns
negative ACK to the mobile host. The mobile can now retransmit the missing packet
immediately. Reordering is done at the CN.

iii) MOBILE TCP:


In case of Mobile deices, dropping packets when they are out of coverage
area are common. When it happens, In case of normal TCP, a sender tries to
retransmit data controlled by retransmission timer that doubles with each
unsuccessful retransmission attempt, up to a maximum of one minute. This means
that the sender tries to retransmit an unacknowledged packet every one minute and
will give up after 12 retransmissions. If connectivity is back earlier than this one, the
sender waits for a minimum of one minute. Later he goes into slow start mechanism
as he assumes congestion.

IN M-TCP this problem is attempted. In this, M-TCP tries to improve the


overall throughput, lower delay and maintain end to end semantics of TCP and
provides more efficient handover. It is more suitable for lengthy or frequent
disconnections.

M-TCP splits the TCP connections into two parts. An unmodified TCP is
used on the standard host – Supervisory host (SH) connection while an optimized
TCP is used on the SHJ-MH connection The SH is responsible for exchanging data
between both parts similar to the proxy in I-TCPAs it assumes low bit rate error it
does not perform caching and retransmission of data via SH> If a packet is lost on the

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wireless link, it has to be retransmitted by the original sender. This maintains end to
end semantics.

The SH monitors all packets sent to the MH and ACKs returned from the
MH. IF the SH does not receive an ACK for some time, it assumes that the MH is
disconnected. It then chokes the sender by setting the sender’s window size to 0.
Setting the window size to 0 forces the sender to go into persistent mode. That is
the state of the sender will not change no matter how long the receiver is
disconnected. This means that the sender will not try to retransmit data. As soon as
the SH detects connectivity, it opens the window of the sender to the old value. The
sender can continue sending at full speed. This mechanism does not required
changes to the sender’s TCP.

Advantages:
i) It maintains TCP end to end semantics.
ii) If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow start
or breaking the connection etc by simply shrinking the sender
window’s size to 0.
iii) As lost packets are automatically retransmitted to the new SH, there is
no need to buffer the data whenever, the MH moves to new SH.
Disadvantages:
i) As SH is not a proxy, bit errors are propagated to the sender.
ii) In this case, when a number of nodes move to a new SH, the
bandwidth need to be managed.

iv) Fast Retransmit / Fast Recovery:


Whenever a MH moves to a new FA, it can cause packet loss or timeout at
CN. IN this case, the sender moves on to slow start mechanism assuming congestion.

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This can be avoided by simulating the fast retransmit method. In this case, when a
MH moves to a new FA, it transmits thee ACK of the last packet was received. It is
indication for the CN to continue transmission at the same rate it did before MH
moves to another FA. This approach puts the CN to fast retransmission mode.

Advantages:
It is simple. Only minor changes in the mobile host software results in
performance increase. No FA or CN host has to be changed.

Disadvantages:
In this the packet losses in the wireless domain are not isolated and are
reflected in the wired domain as well. This results in increased time delay in the
retransmitted packets to move from CN to MH.
v) Transmission / Timeout Freezing:
Normally when the connection is lost, in case of normal TCP, after a time out
period, a disconnection takes place. IN a situation where in a mobile node moving
through a tunnel or passing black out areas, when it comes back, t the connection is
lost and it needs to make connection once again. In this method, this problem is
solved.

Mostly, the MAC layer has already noticed connection problems, before the
connection is actually interrupted from a TCP point of view. IN addition, MAC layer
knows the real reason for the interruption and does not assume congestion as TCP
would. So, in this case, the MAC layer can inform the TCP layer of impeding loss of
connection or that the current interruption is not caused by congestion. The TCP
can now stop sending and freezes the current state of its congestion window and
further timers till once again MAC layer informs it about the connectivity (whenever
it detects).

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Advantage:
The advantage of this approach is that it offers a way to resume TCP
connection even after longer interruptions of the connection. It is independent of
any other TCP mechanism, such as ACKs, sequence numbers etc.

Disadvantages:
i) The software on the mobile host and CN needs to be changed.
ii) Freezing the TCP may not work well with some of the TCP
mechanism that encryption which use time dependent encryption
schemes. These schemes need synchronization after connection.
vi) Selective Retransmission:
In TCP, acknowledgements are cumulative. That is they acknowledge in
order of receipt of packet up to a certain packet. If a single packet is lost, the sender
has to retransmit everything from the lost packet (go back n retransmission.). This
obviously wastes bandwidth. In Selective Retransmissions method, TCP can
indirectly request a selective retransmission of packets. The receiver can
acknowledge single packets, not only trains of in sequence packets. The sender can
now determine precisely which packet is needed and can retransmit it.

The advantages are that sender retransmits only those data that are lost. This
lowers bandwidth requirement. The disadvantage is more complex software on the
MH.

vii) Transaction Oriented TCP:


Normally, using TCP requires several Tran reception of packets for
connection setup, data transmission and connection release. Even for small data say
10 bytes, connection and release overhead becomes substantial (around 7 packets.).

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IF the data requires reliable transport, even for one packet, 7 + 1 packets needs to be
sent. IN case of T TCP,
TCP data can be combined with connection establishment
packet and connection release packet in either direction. This reduces the total
overhead.

Although, it is possible to reduce the overhead, both MH and CN require


software updates.

Comparison of TCP classical enhancement is given in the following table:

Approach Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages


Indirect TCP Splits TCP Isolation of wireless Loss of TCP semantics. Higher
connection into two link, simple. latency at handover, security
connections problems.
Snooping TCP Snoops data and Transparent for end to Insufficient isolation of wireless
acknowledgements, end connection, MAC link, security problems
local retransmission integration possible
M-TCP Splits TCP Maintains end to end Bad isolation of wireless link,
connection, chokes semantics, handles processing overhead due to
sender via window long term and frequent bandwidth management, security
size disconnections problems
Fast Avoids slow start Simple and efficient Mixed layers, not transparent.
Retransmission ate roaming
/ Fast
Recovery
Transmission / Freezes TCP state at Independent of Changes in TCP required, MAC
Time out disconnection, content, works for dependent
freezing resumes after longer interruptions

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reconnection
Selective Retransmits only Very efficient Slightly more complex receiver
retransmission lost data. software, more buffer space
needed
Transaction Combines Efficient for certain Changes in TCP required not
oriented TCP connection setup-/ applications transparent, security problems.
release and data
retransmission

Summary
Mobility support on the network layer is of special importance, as the network layer
holds together the huge internet with the common protocol IP. Although based on
possibly different wireless or wired technologies, all nodes of the network should be
able to communicate. Mobile IP has been designed to enable mobility in the internet
without changing wired systems. However, mobile IP leaves some points
unresolved, especially when it comes to security, efficiency of the packet flow and
support for quality of service. Some of these issues are addressed in IP version 6
making working with mobility much simpler. DHCP offers a fully automatic
mechanism for a node to acquire all the necessary information to be integrated into a
network, supporting installation of new computers and the integration of mobile
computers into networks. DHCP will be a major source of care-of-addresses needed
for mobile IP. Adhoc networks are new way of setting up mobile communication if
not infrastructure is available. In these networks routing is a major topic, because
there is not base station that can reach all nodes via broadcast as in cellular networks.
Traditionally routing algorithms do not work at all in the highly dynamic
environment of adhoc networks, and hence extensions of existing methodologies
were discussed.

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Key Terms

IP – Internet Protocol
DHCP- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
IPv6 – Internet Protocol version 6
AODV – Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector
DSDV – Destination Sequence Distance Vector
DSR-Dynamic Source Routing

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Question & Answers


Part A

1. What is slow start?


TCP’s reaction to a missing acknowledgement is necessary to get rid of
congestion quickly. The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is
called slow start.

2. What is the use of congestion threshold?


The exponential growth of the congestion window in the slow start
mechanism is dangerous as it doubles the congestion window at each step. So a
congestion threshold is set at which the exponential growth stops.

3. What led to the development of Indirect TCP?


 TCP performs poorly together with wireless links
 TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.
This led to the development of I-TCP which segments a TCP connection
into a fixed part and a wireless part.

4. What is the goal of M-TCP?


The goal of M-TCP is to prevent the sender window from shrinking if bit
errors or disconnection but not congestion cause current problems. It wants
 To provide overall throughput
 To lower the delay
 To maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP
 To provide a more efficient handover.
5. What do you mean by persistent mode?
Persistent mode is the state of the sender will not change no matter how long
the receiver is disconnected. This means that the sender will not try to retransmit the
data.
6. What are the characteristics of 2.5G/3.5G wireless networks?
 Data rates
 Latency
 Jitter
 Packet loss
7. What are the configuration parameters to adapt TCP to wireless environments?
 Large Windows
 Limited Transmit
 Large MTU
 Selective Acknowledgement

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 Explicit Congestion Notification


 Timestamp
 No header compression

Part B
1. Explain traditional TCP.
 Congestion Control
 Slow start
 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Implications on mobility
2. Explain classical TCP improvements
 Indirect TCP
 Snooping TCP
 Mobile TCP
 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Selective retransmission
 Transaction oriented TCP

Review Questions and Exercises

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References
http://cst.mi.fu-berlin.de/resources/mobkom/material/English/PDF-
Handout/C08-Network_Protocols.pdf

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