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Indian Highways published on 22 March, 2018
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Indian Highways
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Engineers & Consultants are focused on delivering multi-disciplinary infra projects with innovative ideas of
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existing 2/4 Lanes.
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Bridges : Including VUP, Flyovers, rehabilitation, ROB and Inspection
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stations, viaducts, architect design of stations and technical services.

Traffic & Transportation and intelligent Transport System - Including

preparation of Urban and Regional Transportation Plans, Land-use
Transport Modeling for Policy Testing and Traffic Predictions. Traffic
Management Plans, Road Safety Audit, Public Transport Planning and
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Urban Infrastructure Development : Including preparation of Plans,

development of townships, infra corridors, water supply, sanitation and
power supply etc.

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Edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
Kama Koti Marg, New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress
at M/s. India Offset Press, New Delhi-110 064 https://www.irc.nic.in
 Indian Highways
Volume : 46 Number : 4 ● April, 2018 ● ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

Contents
 From the Editor's Desk 4-5

 Advertisements 6-9, 22, 38

 IRC Member Honoured with Padma Shri Award 10

 IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule 37

Technical Papers

 Model Concession Agreement for Public Private Partnership in National Highways -

Review & Recourse 11-22
By SS Joshi

 Review of Percent Time Spent Following (PTSF) as Performance Measure for

Two-lane Highways 23-28
By Vivek, Prof. Raman Parti and Prof. Indrasen Singh

 Observations on Evaluation of Flexural Stresses in Rigid Pavement 29-37

By Rameshwar J. Vishwakarma and R. K. Ingle

 A Study of Travel Choices of Bahadurgarh City School Pupils 39-50

By Amit Vashisth and Praveen Aggarwal

 Tender Notices 51-66

Publisher & Editor: S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: secygen.irc@gov.in
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
Phone No.: +91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 23384543 (Membership), 23387759 (Sale),
26185273 (Tech. Papers, Indian Highways and Tech. Committees)

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and the
Editor disclaim responsibility and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the
authors. The opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the
Editor or IRC.

Printed at: M/s India Offset Press, New Delhi-110 064 `20
 From the Editor's Desk

TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES FOR HIGHWAYS

As per the report of Ministry of Road Transport & Highways “Road Accidents in India – 2016”,
number of causalities due to over speeding of vehicles was 73,896 during 2016. Due to over
speeding the drivers are not able to maneuver vehicle safely. In the off-peak hours and at night,
when the roads are clear, the road user drive vehicle at speed more than design speed for the
roads.
Vehicle speed is one of the critical factors associated with road accidents because higher speeds
reduce the time available to avoid collisions and makes the impacts in collisions more severe.
Research studies from around the world demonstrate conclusively that the frequency and severity
of accidents usually reduce with reduction in vehicle speed. At certain locations like approaches
to sharp curves accident prone locations and towards manned and unmanned level crossings,
control of speed becomes necessary to promote orderly movement of traffic and to enhance
safety.
The design speed for various categories of roads has been prescribed in relevant IRC Standards.
This is the maximum speed for a particular category of road. As per the Motor Vehicle Act,
1988, Section 112 “Limits of Speed”, the State Govt. or any authority authorized in this behalf
by the State Govt. may if satisfied that it is necessary to restrict the speed of motor vehicles
in the interest of public safety or convenience or because of the nature of any road or bridge,
by notification in the official Gazette, and by causing appropriate traffic signs to be placed or
erected under section 116 at suitable places, fix such maximum speed limits or minimum speed
limits as it thinks fits for motor vehicles or any specified class or description of motor vehicles
or for motor vehicles to which a trailer is attached, either generally or in a particular area or on
a particular road or roads.
Traffic Calming techniques have emerged primarily as a society’s response to concern for safety.
It is widely accepted that differences and variations in the speed, direction, and/or weight of
vehicles are some of the key determinants of severity of road accidents. These strategies have
played an important role in enhancing road safety by ensuring lower driving speeds and smaller
speed differences between different road vehicles. Several such experiences from around the
world have established that the use of Traffic Calming principles can be used to influence road
design significantly, reduces accidents and pollution and makes neighborhoods more livable.
However, the case in our country is quite different given the heterogeneity of modes of traffic
in most sections of highways. The vehicles plying on urban roads, National Highways and State
Highways vary widely in terms of operating characteristics. Often tractors and animal carts share
the carriageway with fast moving motorized traffic. The highways that pass through villages
and towns are also shared with local traffic, resulting in wide variations in direction, speed and
vehicle weight.
Given the context of socio-economic conditions across the country, it is difficult to restrict access
of non-motorized vehicles to highways. The Traffic Calming techniques have to be adapted
to the Indian context to achieve the goals of managing efficient traffic flow at the same time
ensuring safety of all road users especially around areas where the Highways pass through the
villages and towns. The main advantage of traffic calming is that it is self-enforcing and does

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 From the Editor's Desk

not normally require any complicated traffic control devices and is usually highly cost effective;
achieving benefits with a value far greater than cost incurred in implementation of measures.
Given the wide differences in traffic patterns on different roads, it is recommended that clear and
unambiguous instructions should be communicated to ensure that the design is appropriate for
the local conditions. Two main principles for speed reducing measures are:
I. Visual measures: Speed limit signs, painted strips markings across the road, zebra
crossing, stop sign marked on the road surface and three dimensional markings, etc.
II. Physical measures: speed breakers, speed bumps, rumble strips, road narrowing,
raised crossings, raised intersections, textured pavements, roundabouts, staggering,
uneven road surface and stone set pavements etc.
It is a common experience that visual measures like speed limit signs alone do not suffice to
control driving speeds but has significant effects when combined with physical measures.
Safety is a key objective for virtually all traffic calming schemes, not only in terms of reducing
accidents, but also to reduce the degree of danger felt by people using the streets. In recent years,
concerns over the environmental and public health effects of traffic have increased considerably
leading to an additional objective of minimizing environmental impacts. Reducing the speed
and volume of traffic can contribute to a better local environment, but it may often be possible,
through imaginative design and the use of appropriate materials, to provide further enhancement.
In the judgment delivered on 30th November, 2017, Hon’ble Supreme Court has given directions
to study and adopt the traffic calming measures through the Road Safety Committee with the
assistance of the MoRTH and other stakeholders”.
IRC has recently revised IRC:99 entitled “Guidelines for Traffic Calming Measures in Urban and
Rural Areas”. In the guidelines traffic calming measures in urban and rural areas, demarcation
of zones for traffic calming and a checklist for traffic calming treatment for highways corridors
passing through desolate areas/agriculture fields/industrial areas/residential/commercial area/
rail road intersection on highways/narrow bridges and hill roads has been explained with
illustrations.
Three young doctors from AIIMS lost their precious lives while over speeding on Yamuna E-Way
on 18th March, 2018. It is reported that on Yamuna E-Way most drivers drive at speed between
120 kmph to 140 kmph. The traffic violations reported between August 2012 to December 2017
are 2.3 crore, while traffic challans were issued to 17833 only. There is a need to study and
implement traffic calming measures, effective traffic management and enforcement to control
speed of vehicles on all our highways.

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)
Secretary General

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 5

 Advertisement

6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Advertisement

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 7

 Advertisement

Feb wala techfeb advt

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Advertisement

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 9

 IRC Member Honoured
Padama
with
award
Padma shri Award 2018

His Excellancy the President of India presenting Padma Shri Award to Shri S.S. Rathore
His Excellancy the President of India, Shri Ram Nath Kovind presented the Padma Shri Award to Shri S.S. Rathore
on 20th March, 2018 at a Civil Investiture Ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan. Among the dignitaries present
on the occasion were the Vice President of India, the Prime Minister of India, Speaker Lok Sabha and Union
Ministers.
Shri Rathore is Past President of IRC, his brief biodata is given below:
Born on 15 March 1956, Mr S S Rathore is the son of T.S. Shivshinghji, ex-Ruler of Valasna State in Gujarat. He
obtained his Bachelor’s Degree in Civil Engineering from L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad (India) in the
year 1978 with 4 Gold Medals, topping Gujarat University. He topped the Gujarat Public Service Commission
Examination in 1980. Since then, he has worked in various capacities like Executive Engineer, Superintending
Engineer and Chief Engineer in the Roads & Buildings Department. He was promoted as Secretary to Government
of Gujarat in 1997, as Principal Secretary to Government in 2006 and superannuated as Additional Chief Secretary
to the Government of Gujarat in 2014.
Shri S.S. Rathore has 37 years of experience in the infrastructure sector.
He has pioneered various long-distance Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) projects on State Highways, including
the first long-distance four-laning projects in the country. Major projects undertaken by Mr Rathore included the
World Bank assisted Gujarat State Highway Project, the World Bank and Asian Development Bank assisted
Gujarat Emergency Earthquake Rehabilitation Project, first Cable-Stayed Bridge in Gujarat at Bhavnagar,
first three VGF road projects and projects of various prestigious Government Buildings, Air Strips, etc. He was
instrumental in completion of the Rs. 1800 Million Mahatma Mandir (Convention Centre) at Gandhinagar,
Gujarat in a record time of 182 days. He successfully initiated and completed the World Bank-assisted Gujarat
State Highways Project-I, rated as highly satisfactory and one of the most successful externally-aided Road
Project in the country. With this project, he initiated and undertook major reforms in the Highway Sector which
was appreciated by the World Bank, vide its publication “Institutional Reforms in the Highway sector – Learning
from Gujarat”.
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, appointed Mr Rathore as the Chairman of
Sub-Group on State Roads for Formulation of both the Eleventh Five-Year Plan in 2006 and the Twelfth Five-
Year Plan in 2011.
He was Principal Secretary of the Narmada, Water Resources, Water Supply and Kalpsar Department from 2006
to 2009, where he successfully completed the Sujalam Sufalam Yojana for drought-prone districts and efficiently
handled the severe floods of 2006.
He is Chairman and Managing Director of Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Limited (SSNNL) – an inter-State
multipurpose river valley project with an estimated cost of about 8 billion USD. As CMD of SSNNL, he is also
steering the implementation of a unique project “Statue of Unity” – a 182 meter tall world’s tallest statue of
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel being built in front of the Sardar Sarovar Dam. This project costing about 500 million
USD is currently under construction through an EPC Contract entrusted to Larsen & Toubro.
He is Vice President -World Federation of Engineering Organisations, Past President -Institution of Engineers,
India and Past President-Indian Roads Congress.

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper

Model Concession Agreement for Public Private

Partnership in National Highways - Review & Recourse

SS Joshi*

Abstract
No doubt that marathon effort has gone into making a commendable document called ‘Model Concession
Agreement’ (MCA) for Indian Highways by the Planning Commission (Government of India) meant for
Public Private Partnership mode (PPP’s mode) and it is worth laudable. But over the period of time at Project
level it is discovered that certain Articles/Clauses of MCA are required to be revisited to make the MCA a
just, fair and equitable document leaving little room for any dispute in implementing the same. Unlike FIDIC
there is no guide published to give the intended meaning of Articles/Clauses for general reference which
could have been a very useful tool by making it part of the MCA to help understand and clarify content of
certain Articles/Clauses of MCA.
Though the framework in the name and style of MCA for PPP is a robust and credible document as serval
aspects have been sifted and scrutinized by various best minds of the industry yet the popular maxim that
there is always room for improvement which makes us to take a plunge and outline the existing apparent
error, inconsistency, dichotomy in the noble document and offering with certain suggestions to remove the
anomaly to the possible extent and in the process turn it to an enviable document akin and analogues to
standard international document like FIDIC of EPC Contract.

1. Introduction for course correction has been compiled in respect

In present technical paper, attempt has been made
to highlight some of the anomalies and ambiguities
intercepted at project level requiring immediate
redressal to make the existing MCA more robust,
legally correct, less prone to dispute and equitable
document. The probable solution/suggestions
have also been provided for general reference and
eventually for competent Authority to consider and
effect suitable course corrections.
As the Concessionaire is contractually bound by
the terms Contract Agreement which in turn is
based on MCA and hence any ambiguity in the said
document shall give rise to ‘dispute’ leading to
overrun of essence of the Projects namely; “Time”
and “Cost”.
In present paper, situations encountered during
execution at Project level along with suggestions
* Team Leader, URS Scott Wilson India Private Limited. Email: ssjoshi70@rediffmail.com, shankar.joshi@urs.com
of PPP Projects of MCA including DBFOT (Design
Build Finance Operate and Transfer variant)
variant of PPP model.
It is interesting to note that after effecting needful
correction on certain ‘Articles’/Clauses of MCA
like, Clause 1.2.3, which itself is seen to be
inconsistent with the time tested legal doctrine
---- “Author loses clause” may easily be dispensed
with from the MCA rendering this otherwise a bit
lopsided document, a legitimately fair and just
document on this count as well.
Following table includes some of the Articles/
Clauses of MCA seemingly suffering with
ambiguities & inconsistencies. In following
paragraphs issues involved and suggestive
measures of course corrections have been described
/detailed:

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 11

 Technical Paper

Sl. No. Item/Issues Articles/ (S), of MCA and/

or Clauses of (Two laining
Highways through PPP)
1 Introduction –
2 The Scope of the Project. Art.1, 2 , 12 & 16 of MCA
3 Damages for delay:
I.  In fulfillment of any or all the condition Precedent (Disparity in
Cl. 4.2 & 4.3, Art.12 &
Quantum against Concessionaire and Authority)
Art.15 of MCA
II. Damages in relation to Mile Stone
III. Damages for delay to achieve COD
4 Duties/Function of IE and quality Aspect of the project (Requirement
Art.13 of MCA and Art.23
of regular auditing of Concessionaire’s documents related to 100%
of MCA, Schedule ‘Q’
supervision /quality check.)
5 Provisional Certificate; Art.14
6 Change of Scope (COS) – Negative Change of Scope.
Art.16 of MCA
Procedure and cost computation.
7 Assessment of Damages for breach of maintenance obligation Cl. 17.8 of MCA
8 Equity Support/Grant
Art.25 of MCA
(Correct computation of eligible amount against stage payment/ tranche.)
9 Fee Notification. (About the time of notification and adoption of Fee
Art.27 of MCA
Rule-2008 and/or amendment thereof)
10 Arbitration or Adjudication by Regulatory Authority or Commission. Art.44 of MCA.
11 Dispute resolution (On IE’s action/inaction) Art.44 of MCA
12 Total Project Cost (TPC). Art.48 of MCA
13 Schedule ‘G’ Project ‘Mile Stone’ – I, II, III & Schedule Date
Project ‘Mile Stone’ have been specified as a fixed time, i.e. 180th, 365th, Clause 2,3,4 & 5 of
550th, 650th day from the appointed date. (for 4 laning Project) Need Schedule ‘G’
review/modification.

The existing provisions having ambiguities
requiring further clarification and/or need based
suggestion/addendum/modification:
2. Scope of The Project
Ref: Article 2 of MCA: The scope as defined
under Cl. 2.1 is seen to be inclusive in nature and
not absolute or exhaustive as reproduced here
under:
Cl. 2.1 Scope of the Project:
“The scope of the Project (the “Scpope of the
Project”) shall mean and include, during the
Concession Period:
a. Construction of the Project Highway on the
Site set forth in Schedule-A and as specified
in Schedule-B together with provision of
Project Facilities as specified in Schedule-C,
and in conformity with the Specifications and
Standards set forth in Schedule-D:
b. Operation and maintenance of the Project
Highway in accordance with the provisions
of this Agreement; and
c. Performance and fulfillment of all other
obligations of the Concessionaire in
accordance with the provisions of this
Agreement and matters incidental therto or
necessary for the performance of any or all of
the obligations of the Concessionaire under
this Agreement.
Issues:
Issue-I (a) Often we come across a situation,
wherein certain items/ structure requiring for
completion of the Project Highway are seen not
included /shown in schedule ‘B’.

12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper
The Concessionaire’s immediate reaction to such
situation is – to convey to them COS Notice/Order
for taking up such items/ structures under Art.16.
But - in accordance with the definition of COS
mentioned under Art.16 we cannot accommodate
such construction under Art.16.
Art.16 accommodates COS for only following
situations:
(a) For “Additional works” not included in
the scope of works. (At the behest of the
Employer)
(b) For ‘Safer’ and “Improved Services” to the
users. (At the behest of the Concessionaire)
Moreover, Art.8 (Disclaimer) while mentioning
about various information, documents including
“Scope of the Project” as provided by the Authority
states following:
“……………………The Authority makes no
representation whatsoever, express, implicit or
otherwise, regarding the accuracy, adequacy,
correctness, reliability and/or completeness of any
assessment, assumption, statement or information
provided by it and the concessionaire confirms
that it shall have no claim whatsoever against the
Authority in this regard” (vide Cl 8.1.1 of MCA)
Thus, the scope provided in MCA ( Variants of
PPP, viz; For BOT/DBFOT Projects) is indicative
and seems to be open ended……………..
Though conjoint reading of all above Articles/
Clauses and/or references made therein suggests
that the Concessionaire shall/must complete
all activities/items so that Project Highway can
be safely and reliably placed for commercial
operations. (But no expressed mention to this effect
is seen stated in “The Scope” for such completion
under Art.2 of MCA.)
“But then, what is the significance of Schedule
‘B’-----? and how the scope can be rationally
defined with requisite clarity?------or whether the
Concessionaire is necessarily required to ensure
that entire construction be done by completing
items given in Schedule ‘B’ & ‘C’ and also
completing all other items activities (at its own
cost) so that the highway can be said to be safely
and reliably placed for commercial operation in
accordance with Cl 14.3.1 and Cl 15.1 of MCA.
(Here it is worth mentioning that Cl14.3.1 & Cl
15.1 of MCA provides a precondition of having
completed the highway so that it can be safely
and reliably placed in commercial operation while
issuing completion certificate.)
Suggestion:
Option -I
Cl. 2.1 may be amended with suitable addendum
by mentioning about completion of the Project
Highway as under:
New Sub Clause “(d) Notwithstanding anything to
the contrary contained herein, the Concessionaire
shall ensure the completion of the Project Highway
so that it can be safely and reliably placed in the
commercial operations.”
Option-II
The Scope be defined in absolute term (by
deleting inclusive aspect of Cl 2.1 of MCA) and
Schedule –B and Schedule-C be made exhaustive
by including all items/components to be done by
the Concessionaire to ensure safe and reliable
operation on completion leaving only incidental
works of the main activities already covered under
Cl 2.1(c). Also Art -8 (Disclaimer ) be tweaked
so as to exclude open ended aspect of the Scope
mentioned in Cl 8.1 of MCA.
Issue-I(b) Though the Scope of the Project is
defined under Cl. 2.1 yet under Cl. 12.4.1 of
MCA, the obligation of Concessionaire about
construction of the Project Highways connoting
the scope, reads as under:
“On or after the Appointed Date, the
Concessionaire shall undertake construction
of -------------------as specified in Schedule-B
and Schedule-C, and in conformity with the
Specifications and Standards set forth in Schedule-
‘D’……………………………………….
Thus, there is a distinct dichotomy between the
above two existing clauses of MCA. Cl. 2.1 of
MCA defining the scope starts with the inclusive
definition, meaning thereby the Concessionaire
may require to undertake certain other works
necessary to complete the Project Highway, so that
it can be safety and reliably placed in commercial
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 13
 Technical Paper
operation. This may even include works not
covered under Schedule ‘B’ and ‘Ç’ whereas; Cl.
12.4.1 of MCA is seen to be the truncated version
of Cl. 2.1 of MCA and creates confusion about the
Scope/Obligation of the Concessionaire. Although
referral of priority Article/Clause - Cl. 1.4.2 (a)
of MCA may settle about the correct definition
of Scope, of the Concessionaire, vide following
content of Cl. 1.4.2 (a) of MCA:
“…………Subject to the provision of Cl. 1.4.1,
in case of ambiguities or discrepancies within this
Agreement, the following shall apply:
(a) Between two or more Clauses of this
Agreement, the provisions of a specific Clause
relevant to the issue under consideration shall
prevail over those in other Clauses;
Yet, we may correct the content of Cl. 12.4.1
of MCA by specifically referring Art.2 in
Cl. 12.4.1 of MCA to totally eliminate the
necessity of cross reference of Article of
MCA and this shall avoid confusion.
Suggestion:
To avoid/eliminate the perennial contradiction
between Art.2 and Cl. 12.4.1 of MCA, we may
rephrase first 4 lines of Cl. 12.4.1 of MCA as under:
(Modified)
Cl.12.4.1 “On or after the appointed date, the
Concessionaire shall undertake construction
of [-------------------] as specified in
Art.2……………………...............………
3. Damages for delay:
I. In fulfillment of any or all the Condition
Precedent (Disparity in Quantum
against Concessionaire and Authority)
(a) By the Authority – vide Cl. 4.2
of MCA
(b) By the Concessionaire – vide
Cl. 4.3 of MCA
Cl. 4.1.4 of MCA provides that
“Each party shall make all reasonable endeavors
to satisfy the Conditions Precedent within the time
stipulated and shall provide the other Party with
such reasonable cooperation as may be required
to assist that Party in satisfying the Conditions
Precedent for which that Party is responsible.”
14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
Thus Cl. 4.1.4 of MCA makes it obligatory on
the part of both parties to put sincere efforts and
connotes an equitable respective obligation/
responsibility.
Issue:
But, in so far as, Damages on account of ‘delay’
(attributed to the Authority or the concessionaire)
in fulfillment of Condition Precedent is concerned,
the distinct discrimination is evident against the
Concessionaire. Though maximum Damages is
capped same for both the parties (Authority as
well as Concessionaire) at 20% of the Performance
Security, but the amount to be calculated against
unfulfilled obligation towards Condition
Precedent for the Authority is pegged @ 0.1% of
Performance Security per day while such Damages
for the Concessionaire is pegged @ 0.2% of the
Performance Security, vide Cl. 4.2 and Cl. 4.3
of MCA, respectively. (As a matter of fact , the
rate of damages being half while cap being same
does provide the respective party, relatively a
diminishing sense of urgency in fulfilling the
condition precedent.)
Such, disparity in MCA which otherwise contains
equitable set of terms and condition is seen to be
unreasonable and need review.
Suggestion:
The Damages for delay attributed to either party
for each day of breach period may be kept same @
0.x% of the Performance Security.
II. Damages in relation to Mile Stone: Cl. 12.4.2
of MCA states that:
“The Concessionaire shall construct the Project
Highway in accordance with the Project
Completion Schedule set forth on Schedule –G. In
the event that the Concessionaire fails to achieve
any Project Milestone within period of 90 days
from the date set forth for such Milestone in
Schedule-G, unless such failure has occurred due
to force Majeure or for reason solely attributable to
the Authority it shall pay Damages to the Authority
in a sum calculated at the rate of 0.1% (zero point
one per cent) of the amount of Performance
Security of delay of each day until such Milestone
is achieved…………………………”
 Technical Paper
Issue:
The pertinent question is, whether the period of
Damages @ 0.1% of performance security per
day till mile stone is achieved, is to be reckoned
from the scheduled Mile Stone date specified in the
Schedule ‘G’ or such delay is to be reckoned w.r.
to the date after availing 90 days of apparent grace
period.
There have been dispute on this count. While
apparently this does not require any clarification
as the scheduled mile stone date mentioned in
Schedule –G is further qualified through Cl14.4.1
of MCA (supra) stating that if the Concessionaire
fails to achieve specified Mile Stone within 90
days from the date set forth for such Mile stone in
Schedule-G ………….it shall pay damages to the
Authority……
On the face of it, it looks quite normal to effect
Damages commencing from 91st day of the
respective date specified in schedule-G. As such if
Mile stone is achieved within 90 days of said grace
period then it will not attract any Damages. BUT
Other interpretations are : 1. 90 days beyond
specified date is the grace period and if specified
mile stone is achieved within 90 days then still
Damages may be reckoned w.e.f. expiry of
specified date mentioned in Schedule-G .
: 2. If Mile stone is achieved even after expiry
of said 90 days grace period then the Damages
shall be effected w.r.to expiry of Mile stone date
specified in Schedule-G. OR whether it should be
reckoned w.e.f. 91st day i.e. after grace period of
90 days…
Suggestion:
A line of clarity akin to existing Cl. 14.4.1 of MCA
may be included if delay is to be reckoned after
grace period of 90 days, If intention is not so, then
it may be clarified accordingly.
III. Damages for delay to achieve COD:
Ref. Cl. 15.2 Of MCA, the content of which is
reproduced here under:
“Subject to the provision of Clause 12.4, if COD
does not occur prior to the 91 st (Ninety first)
day after the Scheduled Date, the Concessionaire
shall pay the Damages to the Authority in a sum
calculated at the rate of 0.1% (zero point one per
cent) of the amount of Performance Security for
delay of each day until COD is achieved”.
Issue:
Here also, the pertinent question is whether, the
period for Damages @ 0.1% of performance
security per day is to be reckoned w.r. to Scheduled
Date or w.r 91st day after scheduled date.
Suggestion:
A line of clarity akin to existing Cl.14.4.1 of MCA
may be included if delay is to be reckoned w.r to
91st day after scheduled date or it may be modified
and clarified otherwise.
4. Duties And Functions of
Independent Engineer and
Quality Aspect of The Project:
Duties and Function of IE:
Ref: Cl. 23.2 of MCA refers Schedule ‘Q’ of MCA.
Para 5.5 of Schedule ‘Q’- States that to determine
that the work conforms to Specifications and
standards IE shall require the concessionaire to
carry out or cause to be carried out test on sample
basis.
Para 5.6 of Schedule-Q provides the size of the
sample….stating that the size of the sample shall
comprise 10% of the quantity/number of tests
prescribed for each type/category …(This simply
means that the test to be conducted should be
normally 10% of the total required test of the
sample.)
Para 5.7 of Schedule-Q refers about the timing of
tests; The tests should be done on random samples.
The tests should be in addition to and independent
of the tests carried out by the Concessionaire…
Similarly, under Cl. 13.3 of MCA provision of
sample tests not exceeding 10% of the quantity
of Tests prescribed by IRC and/ or MOSRTH,
exists. It further states that one half of the cost
incurred on such tests and to the extent certified by
the Independent Engineer as reasonable, shall be
reimbursed by the Authority.
Issue:
(a) How the provision of Schedule ‘Q’ (Para
5.5) under Cl. 23.2 of MCA (where no
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 15
 Technical Paper
separate reimbursement is required to be
done by the Authority to the Concessionaire)
is different from provision of Cl. 13.3
of MCA. (where such reimbursement is
required to be done.)
(b) Secondly, the misconstrued version in vogue
is that against every activity, 10% tests
should be done or caused to be done by the
IE …and to prove this alleged requirement
the total number of tests for all (each and
every activities) activities done/to be done in
accordance with Standards/specifications by
the Concessionaire is taken as bench mark
to get/determine the 10% tests to be done by
the IE… .whereas the intent of MCA does not
support it. There is only random samples to
be considered for 10% tests by the IE
(c) Thirdly, there is no provision in MCA to
check/audit by IE the 100% tests done by
the Concessionaire of all activities… No
expressed mechanism exists in MCA for
supervision/quality check of all activities
of the project by IE. Accordingly skeleton
staff of IE is provisioned. This is with a
specific purpose to minimize the interference
and assure fast pace of progress while
responsibility is shifted to the Concessionaire.
But , still there need to be adequate provision
in MCA for regular auditing/checking by
IE of all tests having been done by the
Concessionaire …
Suggestion: (for ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘ c’)
a. A line of clarity need to be provided between
Cl. 13.3 of MCA and Para 5.5 of Schedule
‘Q’:
b. In the interest of the overall quality of the
project the concessionaire or its consultant
(PMC) must mandatorily check/supervise
100% in accordance with the specifications/
MOSRTH requirements and document the
same.
c. To ensure that it is being done so, the
provision in MCA may be included
for random but periodic check (audit)
of the supporting documents by IE for
having conducted all referred tests by
the concessionaire. The Concessionaire
16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
must necessarily get such periodic audit
done through IE. Failure in getting regular
auditing by the Concessionaire and/or
deficiency in conducting tests and/or keeping
corresponding records must be provisioned
with penalty and COD/Provision COD must
also be made subject to total compliance in
this regard. Presently such enforcement is
not supported by any expressed provision in
MCA and at times, affects the quality aspect
of the PPP project. Such provision may be
included in MCA.
5. Provisional Certificate; Vide
Art.14
The Provisional Certificate has been defined under
Cl. 14.3.1 as completion of the entire Project (after
tests are Successful) minus certain activities which
may be put under “Punch List” and need to be
completed within 90 days of the date of issue of
the Provision Certificate.
Under Cl. 14.3.2 of MCA it further provides that
upon request of the Concessionaire Provisional
Certificate may be issued for operating part of the
Project Highway, if at least 75% of total length of
the Project Highway has been completed.
Issue:
What about balance length, (approx 25% length),
whether the same shall go to the “Punch List”
requiring it to be completed within 90 days after
issuance of Provision Certificate, along with other
minor pending works.
‘OR’
There shall be two nos. of Provision Certificate
and correspondingly two O&M period, namely, (i)
Against exceeding 75% length and (ii) For balance
length respectively.
Suggestion:
A line of clarification on above issue is required to
be included in the MCA appropriately.
6. “Change of Scope”:
A. Inclusion of provision for indicative cost
to be communicated by the Concessionaire
before issuance of notice about COS:
 Art.16 of MCA requires notice (Change of
scope) to be issued by the Authority in the
 Technical Paper
event of the Authority determining that a
Change of Scope is necessary.
Cl. 16.2.2 of MCA provides for options and
cost impact after issue of COS notice so that
under Cl. 16.2.3, the Authority shall convey
its preferred option and finalize the cost for
implementation. But, the Authority must
readily have corresponding approximate cost
to be submitted by the concessionaire before
even issuing COS notice. More so, inter-alia,
to enable the Authority to meet the specific
requirement of releasing advance payment
to the concessionaire within 7(seven) days
of issuing a Change of Scope order, in
accordance with Cl. 16.3.1 of MCA.
Suggestion:
It is better if such provision of tentative cost aspect
be included by making it obligatory on the part of
the Concessionaire to submit tentative cost along
with COS proposal (whether athe behest of the
Concessionaire or the Authority) before issuance
of Change of Scope notice. After such inclusion,
the Concessionaire may readily provide the
tentative cost while requesting for COS notice.
Presently, Concessionaire is providing the costing
perforce and reluctantly after reminders as Art.16
does not cover such requirement. Furthermore,
the procedure and basis of cost computation may
be spelt out in MCA. Presently in absence of
any provision in MCA certain circulars are being
referred as guidelines which are applicable for
DPR/feasibility study.
 One or two Paras may be devoted to address
above aspects.
B. Negative Change of Scope
We come across a situation where the
Concessionaire does not follow the specification
and /or forego certain mandatory procedure or
obligation having cost implications.
The existing provisions in MCA do not expressly
cater for Negative COS. (Cl. 16.6 refers to
Negative COS for reduction in the scope of the
Project on account of force majeure or for reasons
solely attributable to the Authority only).
Suggestion:
Suitable provision of Negative COS (- COS) may
be included under Art.16 to cater for situation
referred above
7. Assessment of Damages for
breach of maintenance
obligation: Cl. 17.8 of MCA
Cl. 17.8.1 provides for Damages to be paid for
each day’s beyond corresponding specified period
until the Concessionaire repairs or rectifies any
defect or deficiency set forth in the maintenance
requirement.
The analytical basis for computation of Damages
to be done by IE, is provided under Cl. 17.8.1 of
MCA. The recovery of such Damages shall be
without prejudice to the rights of the Authority
under this Agreement, including the Right of
Termination thereof.
Issue:
But under Cl. 17.8.2 of MCA the Damages
so computed in accordance with Cl. 17.8.1 of
MCA is totally watered down and an element
of ambiguity has been injected by including
discretion of the Authority to modify the Damages
which is computed on specified rational basis to
an unspecified smaller sum, ------------------ if the
breach is seen to have been cured promptly and the
Concessionaire is otherwise in compliance with its
obligation hereunder, vide Cl. 17.8.2 of MCA.
Suggestion:
Cl. 17.8.2 needs review on following:
a. The Cl. 17.8.2 of MCA may be deleted.
OR
If, the intent is to expedite the repair /
rectifications after the breach is occurred and
giving the Concessionaire one more chance
to expedite, then
b. Cl. 17.8.2 of MCA may be modified to
eliminate uncalled for discretion and ”Vague”
element like “Smaller Sum”, etc, as decision
making is affected adversely on account of
absence of clarity. The following may be
replaced/modified in Cl. 17.8.2 of MCA to
the following extent:
 Instead of mentioning vague statement, viz
“……… Authority may, in its discretion,
demand a smaller sum as Damages, if
in its opinion, the breach has been cured
promptly ……….…………………….;
may be replaced by specified degree/level
of repair/cure of breach vis-à-vis 2-3 given
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 17
 Technical Paper
stringent time frame and may be paired
with corresponding suitably specified %age
reduction of Damages w.r. to total computed
Damages to make it more rational.
8. “GRANT” (Article 25 of MCA):
There is a need to have a correct and uniform
procedure across all applicable PPP projects
towards computation of eligible amount to the
Concessionaire against each tranche of Grant. The
relevant existing Cl. 25.2.3 of MCA is reproduced
as under:
“Equity Support shall be due and payable to the
Concessionaire after it has expended the Equity,
and shall be disbursed proportionately along with
the loan funds thereafter remaining to be disbursed
by the Senior Lenders under the Financing
Agreements. The Authority shall disburse each
tranche of the Equity Support as and when due,
but no later than 15 (fifteen) days of receiving
a request from the Concessionaire along with
necessary particulars.”
Suggestion:
The clarification by ‘example’ of above may be
included under Cl. 25.2.3 for much needed clarity
as there are several interpretations being adopted.
Some of them are as under:
After having expended the equity by the
Concessionaire:
Proportional disbursement may be as under:
a. (Total loan fund withdrawn) X (Total Grant)
(Total loan amount)
“OR”
b. (Total loan fund withdrawn + loan
request made)
X (Total Grant)
(Total loan amount)
c. (Balance loan fund at the time
when Equity is expended) X (Total Grant)
(Total loan amount)
d. (Balance loan fund at the time
when Equity is expended + Loan
request made)
X (Total Grant)
(Total loan amount)
 Correct example may be provided to ensure
uniform (Pan India) and correct interpretation
of the eligible amount against particular
tranche/installment under this Article of
MCA.
18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
9. Fee Notification:
(a) About time of notification:
(i) Ref. Cl. 27.1.2 is reproduced as under:
The parties acknowledge that a
notification for levy and collection of
fee shall be issued by the Government
under Section 8A of the Act read with
Rule 3 of the National Highways
Fee (Determination of Rates and
Collection) Rules, 2008 (the ”Fee
Notification”) within 90 (ninety) days
hereof, substantially in the form set
forth in Schedule-R
(ii) Fee Notification as defined under
Art.48 of MCA is reproduced as under:
“ “Fee Notification” means the
notifications to be issued by the
Government, prior to the Appointed
Date, in exercise of powers conferred
by Section 8A of the National
Highways Act, 1956 read with
Rule-3 of the National Highways
Fee (Determination of Rates and
Collection) Rule, 2008, is respect of
the levy and collection of Fee during
the Concession Period, substantially in
the form at Schedule-‘R’.”
This puts an onus on the Government
to issue Fee Notification during
Development Period i.e. before the
Appointment Date.
Issue:
The conjoint reading of both (i) and (ii) above,
reveals that the Government must issue Fee
Notification within 90 Days of the signing of the
Agreement or before Appointed Date.
(It is presumed that the period, earlier of the above
two may be adhered to)
As a matter of fact it must be issued as early as
possible after signing of Agreement and must not
go beyond 90 days.
This is understandable for 4/6 laning of the
Project Highway where Concessionaire is to
operate existing Toll Plaza just after declaration of
Appointed Date. But in case of Project Highway
where there is no existing Toll Plaza, such, as
viz….., C/o Two lane with paved shoulder(without
 Technical Paper
existing Toll Plaza) or widening to 4-lane (without
existing Toll Plaza), then such issuance of early
Fee Notification does not seem mandatory and /or
reasonable.
To cater for such situation a line of clarity may
be introduced to the effect that Fee Notification
for such Project, may be issued after 50% of the
Project Highway is completed and this must be
issued before 75% of the Project Highway length
is completed, (Practically Fee Notification for such
situation is being done as suggested above but then
inclusion of such clarity in MCA shall validate
such action)
(b) About reference of Fee Rule-2008 or
amendment thereof for base rates:
Clause 27.1.1 of MCA dwells on collection
and appropriation of Fee. Cl. 27.1.1 of MCA is
reproduced as under:
“On and from the COD till the Transfer Date, the
Concessionaire shall have the sole and exclusive
right to demand, collect and appropriate Fee
from the Users subject to and in accordance with
this agreement and the National Highways Fee
(Determination of Rates and Collection) Rule,
2008 (the “Fee Rule”); provided that for ease of
payment and collection, such Fee shall be rounded
off to the nearest 5 (five) rupees in accordance
with the Fee Rule; provided further that the
Concessionaire may determine and collect Fee at
such lower rates as it may, by public notice to the
Users, specify in respect of all or any category of
Users or vehicles.”
The relevant question related to levy of Fee is
about the reference of Fee Rule. In case, if during
the currency of the project construction the Fee
rates have been revised by way of amendment/
notification of Fee Rule, then whether the basic
rates to be adopted shall be as per Fee Rule-
2008 (as specified in the MCA /Agreement) and
escalating @ 3% per annum to update the same or
as per subsequent amended rate notified through
the Gazette.
MCA speaks divergent views on this issue as
under:
A. In favor or Fee Rule-2008
i. Clause 27.1.1 of MCA reads, ;Fee
to be lavied in accordance with this
Agreement and National Highways
Fee Rule-2008
ii. Definition of Fee Rule mentioned
under Art. 48 of MCA defines “Fee
Rule” as,// “Fee Rule” mean.
The National Highways Fee
(Determinations of Rates and
Collection) Rules, 2008
iii. “Fee Notifications” as defined in Art.
48 of MCA is as under:
“Fee Notification” means the
Notification to be issued by the
Government, prior to the Appointed
Date, in exercise of the powers
conferred by Section 8A of the
National Highways Act, 1956 read
with Rule-3 of the National Highways
Fee (Determination of Rates and
Collection) Rule, 2008, in respect of
the levy and collection of Fee during
the Concession Period, substantially in
the form at Schedule-R of MCA;
B. In favor of rates to be adopted as per latest
amendment of Fee Notification
i. Cl. 27.1.1 of MCA, : Fee to be levied
in accordance with this Agreement and
National Highways Fee Rule-2008
ii. Cl. 1.2.1(b) of MCA reads as under
In this Agreement, unless the context otherwise
requires,
“Reference to laws of India or Indian law or
regulation having the force of law shall include the
laws, acts, ordinances, rules, regulation, byelaw
or notifications which have the force of law in the
territory of India and as from time to time may be
amended, modified supplemented, extended or
enacted.
Now, there appears to be distinct dichotomy in ‘A’
& ‘B’ --------and both are taken from MCA.
‘A’ makes it crystal clear that Fee to be levied need
to be as per Fee Rule-2008 (or as mentioned in the
Agreement).
This interpretation is also corroborated by the A
(iii) ---------- the Fee Notification to be done before
the Appointed Date. (and basic rates are indicated
in the said Project Fee Notification) Thus, the
intent of the contract (MCA) is to adopt prevailing
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 19
 Technical Paper
base rate as per Fee Rule as mentioned in the
Agreement i.e. as per Fee Rule-2008. The Project
specific Fee Notification shall be published in the
Gazette accordingly.
While conjoint reading of B (i) and B (ii) reveals
that rate to be adopted may be as per latest amended
version of Fee Rules:
A (i) above, provides a flexibility to adopt the
amended rate, as Cl. 27.1.1 also states that fee to
be levied in accordance with this Agreement and
Agreement encompasses in it the amended version
(Cl.1.2.1 of MCA) to be referred.
Although, B (ii) is not a without rider as it starts
with unless the context otherwise requires.
Now, even after analyzing the terms of MCA
under ‘A’ & ‘B’ above, one finds that there is still
confusion/ambiguity persisting.
Supposing Concession Agreement has been drawn/
entered into in 2010 wherein Fee Rule-2008 is made
applicable for the purpose of base rate and COD
is achieved some time in 2014 then for the entire
Concession period the base rate of Fee Rule-2008
shall continue to be applicable of course with the
annual specified hike mentioned in the Rule. This
is understandable, in keeping with the spirit of the
Contract, provided there is no amendment issued
till COD/Provisional Certificate. But if amended
base rate is published during the construction
period i.e. before Provisional Certificate/COD
then in my considered view, the amended version
of Fee Notification Rule need to be adopted for
the sake of fair, just and equitable application to
the possible extent towards Concessionaire, or
else it must be made crystal clear that Fee rates
prevailing at the time of bid submission/as given in
Agreement, shall be adhered to. So, also Cl.1.2.1
of MCA shall be amended with a rider/exception,
which may include Fee Notification/levy of Fee--
-------etc.
10. Arbitration or Adjudication
by Regulatory Authority or
commission.
Ref. Art. 44 (Cl. 44.3 and Cl. 44.4) of MCA.
For resolving dispute, the procedure mentioned
under Art.44 of MCA requires to be adhered to in
accordance with the following procedure in that
order:
20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
(a) Using best effort promptly, equitably
and in good faith under Cl. 44.1.2 of
MCA
(b) Conciliation under Cl. 44.2 of MCA
(c) Arbitration under Cl. 44.3 of MCA
But
Cl. 44.4 of MCA inter-alia, provides, “In the event
of Constitution of a Statutory Regulatory Authority
or Commission with powers to adjudicate upon
disputes between Concessionaire and the Authority
all disputes arising after such constitution shall
instead of reference to arbitration under Cl. 44.3,
be adjudicated, upon by such Regulatory Authority
or Commission………………
Issue:
(i) Now, question is as to under what circumstance
the referred Statutory Regulatory Authority
or Commission with power to adjudicate is
constituted;
(ii) And who is empowered to constitute the same
and procedure thereof.
 Above two issues may be clarified/detailed in
MCA.
11. Dispute Resolution:
Art.44 of MCA deals with the dispute resolution
between the parties. It provides for:
a. Best efforts for resolving dispute in equitable
manner and in good faith.
b. In case it is not resolved through ’a’ above
then by intervention of IE and in case of
stalemate, the reference to be made for
amicable settlement between Chairman of
NHAI and Chairman of the Concessionaire.
c. If, not resolved in ‘b’, matter may be referred
to Arbitration under Cl.44.2 of MCA.
Issue: Now, the dispute may arise due to action or
inaction of IE and as per Cl. 23.6 of MCA, such
dispute may be resolved in accordance with the
Dispute Resolution Procedure.
Now, Dispute Resolution Procedure is available
under Art.44 of MCA as referred above (‘a’ to ‘c’).
Thus, somehow, Art.44 of MCA is seen to be
for dispute redressal between the parties i.e.
Concessionaire and ‘the Authority’. Then how
dispute arising due to action or inaction of IE may
be resolved????
 Technical Paper
 A line of clarity by way of a suitable
mechanism to deal with dispute due to action
or inaction of IE may be introduced in MCA.
12. Total Project Cost (TPC):
Ref. Art. 48 of MCA (Definition)
Total Project Cost (TPC) is defined as under:
“The total Project Cost” means the lowest of;
(a) the capital cost of the Project, {less
Equity Support} as set forth in the
Financial Package;
(b) the actual cost of the Project upon
completion of [four laning] of
the Project Highway {less Equity
Support};
(c) a sum of Rs………Crore (Rupee
………………………. crore), less
Equity Support;
Whether, to arrive at TPC we have to necessarily
exclude “Equity Support”.
Secondly, (b) citied above, shall be known only at
the time of completion and hence, TPC (final) may
be ascertained only after completion of the Project
Highway but during intervening period only (a)
and (c) shall govern to determine TPC, e.g. For the
purpose of determining limit of ‘equity support’
(40% of TPC) as defined in Cl. 25.2.2 only (a) and
(c) may be considered for determining TPC. Then
as per above definition while considering (a), (b)
& (c) at the time of completion, the TPC may be
different.
Suggestion:
The definition of TPC may be modified as for
“Final TPC” and also a suitable rider may be
provided for specific purpose such as for Art.25, it
has been done towards ‘equity support component’
therein stating that for the purpose of Art.25 equity
support shall be added.
13. Project Mile Stone – I, Ii & Iii &
Scheduled Completion Date
13.1 Such ‘Mile Stones’ have been covered under
Para 2, 3, 4 and 5 of schedule ‘G’ of MCA and a
fixed /specified time has been assigned specifying
that it shall occur on a certain date (e.g. 180th day,
365th day, 550th day, 650th day respectively after
appointed date for 4 laning project)
Prior to accurance of project ‘Mile Stone’ certain
specified activity/events are indicated which should
have been commenced and at least a specified sum
should have been expended.
Now, if condition spelt out corresponding to any
‘Mile Stone’ has been fulfilled, but as per definition,
the ‘Mile Stone’, shall occur on a pre-determined
date only.
Thus, we can check/compare on predetermined
date/‘Mile Stone’ as to whether or not, the
Concessionaire has fulfilled the requisite
conditions. In accordance with the definition
provided in Schedule-‘G’, the ‘Mile Stone’
status may be compared only against a fixed and
predetermined time and we cannot say that the
Concessionaire has achieved certain ‘Mile Stone’
beforehand as the definition of ‘Mile Stone’ clearly
states that it shall occur on a fixed predetermined
date.
Suggestion:
Now, In my considered view, for making it more
rational and meaningful, the ‘Mile Stone’ should
primarily be in relation to commencement/
completion of certain activities/events as referred
in Para 2, 3, 4 & 5 of Schedule ‘G’ to be added with
a specified period cap and not a predetermined
fixed time.
e.g. Referring to Para 2 of Schedule ‘G’, the
modified description may be as under:
13.2 Project Mile Stone-I (proposed modified
version)
Project Mile Stone shall occur on or before 180th
day from the Appointed Date and the Concessionaire
shall have commenced construction of the project
Highway and expended not less than 10% (Ten
percent) of the total capital cost set forth in the
financial package.
With above modification, the related Clause 12.4
of MCA shall also need suitable amendment;
wherein, the grace period of 90 days shall be read
as 90 days from the maximum date set forth for
such ‘Mile Stone’ of schedule ‘G’.
Similarly, Para 3, 4 & 5 of Schedule ‘G’ shall need
amendment in the same line.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 21
 Technical Paper
With above modification, the confusion associated
with the existing content of the Sch G (para 1,2,3,4
& 5) may be totally eliminated.
14. Conclusion:
The Articles and Clauses of MCA contain the rights
and duties of the Parties to the contract. Hence,
any error, anomaly therein is bound to give rise to
dispute which gallops three essentials, namely time,
money and energy. In my considered view this is
a high time, the MCA be revisited and ambiguous
and or complex Articles/Clauses be corrected/
simplified for the benefit of all stakeholders.
The MCA in present form requires corrections in
some Articles/Clauses and clarity to be injected
against certain Articles/Clauses.
The suggestions made in this paper may be of help
to make the MCA more responsive and robust
document.
This may be supplemented by publishing “Guide
to MCA” forming part of MCA in line with ‘FIDIC
guide’ wherein correct clarification/interpretation
22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
of various Articles/Clauses shall be elaborated
in a simplified manner with provision of need
based examples. This shall make the MCA a more
trustworthy, flawless, fair and robust Contract
document equitable to all parties to the contact.
List of Acronyms:
Art. : Article (of Model Concession Agreement.)
MCA : Model Concession Agreement
Cl. : Clause of Concession Agreement.
COS : Change of Scope.
IE : Independent Engineer
IRC : Indian Roads Congress
SP : Special Publication
TPC : Total Project Cost
Reference:
Model Concession Agreement (Public Private
Partnership in National Highways) by Planning
Commission-Government of India.
 Technical Paper

Review of Percent Time Spent Following (PTSF)

as Performance Measure for Two-lane Highways

Vivek* Prof. Raman Parti** Prof. Indrasen Singh***

ABSTRACT
Percent Time Spent Following (PTSF) is implemented by the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) as key service
measure for evaluating the level of service of two-lane highways. However, to measure Percent Time Spent
Following directly in the field is complicated. Because of this complication, estimation of Percent Time Spent
Following based on analytical procedure which uses equations derived from simulations and field observa-
tions at given location based on surrogate measure; as the percent of vehicles traveling with headway less
than 3 seconds (3s). Findings from existential studies confirmed that analytical procedures used in Highway
Capacity Manual in evaluating Percent Time Spent Following yield results that are irreconcilable with the
3s surrogate measure and mostly overcapitalize the indicator. This paper presents a review on the estimation
of Percent Time Spent Following on two-lane highways and suggests presumptive approach to affirm the ap-
plication of the current practice. Further, the authors of this paper argued that the use of 3s as surrogate for
estimating Percent Time Spent Following based on field observation at a specific point may not represent the
actual time spent following over a long segment of two-lane highway since Percent Time Spent Following is
space related measure. Hence, the authors suggested the use of test vehicle approach and to find out the differ-
ent approach for heterogeneous traffic condition on highway segment. It is expected that there view and sug-
gestion offered will contribute in advancing performance analysis of two-lane highways for Indian conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION ideal, prevailing and reasonable driving conditions,
Flow of traffic on two-lane highways is dissimilar respectively. According to Highway Capacity
from that on other type of carriageways mainly Manual 1950 operating speed was a performance
because of vehicles traveling on either lane are measure for practical capacity to account for the
facing oncoming traffic in the opposite lane and “quality of service” on two-lane highways because
they may be subjected to dawdling because of their engineers were eager about the traffic situation
incapability to pass slow moving vehicles moving on experienced by road-users; they were not interested
highway. Two lane highways also characterized by in the maximum performance of the system alone
vehicular interactions in the traffic stream; not only at that time.
in the same direction of travel but also in the opposite Highway Capacity Manual -1965 unrolled the idea
direction as well. As the traffic flow in both direction of practical capacity to the well-known Level of
increases, the effect of these interactions generally Service (LOS) concept. Six Level of Service (A–
strengthens. This, in turn, create the formation of F) were construing therein; this concept is still in
platoons as for a fast moving vehicle to safely pass vogue. Level of Service was expressed in terms
a slow moving one; it needs the use of opposite of two performance measures: operating speed
lane which depends upon sufficient sight distance (governing performance measure) and volume
and permissible gap in the opposing lane of highway. capacity ratio (supplementary service measure.).
An analytical method is provided by HCM 1950 While developing the third edition of Highway
for capacity analysis on two-lane highways. The Capacity Manual (1985) average speed was
manual gear three different types of capacity: basic, considered as meager measure of the balance
possible and practical, portraying capacity under between passing demand and passing supply. In
* Research Scholar, NIT Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh
** Professor, NIT Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh
*** Senior Professor and Dean, NICMAR Goa Campus, Farmagudi, Ponda Goa., E-mail : isingh@nicmar.ac.in
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 23
 Technical Paper
addition, despite the previous premise, average speed
was found to be less sensitive to traffic flow rate. In
addition to ATS, HCM 1985 thus familiarized a new
performance measure, Percent Time Delay (PTD),
on two-lane highways. Percent Time Delay was
defined as “the average percent of time by which
vehicles are delayed while travelling in platoons
due to inability to pass.” Vehicles are considered
delayed while moving inside a platoon due to step
down of speed from their desired speed. Highway
Capacity Manual 1985 adverted use of percent of
vehicles with headways less than 5s as a surrogate
measure of Percent Time Delay in field studies.
The term “percent time delay” was somewhat
improper because the criterion was not delay but
time spent while travelling in platoons. Considering
the above, Highway Capacity Manual (2000)
explained a more descriptive term, Percent Time
Spent Following, which explains better the effect of
platoon and lack of passing opportunities on two-
lane highways. The Percent Time Spent Following
is term which is defined as “the average percentage
of travel time that vehicles must travel in platoons
behind slower vehicles because of an inability to
pass” To compute Percent Time Spent Following,
the Highway Capacity Manual suggested a surrogate
field measure of the percentage of vehicles in the
traffic stream with headways less than 3s. For high-
class (Class I highways), ATS was let an auxiliary
performance measure as it makes LOS sensitive
to design speed. For Class II, the performance is
measured by Percent Time Spent Following alone.
Because motorists’ expectation is considered lower
on Class II highways than on Class I highways, a
further increment of 5% to the Percent Time Spent
Following threshold, was made for Class II highways.
As the rate of flow at the upper limit of a given LOS
is higher in Highway Capacity Manual 2000 than
in Highway Capacity Manual 1985, that’s why the
headway criterion was lowered from 5 to 3s. For
level and rolling terrain, analysis method laid down
was extended by two-way segment methodology
whereas, for specific upgrades and downgrades, it
was directional segment method given by Highway
Capacity Manual. The latest edition, Highway
Capacity Manual 2010, represented directional
segments analysis procedure in general terrain
(level or rolling) as well.
On the basis of wide range of functions provided,
two-lane highways were classified into three
categories: Class I, Class II and Class III. The first
two classes, similar with the earlier classification,
explain rural two-lane highways, while Class
24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
III highways are defined as the portions of rural
highways that serve passably developed areas (small
town or developed recreational areas). The Florida
Department of Transportation formulated the
analysis approach for these highways by updating
the rural highway method. The best contribution
of this edition was that it provided distinguishable
performance measures by taking automobile and
bicycle mode into consideration. Rife Average
Travel Speed (ATS) and Percent Time Spent
Following conception continued unedited, except
that an introduction of a new measure, Percent of
Free-Flow Speed (PFFS), was found appropriate on
Class III highways, where passing restrictions are
not a major issue, but drivers are expected to make
steady progress at or near the speed limit. However,
perception model and assessed by Bicycle LOS
(BLOS) score defined levels of service for bicycles
on two-lane highway segments .Threshold values of
Percent Time Spent Following and Average Travel
Speed correspond to the previous edition but the
adjustment factors to conclude these measures were
appropriately modified.
2 EVALUATION OF HCM MEASURES:
STUDY CHRONICLE
Number of researcher followed the tradition of
HCM; researcher (De Arazozaand McLeod, 1993;
Brilonet al., 1994) suggested the use of Average
Travel Seed as a service measure in computing LOS.
In developed areas of the United States, De Arazoza
and McLeod (1993) suggested ATS as the main LOS
criterion for flow without interruption conditions.
Brilonet al. (1994) described that the LOS assessment
on German two-lane highways is based on ATS. In
Finland, Luoma and Jaatinen (1999) considered
both ATS and the predictability of travel times as
performance measure for goods transport. However,
a couple of international studies (Brilon& Weiser,
2006; Al-Kaisyand Karjala, 2008) made it evident
that lack of a reference point along a performance
scale is a major limitation of using ATS and makes
performance comparison across sites unrealistic.
In support of the German experience on two-lane
highways, Brilon and Weiser (2006) revealed the
use of average speed of passenger cars as a notable
performance measure. This could be calculated over
a longer stretch of highway, contemplate the average
of both directions. This was further investigated
by Al-Kaisy and Karjala (2008) on four two-
lane highway study sites in the state of Montana.
Moreover, they proposed the use of ATS as PFFS
(percent free flow speed) and ATS of passenger
cars as PFFS of passenger cars. The functional
 Technical Paper
relationship of these measures with the platoon
variables was ostensibly not observed to be strong.
The headway criteria embraced in the third
edition of HCM (HCM 1985) was investigated
further for more practical estimation of PTD. For
the estimation of proportion of delayed vehicles,
Guell and Virkler (1988) suggested headways not
more than 3.5 or 4 s and Luttinen (1992) suggested
headways not greater than 3s. Besides this, to
describe service quality on two-lane rural highways
Botha et al. (1994) announced the use of PTD as
a measure. According to the subsequent edition of
HCM assumed, PTSF to be more appropriate as
performance measure and was given more attention
in later research. Several studies (Luttinen, 2001;
Harwood et al., 2003; Pollatschek and Polus, 2005)
reported that the method suggested by HCM to
determine PTSF overestimates the values. Luttinen
(2001) proposed various models to estimate PTSF
based on the percentage of no-passing zones,
total flow and directional distribution of traffic.
These models gave lower value of PTSF than that
estimated by HCM. Based on a study conducted on
unpredictability in the operational analysis of two-
lane highways, Luttinen (2002) showed there were
restraints in the accuracy of the analysis procedures
which cause errors and lessen the usefulness of the
LOS concept. According to Dixon et al. (2002) the
HCM 2000 two-lane highway analysis procedures
using the TWOPAS simulation model and field data
collected from northern Idaho. The PTSF values
of one-directional procedure were found to be
overestimated by both simulation models measuring
about 10 % and 30 % overestimation as compared
with the field data. He found that the values of two-
way procedure were observed to be more accurate
as compared to those of one-directional method.
Subsequent to this research, Harwood et al. (2003)
supervised the National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Study on the HCM’s two-lane
road analysis methodology and prudent an over
estimation of Percent Time Spent Following by
Highway Capacity Manual. Accordingly, there
was formulation of revised set of curves to estimate
PTSF. Based on an analysis of drivers’ restiveness
on two-lane rural highways, Pollatschek and Polus
(2005) flourished theoretical models for turning
down the critical passing gap with longer delays
prior to the passing maneuver. The impatience of
the driver may cause willingness to accept more
precariousness because delay increases, which
eventually reduces PTSF. This could be one major
reason for overestimating the PTSF parameter by
HCM. In a paper on the German experience, Brilon
and Weiser (2006) reported that, in Germany, the
PTSF has never been imprudent for the considerable
measure of effectiveness as it does not directly
convey the degree of efficiency of traffic operation.
Polus and Cohen (2009) evolved a queuing model
to evaluate PTSF from the field data. This was used
in a study supervised on 15 two-lane rural highway
sections in northern Israel, and the actual PTSF
values acquired from the study were also observed
to be considerably lower than the corresponding
HCM values. In another study, Cohen and Polus
(2011) found similar lower values of PTSF and
provided ameliorate relationship between PTSF
and two-way flow by pertinent the new estimates
by means of the least-squares method. Bessa Jr
and Setti (2011) recalibrated the HCM 2000 ATS
and PTSF functions for Brazilian roads using a
genetic algorithm. These new models were able to
better represent the behavior of traffic streams. In
a recent paper, Rozenshteinet al. (2012) reported
that they calibrated PTSF models using actual field
data collected on 84 one-way segments of two-lane
rural highways in Israel and juxtaposedthose with
HCM and other empirical models proposed in the
past. Following the trend of past research, they also
concluded noteworthy overestimation of the PTSF
values, particularly during moderate- and low-flow
condition. Meanwhile, Morrall and Werner (1990)
put forward the use of overtaking ratio, which is
obtained by dividing the number of passing achieved
by the number of passing desired, as an indicator
of LOS on two-lane highways; Romana and Pérez
(2006) indicated an alternative way of using the
HCM 2000 performance measures namely, ATS and
PTSF for evaluating the LOS on two-lane highways.
On the basis of a study conducted in Egypt on
evaluation of operational performance, Hashim and
Abdel-Wahed (2011) defined seven performance
measures and three platoon variables. Out of all
they found follower density performance measure to
have the strongest correlation to platoon variables.
3 ALTERNATIVE SERVICE MEASURES
FOR TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
In response to the proposed clampdown on the
existing practice in estimating PTSF as performance
measure for two-lane highways, especially the
complication associated with its direct field
measurement and divergences among the HCM
procedures, lot of researchers proposed other
alternative service measures. In order to explore for
alternative service measures for two-lane highways
in South Africa, Van As suggested follower density
(number of followers with short headways per unit
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 25
 Technical Paper
length) as a new and best performance measure for
two-lane roads in South Africa. In the same study,
the author scrutinized other service measures of
which included are percent followers (proportion of
vehicles with short headways), total queuing delay
percent speed reduction due to traffic, followers
flow (number of followers with short headways
per hour) and traffic density. Out of all, follower
density was also recommended as good service
measure for two-lane highways based on studies
conducted in Idaho and Japan. Another indicator
recommended was threshold speed as an alternative
performance measures for two-lane highways,
specifically, a substitute for PTSF. Other proposed
alternative service measures for the road class
under discussion include average travel speed of
passenger cars, average travel speed, average travel
speed as percentage of free flow speed of passenger
cars, average travel speed as percentage of free
flow speed, percent followers and percent impeded.
The advantages and drawback of these proposed
measures are discussed as follows:
Threshold Speed: It is defined as the minimum
speed drivers assume satisfactory while traveling
on a uniform section of a carriageway under heavy
and platoon traffic whose value is based on user
perception and good judgment. Although this
indicator is easy to measure, yet it is complicated
to assign a particular cut-off speed acceptable to all
users. For example, what a patient driver consider
as an acceptable speed, an aggressive driver may
not and therefore, this measure is more of user bias.
Follower Density (FD): It deals with the number
of directional followers with short headways per
unit length, usually 1 kilometer or mile. The main
advantages of this measure are that it accounts for
freedom to maneuver and congestion level in the
traffic stream. A major limitation of this indicator
is that it is does lend itself easy to measure in the
field, as such it is usually derived from flow rate and
speed from spot measurements despite it is a space
related measure.
4 AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEEDS OF
PASSENGER CARS (ATSPC)
ATSPC is a service measure in Finland and Germany
because the indicator more precisely describe lowering
in speed which is a result of traffic as ATSPC are
more affected by high volumes of traffic. ATSPC has
the same advantages and weakness as those of ATS.
5 AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED (ATS)
ATS is one of the best methods used by HCM.
This method is considered as a good performance
26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
indicator for two-lane roads as it relates well with
user perception and also very easy to measure
as compared to other methods. However, its key
limitation is lack of specific yardstick across the
performance level due to variations in two-lane
highways in terms of operating speeds and geometry.
Thus, using ATS individually may not explicitly
describe the performance without a reference point.
6 AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED AS
PERCENTAGE OF FREE FLOW SPEED
(ATS/FFS)
This method is measure of the extent of speed
diminutions due to traffic. A high percentage of ATS/
FFS represents a minimum vehicular interaction
and high performance. The opposite of this results
in high vehicular interaction and low LOS. Like
ATS, ATS/FFS is also easy to measure in field
but lack definite benchmark regarding the level of
interaction between the vehicles in the traffic stream
as against PTSF in HCM which specified a cut-off
headway value.
7 AVERAGE TRAVEL SPEED AS
PERCENTAGE OF FREE FLOW SPEED
OF PASSENGER CARS (ATSPC/FFSPC)
This measure is similar to ATS/FFS except
that heavy vehicles were excluded in the speed
measurements. The use of this indicator is based on
the rationale that passenger cars are more sensitive
to speed reduction due to traffic as their speed are
more affected by high traffic volumes than those
of heavy vehicles. ATSPC/FFSPC is also easy to
measure in the field but has the same limitation as
that of ATS/FFS.
8 PERCENT IMPEDED (PI)
PI is referred to as the percentage of vehicles
hampered by slower moving vehicles in traffic
stream measured at a particular point. When
we compare PI with other service measures, PI
relatively correlates well with other measures and
platoon variables excluding traffic volume.
9 PERCENT FOLLOWERS (PF)
This measure indicates the proportion of vehicles
with low headways in a traffic stream. The indicator
can be measured in the field in the same way
concluded by HCM using 3s. A key drawback
of solely using PF as service measure is that it
does not reflect the consequences of traffic level
which is a vital condition in HCM LOS concept.
Theoretically, low traffic levels could still yield high
PF if speed variation is relatively high and passing
opportunities are restricted. Consequently, the use
 Technical Paper
of PF alone could be misleading. Another weakness
of the indicator is that it is measured based on spot
observation and assume applicable over long section.
10 DISCUSSIONS
On the basis of existing literature and/or various
studies reviewed in this paper, it is perceptibly
corroborate that the HCM analytical and field
observation procedures for estimation of PTSF do
not produce stable results. In fact, the analytical
procedures created overestimated values; or the
field observed values based on 3s surrogate measure
were generally less than those according to the
analytical estimates. An extract of an approximate
overestimation of PTSF values by the HCM two-
way analytical procedure relative to field data [6,
14, 15] at 1000, 2000 and 3000 flow rates (PCUs/hr)
is presented in Table 1. The results representedthat
even at same values of flow rates, the level of
overestimation dissimilar from one study to the other.
At flow rate of 1000 (PCUs/hr), an overestimation
of about 12%, 24%, 19% and 20% were observed.
At the same flow rate, Van As and Van Niekerk
PTSF field estimates were consistently lower than
those according to HCM curve. Similar changes in
PTSF overestimations were recorded at flow rates
of 2000 and 3000 (PCUs/hr) respectively. Using
the same procedure, an average overestimation of
about 23% was recorded. As the result of directional
analysis procedure is an overestimated PTSF values
relative to field observed values. As is the case with
the two-way analysis approach, different levels of
overestimation were observed in various studies..
PTSF values recorded in South African study based
on field observation and model developed were also
comparable with those of other studies mentioned
earlier. While other studies observed overestimation
of PTSF for all values of flow rates (except zero) by
HCM model relative to spot observed values, pattern
was observed different in the case of HCM model.
Table 1Approximate Overestimation (%) of PTSF by
HCM Two-Way Analysis Relative to Field Values For
Selected Flow Rates (PCUs/hr)
Study Flow Rate (PCUs/hr)
1000 2000 3000
Finnish Model 12 13 10
Exponential Model 24 26 22
Polus & Cohen 19 19 15
Polus & Cohen 20 21 16
For the HCM analytical and field observation
procedures to represent each other, PTSF estimates from
the two approaches should at least be approximately
the same if not equal. To date, the question as to
which procedure is more accurate is still ambiguous.
Overestimation by the analytical procedures could
be as result of heavy reliance on simulations while
developing the models which involved a lot of
assumptions pertaining traffic characteristics;
especially drivers’ behavior in performing overtaking
performance. Likewise, the consistent low values of
field observed PTSF using the 3s headway relative to
the analytical method estimates could be as a result of
the fundamental assumption that spot observed values
show long segment estimates. This could probably be
true for short straight sections on level terrain with
sufficient sight distance and passing opportunities.
Field conditions different from these; such as road
sections with inadequate sight distance and involving
sizeable proportion of hilliness and bendiness could
result in higher value of PTSF. In other words, the
field spot observation may not precisely take care of
the influence of these characteristics as they could
cause considerable reducing effects on passing
opportunities on two-lane highways; which would
consequently results in longer time spent following.
Thus, measuring PTSF along the segment may produce
results that are closer to reality as opposed the current
practice of spot measurement and assume to represent
time spent following along a stretch of the road.
The present unanswered question on the estimation
of PTSF based on the current practice of 3s rule
is that whether the 3s cut-off headway used for
field observation at given spot really represents
the actual time spent following over a long section
of two-lane highway or not? While researchers
corroborated that HCM equations overestimate
PTSF values as compared with those obtained based
on spot observation in the field using 3s as surrogate
measure, the level of overestimation varies from one
study to the other. Moreover, neither the HCM, nor
other studies indicated an acceptable difference or
error between estimates from the two approaches.
Hence, this lack of boundary on acceptable errors
among the procedures left users with the choice of
an approach they feel more comfortable with and not
minding the accuracy of the chosen method and this
could be misleading. The authors of this paper are
therefore on the opinion that provision of alternative
method for field estimation of PTSF along two-lane
highway’s segment could be more realistic and also
substantiate the application of the existing practice.
11 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION
FOR FURTHER STUDY
Utilization of PTSF by HCM as service measure
for two-lane highways faces denunciation from
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 27
 Technical Paper
numerous researchers not because of its paucity
as performance indicator; simply because, it is
complicated to measure directly in the field. Also,
the two approaches for evaluating PTSF; analytical
procedures and use of 3s surrogate measure for
field observations were corroborate to produce
inconsistent results. In fact, the analytical procedures
notably overestimate PTSF as juxtapose to field
values. The point here is not about questioning the
criterion of using 3s as a surrogate measure for
field estimation of PTSF as the cut-off headway has
been widely judged satisfactory, but it is about the
procedure used in applying the criterion. For the fact
that PTSF is a segment related measure, the authors
contend its observation at representative point and
its applicability over a long section of two-lane
road. Although, some other studies proposed the
use of other service measures for evaluating the
performance of two-lane highways; yet it is equally
important to search for alternative method that is
devoted to reality for field measurement of PTSF.
Chiefly, one that would observe the indicator in
the field along the road’s segment as opposed the
current practice of spot observation and considered
as representative of a long section. Coming up with
an alternative method for field measurement of
PTSF along road segment will serve as a basis to
justify the application of the 3s headway criterion at
representative point.
Since PTSF is travel time related evaluation, the
most likely way to evaluate the indicator along a
road segment is to use the observer(s) within the
traffic stream under study. This could be achieved
through when one uses test vehicle (moving car
observer) technique. Hence, the authors suggested
the use of test vehicle approach over the highway
segment to be evaluated to identify the variables
that are vital for the development of a representative
PTSF measurement model. This would enable
the estimation of PTSF over a segment based on
actual time spent following as against the existing
practice of using surrogate measure on the basis
of local platoon. It is hoped that this review and
suggestion offered on the alternative method for
field measurement of PTSF along segment will
impart basis to substantiate the current practice of
evaluating PTSF based on spot observation and
bestow in advancing the performance analysis of
two-lane highways.
The above studies, however, do not consider the
effect on performance measures when the traffic is
heterogeneous in character. This is noteworthy in
developing countries, where heterogeneity in traffic
mix is extensive. Even the traffic composition
28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
occasionally consists of countable percentage of
non-motorized traffic. As a repercussion, large
speed variation in the traffic stream becomes one
of the vital factors for frequent platoon formation
and affects performance measures. The present
study evaluates the HCM measures using actual
field data comprising considerable proportion of
slower vehicles collected on two-lane highways in
northeast India; which has been a matter of great
concern to the engineers analyzing traffic flow
on these roads. Therefore, the PTSF approach
comparatively is better than ATS as the PTSF gives
us the close results to SCM curve.
REFERENCES
1. Al-Kaisy, A. and S. Karjala. 2010. Car-Following
Interaction and the Definition of Free-Moving
Vehicles on Two-Lane Rural Highways.
Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE.
136(10): 925–931.
2. Al-Kaisy, A. and C. Durbin. 2011. Platooning
on Two-lane Two-way Highways: An Empirical
Investigation. in 6th International Symposium
on Highway Capacity and Quality of Service.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.
Stockholm, Sweden:
3. Al-Kaisy, A. and C. Durbin. 2008. Evaluating
New Methodologies for Estimating Performance
on Two-lane Highways. Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering. NRC Research Press. 35(8): 777–
785.
4. Al-Kaisy, A. and C. Durbin. 2007. Estimating
Percent Time Spent Following on Two-lane
Highways: Field Evaluation of New Methodologies,
in Presented at the Transportation Research
Board 86th Annual Meeting, January 21-25.
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
5. Al-Kaisy, A. and S. Karjala. 2008. Indicators
of Performance on Two-Lane Rural Highways:
Empirical Investigation. Transportation Research
Record. Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council. Washington, D.C. 2071(1):
87–97.
6. Al-Ghamdi, A. 2001. Analysis of Time Headways
on Urban Roads: Case Study from Riyadh. Journal
of Transportation Engineering. 127(4): 289–294.
7. Catbagan, J. L. and H. Nakamura. 2006.
Evaluation of Performance Measures for Two-
lane Expressways in Japan.
8. Dixon, M. P., S. S. K. Sarepali, and K. A.
Young. 2002. Field Evaluation of Highway
Capacity Manual 2000 Analysis Procedures for
Two-Lane Highways. Transportation Research
Record: Transportation Research Board. National
Research Council, Washington, D.C. 1802(2002):
125–132.
 Technical Paper

OBSERVATIONS ON EVALUATION OF FLEXURAL STRESSES IN

RIGID PAVEMENT

Rameshwar J. Vishwakarma* R. K. Ingle**

ABSTRACT
Concrete pavements are subjected to vehicle axle loads and temperature loads, which develops flexural
stresses at critical locations. Critical flexural stress is the main cause for the cracking in concrete pavements.
These stresses in the slab mainly depends on the thickness of concrete slab, loading, location and properties
of supporting subbase. Therefore, to prevent cracking or failure of slab, it is very important to calculate
critical stresses correctly for a given site and loading conditions. There are many guidelines or documents
available for the determination of critical edge stress. However, the results varies when compared. This
variation in stresses are mostly due to different assumptions.
The main objective of this paper is to study the variation of maximum flexural stress in the slab due to change
in various design factors like modulus of subgrade reaction, axle load and pavement thickness. The critical
stress is determined using different guidelines for vehicle axle load and the results are compared.
NOTATIONS f2 Adjustment factor for a slab with no concrete
PCA Portland Cement Association shoulder based on the results of MATS
IRC Indian Road Congress computer program
K Modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) f3 Adjustment factor to account for the effect of
P Single/Tandem rear axle load (kN) truck placement on edge stress
P' Design wheel load (half of the single axle f4 Adjustment factor to account for the increase
load/ one fourth of the tandem axle load) in concrete strength after 28th day, along with
the reduction in concrete strength by one
b Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure
coefficient of variation.
S Maximum tensile stress at bottom of slab
CV coefficient of variation
(MPa)
SAL Actual single axle load (kN)
h Pavement thickness (m)
TAL Actual tandem axle load (kN)
μ Poisson’s ratio of concrete
γ Unit weight of concrete (kN/m3) 1. INTRODUCTION
E Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete (MPa) Rigid pavements are the slabs directly supported
Δt Temperature differential (ºC) on foundation soil/subbase. The slab may be
α Coefficient of thermal expansion (per ºC) subjected to light to extremely heavy loadings with
l Radius of relative stiffness (m) variations in sub-base properties. The thickness of
slab depends on many parameters like materials
fcr Flexural strength (MPa)
used for construction, type and amount of loading
fck Characteristic cube compressive strength of on slab, environmental conditions, properties
concrete (MPa) of sub-base etc. The thickness of slab mostly
f1 Adjustment factor for the effect of axle loads governed by the flexural stresses developed at
and contact areas critical locations and it may develop due to axle
*
Research Scholar, VNIT, Nagpur, Email : rameshwarjv@gmail.com
**
Professor, VNIT, Nagpur, Email : rkingle@rediffmail.com

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 29

 Technical Paper
load, thermal difference or combination of axle
load and temperature differential between top and
bottom fibre of slab. Wheel load placed at the edge
of slab is considered as critical flexural stress for
design of concrete pavement. PCA(1) guideline
suggest to check the design for erosion damage
along with the fatigue damage. Deflection criteria
of corner is also considered in the PCA document.
It is necessary to study available guidelines for the
determination of flexural stresses.
2. METHODS TO CALCULATE
FLEXURAL STRESS IN RIGID
PAVEMENT
There are various methods to calculate flexural
stress developed in the pavement due to vehicle
load and temperature. Some important and widely
used methods such as method suggested in IRC:58-
2002(2), IRC:58-2011(3), IRC:58-2015(4) and PCA-
1984(1) are briefed below.
IRC:58-2002
IRC:58-2002 suggest calculation of flexural
stresses either by charts or by equations. Charts
given in Appendix-I of IRC:58-2002(2) are for
single and tandem axle load of different magnitudes
in the edge region. Stress calculation is based on
fundamental concept of Westergaard and Picket &
Ray’s work. The load stress may also be calculated
for critical edge region for single and tandem
axle load from Westergaard’s equation given in
Appendix-VI, given below
( )[ ] …(1)
Stresses calculated using equation (1) are based
on the assumption that slab is infinite, In practice
the slab is casted in some finite size and joints are
provided in between panels. Temperature stresses
are calculated using Bradbury’s coefficient.
IRC:58-2002 recommends to provide hard shoulder
to reduce the load stresses but does not account the
effect of shoulder in calculation of flexural stress.
IRC:58-2002(2) is silent about tridem axle load
stresses.
IRC:58-2011 and IRC:58-2015
Finite element analysis is used in IRC:58-2011(3)
and IRC:58-2015(4) to compute flexural stress due
to combined action of load (single, tandem and
30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
tridem axles) and temperature differentials. Finite
element analysis was carried out for pavement
panel size 3.5m x 4.5m and subjected to various
combination of axle loads and temperature
differentials. Results of analysis were plotted and
can be used to determine maximum flexural stress.
These charts are given in Appendix-IV of IRC:58-
2011 and IRC:58-2015. These finite element
analysis results are used to develop regression
equations for the estimation of maximum flexural
tensile stress for bottom-up and top-down
cracking case. Regression equations are given in
Appendix-V of IRC:58-2011 and IRC:58-2015.
Table 1 shows the expressions which can be used
to determine flexural stress.
These expressions provided by IRC:58-2015
are same as IRC:58-2011. IRC:58-2015 also
recommends to construct tied concrete shoulder
to protect the edge of high volume pavements
and reduce the flexural stresses in the wheel path
region. Analysis of pavement for same loading
with and without monolithic concrete shoulder
shows pavement with shoulder produces less
flexural stress as compared to without shoulder as
per Clause 6.6.1.
To study the variation of stresses in rigid pavement,
few problems were considered by varying modulus
of subgrade reaction. To compare the results
of regression equation with charts; modulus of
elasticity, poisson’s ratio and coefficient of thermal
expansion are considered as given in IRC:58-2015,
Clause 5.8.4 and 5.8.5.
To estimate the edge stress at the bottom of slab
for bottom-up cracking case, constant thickness of
200 mm is considered. Input parameters modulus
of elasticity of concrete (E) = 30000 N/mm2, unit
weight of concrete (γ) = 24 kN/m3, temperature
differential (Δt)= 0 ºC, poisson’s ratio of concrete
(μ) = 0.15, modulus of subgrade reaction (K) = 40
to 300 MPa/m, coefficient of thermal expansion
(α)= 10 X 10-6 per ºC, are assumed.
Stress variation as per the expressions from Table
1 are plotted in Fig. 1-6 for single axle 80 kN and
tandem axle 160 kN load with and without concrete
shoulder for bottom-up cracking case for variation
of K value from 40 to 80 MPa/m, 81 to 150 MPa/m
and 151 to 300 MPa/m.
 Technical Paper

Table 1 Expressions for Maximum Tensile Stress at the Bottom of Slab for Bottom-up Cracking Case
(Appendix-V IRC:58:2015)

Modulus of
Axle Concrete Regression Equation for calculation of maximum tensile
subgrade reaction
Load shoulder stress at bottom of slab
() MPa/m

 ≤ 80 ( ) ( )

With tied
concrete 80 <  ≤ 150 ( ) ( )
shoulder

 > 150 ( ) ( )
Single
axle
 ≤ 80 ( ) ( )
Without
concrete 80 <  ≤ 150 ( ) ( )
shoulder
 > 150 ( ) ( )

 ≤ 80 ( ) ( )
With tied
concrete 80 <  ≤ 150 ( ) ( )
shoulder
 > 150 ( ) ( )
Tandem
axle
 ≤ 80 ( ) ( )
Without
concrete 80 <  ≤ 150 ( ) ( )
shoulder
 > 150 ( ) ( )

Fig. 1 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in Fig. 2 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in
(K) from 40 to 80 MPa/m for Single Axle Load 80 kN (K) from 81 to 150 MPa/m for Single Axle Load 80 kN

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 31

 Technical Paper
Fig. 3 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in
(K) from 151 to 300 MPa/m for Single Axle Load 80 kN
Fig. 5 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in
(K) from 81 to 150 MPa/m for Tandem Axle Load 160 kN
It can be seen from Fig. 3-6 that flexural stresses
in the slab decreases with the increase in the
modulus of subgrade reaction for vehicle load
case (neglecting temperature effect), similar to
charts given in Appendix-IV of IRC:58-2015
for single as well as tandem axle load. However,
Fig. 1-2 indicates that the maximum edge stress
increases for modulus of subgrade reaction K=40
to 80 MPa/m and 81 to 150 MPa/m, which needs
correction. Increase in this may be due to some
typographical errors in these expressions. The
Fig. 7 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
Shoulder for K=40 MPa/m
32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
Fig. 4 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in
(K) from 40 to 80 MPa/m for Tandem Axle Load 160 kN
Fig. 6 Variation of Max. Edge Stresses with Variation in
(K) from 151 to 300 MPa/m for TandemAxle Load 160 kN
charts of IRC:58-2015 (Appendix-IV) however
shows expected behavior.
Edge stresses are calculated at the bottom of
slab for bottom-up cracking using IRC:58-2015
regression equations from Appendix-V and from
charts of IRC:58-2015 (Appendix-IV) for 200 kN
single axle load and for slab thickness 0.2, 0.25,
0.3 and 0.35 m and results obtained are plotted in
the Fig. 7-10 for tied concrete shoulder and Fig.
11-14 for slab without concrete shoulder.
Fig. 8 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
Shoulder for K=80 MPa/m
 Technical Paper
Fig. 9 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
Shoulder for K=150 MPa/m
Fig. 11 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without
Concrete Shoulder for K=40 MPa/m
Fig. 13 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without
Concrete Shoulder K=150 MPa/m
It is observed from Fig. 7-14 that there is difference
in the stresses calculated by using regression
equations from IRC:58-2015 (Appendix-V) and
with the stresses observed from the charts given in
(Appendix-IV) and needs correction.
3. PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION
(PCA)
PCA document on “thickness design for concrete
highway and street pavements”, gives thickness
from fatigue analysis and erosion analysis,
which is widely adopted. Pavement thickness
is determined based on flexural strength of
concrete, modulus of subgrade reaction, vehicle
axle load and design period. Critical edge
Fig. 10 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
Shoulder for K=300 MPa/m
Fig. 12 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without
Concrete Shoulder for K=80 MPa/m
Fig. 14 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without
Concrete Shoulder for K=300 MPa/m
stress can be determined for single, tandem and
tridem axle load using tables provided by PCA.
Design thickness can be calculated for slab with
and without tied concrete shoulder. PCA does
not consider the effect of thermal loading on
slab. However, from various researchers it was
observed that thermal loading may create large
amount of curling stresses in slab and cracks
may develop due to temperature differential
through slab thickness. PCA design procedure
suggests that stress increase due to loss of
support may vary from 5% to 15%. Concrete
strength calculation is at 28 days strength, but
in procedure, it considers the concrete strength
gain with the age.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 33
 Technical Paper
In addition to fatigue damage due to load
repetition, erosion analysis is also considered in
the PCA for determining the minimum thickness
of slab. Erosion of foundation are more due to
deflections than stresses. Critical location of load
for maximum deflection is slab corner, due to
discontinuity in two direction.
Lee and Carpenter(5) had implemented PCA
thickness design equations in a window based
program PCAWIN. Maximum edge stress
Table 2 Expressions for Calculation of Me
In the expressions given in Table 2 and 3, h is
pavement thickness (m), l is radius of relative
stiffness (in), K is modulus of subgrade reaction
Table 3 Expressions for Calculation of Adjustment Factors
Adjustment Factor expression
( )
f1
( )
f2
f3
f4 [ (
PCA method is based on assumptions like fixed
slab length 180 in (4.572 m), fixed slab width 144
in (3.666 m), slab modulus of elasticity 4 Mpsi
(27560 MPa), Poisson’s ratio 0.15, constant wheel
contact area 7 x 10 in2 (0.178 x 0.254 m2), wheel
spacing 12 in (0.305 m), axle spacing 50 in (1.273
m), axle width 72 in (1.833 m) and aggregate
interlock factor of 25000 psi (172.25 MPa) for slab
with tied concrete shoulder. Standard single axle
(dual wheel) load 18 kip (80 kN) and tandem axle
34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
calculation can be done for axle loads (Single
and Tandem) considering slab with or without
tied concrete shoulder by using the edge stress
equation.
[ ]
…(2)
Equivalent stress by PCA method are determined
by using equation (2) and expressions given in
Table 2-3.
(pci), SAL is actual single axle load (kN), TAL is
actual tandem axle load (kN) and CV is coefficient
of variation.
Condition
( ) Single axle load
( ) Tandem axle load
( ) Slab without shoulder
Slab with shoulder
for 6% truck at the slab edge
)]
(dual wheel) load 36 kip (160 kN) is considered.
Thus, the flexural stress developed will be same
disregarding the joint spacing, wheel spacing,
axle spacing, wheel contact area and actual load
transfer capability of slab.
Vishwakarma and Ingle(6) suggested finite
element model is considered for this study. Solid
as well as area element is considered to model
slab in SAP2000 software. Single axle load of
18 kip (80 kN) and 54 kip (240 kN) with slab
 Technical Paper

thickness 9.5 in (241.3 mm) is considered. Fig.
15 shows mathematical model of slab on springs
and carrying single axle dual wheel load. Spring
stiffnesses are assigned according to the modulus
of subgrade reaction of foundation soil and mesh
size of elements.
represents variation of flexural stress for tandem
axle load of 160 kN.
It can be observed that maximum flexural stresses
developed due to vehicle loading are more in
case of slab without concrete shoulder than slab
provided with tied concrete shoulder.

Fig. 16 Variation of Max Edge Stress in Slab without

Shoulder for Single Axle Load 80 kN
Fig. 15 Finite Element Model of Slab with 18 Kip
Single Axle (dual wheel) Load
Finite element analysis results are compared
with the results obtained from PCA method and
presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Comparison of Analysis Results for Slab by
Finite Element Method and PCA

Maximum stress S (MPa) Fig. 17 Variation of Max Edge Stress in Slab with
Finite Element Shoulder for Single Axle Load 80 kN
Load Type K (pci) Analysis
PCA
Solid Area
element element
Single axle 130 1.40 1.39 1.41
18 kip load 500 1.04 1.03 1.11
Single axle 130 4.21 4.17 3.97
54 kip load 500 3.11 3.09 3.11
It is observed from Table 4 that the results by finite Fig. 18 Variation of Max Edge Stress in Slab without
element method and PCA method are in good Shoulder for Tandem Axle Load 160 kN
agreement. Vishwakarma and Ingle(6) suggested
simplified approach for the determination of critical
stresses based on radius of relative stiffness for slab
without shoulders. The results obtained from finite
element model for different slab thickness are also
validated with PCA and Simplified approach.
4. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS
METHODS
Fig. 16-17 shows the variation of flexural stress
for different K values, with and without concrete Fig. 19 Variation of Max Edge Stress in Slab with
shoulder for 80 kN single axle load. Fig. 18-19 Shoulder for Tandem Axle Load 160 kN

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 35

 Technical Paper

The result shows drop in stress as K value

changes when calculated from IRC:58-2015
regression equations. Higher stress values can be
seen when calculated with westergaards stress
equations modified by Teller and Sutherland
given in IRC:58-2002 Appendix-VI. Stress results
for tandem axle load 160kN (0 ºC temperature
differential case) by IRC:58-2015 charts does not
show any difference when analyzed for slab with
and without shoulder. IRC:58-2015 page 53-54
have provided charts for the calculation of stresses Fig. 22 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
developed due to tandem axle load (160 kN to 480 Shoulder by IRC:58-2015 and PCA (K=300 MPa/m)
kN) with zero temperature difference for without
shoulder condition. However for same tandem axle
load with shoulder are represented on page 63-64,
stresses observed from these charts does not show
any difference for slab with or without shoulder.
4.1 Comparison of IRC:58-2015 and Portland
cement association (PCA) method
Edge stress are calculated by IRC method as well
as by PCA method, considering single axle load
of 200 kN and attempt is made to compare the Fig. 23 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without
results given by IRC:58-2015 with PCA method, Concrete Shoulder for Different Thickness by
considering all other parameters same. Figs. 20- IRC:58-2015 and PCA (K=40 MPa/m)
25 shown below are for slab with shoulder and
without shoulder for different thickness.

Fig. 24 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without

Fig. 20 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete
Concrete Shoulder by IRC:58-2015 and PCA
Shoulder by IRC:58-2015 and PCA (K=40 MPa/m)
(K=150 MPa/m)

Fig. 25 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab without

Fig. 21 Variation of Edge Stress in Slab with Concrete Concrete Shoulder by IRC:58-2015 and PCA
Shoulder by IRC:58-2015 and PCA (K=150 MPa/m) (K=300 MPa/m)

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper

IRC:58-2015 Clause 6.3.1 suggest that the stresses
can be obtained either from charts given in Appendix-
IV of IRC:58-2015 or by using regression equations
given in the same guideline in Appendix-V. The
results of IRC:58- 2015 charts are nearly similar to
the PCA. However, it is seen that for many cases the
stresses obtained by regression equations and from
charts does not match.
5. OBSERVATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The above study indicates the follows.
i. The edge stresses calculated from
regression equations of IRC:58-
2015 does not match with the results
of charts made from finite element
analysis provided in the same
guideline. Regression equations needs
minor modification.
ii. Design charts given in Appendix-IV
of IRC:58-2015 for tandem axle loads
with 0 ºC temperature differential
shows same stress results for slab with
and without concrete shoulder.
iii. Design charts given in IRC:58-2015
are prepared considering constant
values of E, μ and α. If designer wants
to take the advantage of high strength
concrete use of charts are restricted.
Simplified approach considers these
variables to determine flexural stresses.
REFERENCES
1. Packard R. G. (1995). “Thickness Design for
Concrete Highway and Street Pavements”.
Portland Cement Assosiation, Skokie, Illinois
2. IRC:58-2002, “Guidelines for the Design
of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavements for
Highways.” Second revision, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi.
3. IRC:58-2011, “Guidelines for the Design of Plain
Jointed Rigid Pavements for Highways.” Third
revision, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
4. IRC:58-2015, “Guidelines for the Design
of Plain Jointed Rigid Pavements for
Highways.” Fourth revision, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi.
5. Lee Y. H. and Carpenter S. H. (2001),
“PCAWIN Program for Jointed Concrete
Pavement Design”. Tamkang Journal of
Science and Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, 293-300
6. Vishwakarma, R. J. and Ingle, R. K. (2017),
“Simplified Approach for the Evaluation
of Critical Stresses in Concrete Pavement”.
Structural Engineering and Mechanics, Vol.
61, No. 3, 389-396

IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for April, 2018

Date Day Time Name of the Committee
07-04-18 Sat 11.00 AM Bearings, Joints and Appurtenances Committee (B-6)
09-04-18 Mon 02.00 PM Embankment, Ground Improvement and Drainage
Committee (H-4)
13-04-18 Fri 11.00 AM Hill Roads & Tunnels Committee (H-10)
14-04-18 Sat 12.00 Noon Foundation, Sub-Structure, Protective Works and Masonry
Structures Committee (B-3)
17-04-18 Tues 10.30 AM Committee for Accreditation of New Materials and
Techniques
20-04-18 Fri 11.00 AM Reduction of Carbon Footprints in Road Construction and
Environment Committee (G-3)
Concrete (Plain, Reinforced and Pre-Stressed) Structures
Committee (B-4)
21-04-18 Sat 11.00 AM
Road Maintenance and Asset Management Committee
(H-6)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 37

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 Technical Paper

A STUDY OF TRAVEL CHOICES OF BAHADURGARH

CITY SCHOOL PUPILS

Amit Vashisth* Praveen Aggarwal**

ABSTRACT
Increase in traffic volumes associated with school trips give rise to a highly congested area and pollution,
also getting diverted from the sustainable development. Traffic generated by the schools put extra stress on
the transportation system of that area where the school is located. The main motive behind the study was
to inquire into factors affecting school pupils’ mode choice of travel. The study will be effective to know the
travel behaviour and will be beneficial for development and planning initiatory which will contribute to
achievement of sustainable and safer transport system. A case study involving the pupils of nine Bahadurgarh
schools was carried out. Pupils were encouraged to take part in the survey and to give their views about mode
choice and factors responsible for choosing a mode. We observe that 17% of pupils surveyed travel to school
by car/bike, 40% by school bus, 32% walk, and 11% by bicycle. Apart from this Multinomial Logit model
(MNL model) model is also prepared to take various parameters which affect the overall mode choice of
pupils.

1 INTRODUCTION Safety laws (citizen charter Delhi Police 2008).

A study was carried out to check the travel patterns
of the pupils in nine schools of Bahadurgarh.
Less willingness can be observed to choose more
sustainable and environment-friendly options such
as walking and cycling due to various reasons even
when travelling for short distances. Most schools
have a high proportion of Pupils who are driven to
school by Adults. This issue is not only a concern
of increasing the traffic volume within the city, but
also has negative health consequences. Using cars
frequently limits the students’ presence in public
spaces and opportunities available to make them
more socialized. On the other hand, using collective
mode of travel or choosing non-motorized options
such as walking and cycling – called Active Travel
behaviour - make a kind of active and dynamic
presence in urban environments. In India, programs
to promote safer journey to school have been
started. For example “citizen charter” initiated by
Delhi police attempts to help children to become
more physically active by seeking ways to improve
infrastructure, education and enforcement of
It seems that some environmental factors such
as the distance between home and school, traffic
safety, and the quality of street network at the
neighbourhood level can encourage pupils to
walk to school. In addition to the environmental
factors, the personal and social environment and
the parental decision-making have significant roles
in selecting a mode of travel by children. The
relationship between the mode of travel, physical
attributes, and socio-economical characteristics
is complex. Investigating this complexity and its
causes and effects can identify some common
patterns exist in students’ commuting to the
elementary school. Identifying the factors affecting
household decision-making regarding children
movement may help planners and policymakers
to find better alternatives for school pupils travel
pattern. By this study two questions rose, namely:
What modes do school pupils use for their trips to
school? And what are the factors which regulates
their choice of mode of travel? (Rice, 2008). In
addition, an attempt was made to consider the

} National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra-136119,

M. Tech. Student, Civil engineering department, amitrajvashisth22@gmail.com
*

Professor, Civil engineering department, praveen_agg@hotmail.com

**

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 39

 Technical Paper
interrelationships between the various factors
influencing school pupils’ mode choice. To address
those questions a literature review was carried
out and nine schools in the Bahadurgarh urban
were surveyed. There were components to the
school surveys, namely Pupils’ surveys, Parents’
survey, a School, and Neighbourhood survey.
The data obtained from these surveys were then
analyzed, and Multinomial Logit (MNL) Model
was prepared.
2 STUDY OBJECTIVES
The main objective is to find out the relationship
between the mode of travel and physical attributes.
Identifying the factors affecting decision-making
regarding children movement may help planners
and policymakers to find better alternatives for
school pupils travel pattern. By this study, two
questions rose such as: What modes do school
pupils prefer to use to go to school? And what are
the factors which regulate their choice of mode
Fig. 1: Google map of Bahadurgarh city.
3.1 Sample Size of Survey:
This study is limited to 8 public/private schools
and 1 Govt. school out of 24 public/private and
40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018
of travel? The first question has been answered
definitely. The mode choice response for more than
3500 pupils out of more than 21000 pupils studying
in these nine Bahadurgarh schools have been
collected explored and analyzed. The answer to the
second question has been answered by studying a
number of factors such as school roll, age, distance,
pedestrian facility, the gender of the student travel
independence, transportation facility in school
which could be responsible for mode choice.
3 STUDY AREA
The case studies were selected from Bahadurgarh
city of Haryana. Bahadurgarh is located at 28.68°N
76.92°E and covers an area of approximately 50
km2. It has an average elevation of 206 metres (675
feet). It is part of National Capital Region (NCR)
and very close to Capital of India. It is located to
the west of Delhi on the National Highway 10.
Fig. 1 shows the satellite map of Bahadurgarh city.
(Source: Google maps)
3 Govt. schools: with a total strength of more
than 21000 pupils out of which more than 3500
pupils were surveyed. Considering the population
 Technical Paper

size of students - aged between 6 and 17 years 5 ANALYSIS FOR MODE CHOICE
studying in these schools, the sample size for the There is a considerable difference between the
questionnaire survey was determined according modes of travel by students living in different areas.
to the research nature and its limitations. While Five alternatives were available and considered for
4500 questionnaires were distributed among the students to choose: walking, cycling, school bus,
students, out of which around 3500 questionnaires car/bike (parents’ vehicle). Fig. 2 shows that 32
were returned (the response rate was 78 percent). percent of the students living in the neighbourhoods
More than 200 parents were surveyed during this
walk to school; on the other hand, using the school
study for safety aspects
bus (40 percent), using car/bike (17 percent) and
4 STUDY PROCESS the cycling (11 percent) have the lowest shares.
4.1 Pupils Surveys
These surveys were conducted with the help of
questionnaire or survey forms. In these survey
forms, some questions were asked to respond such
as what mode they prefer, the distance between
home and school, age, gender etc. Different types
of forms were designed for different aged students
for example for primary the forms were much
attractive by giving options in cartoon style and
only 3 questions were asked that is mode and age,
gender and for secondary and senior secondary
students the forms were more of informative type.
4.2 Parents’ Survey Fig. 2: Overall Mode Choice of Pupils.
More than 200 parents were surveyed through a Above modal split is giving a distorted result
personal interview to study the safety aspects because of the fact that in 2 schools (one Govt. and
of the children traveling to school as it was not one reputed trust school) out of these 9 schools, no
possible for the children to explain safety concerns transportation facility (school bus/van) is available.
on their own. Factors such as safety and security, Out of remaining 7 schools, sincere participation
school bus facility, school fees etc were asked to from one school was lacking and survey data was
give weight. not presenting true picture. It was a mere formality
4.3 School Locality Surveys to participate in the survey process for that school.
The overall modal split for remaining six schools
These surveys were carried out in the locality
is shown in Fig. 3 below.
of each school. These surveys were conducted
around the schools so as to explore the pedestrian
environment quality. This survey technique was
basically taken from the work done in Western
Australia by Gallin (2001) and pedestrian quality
assessment system was generated. Gallin’s method
or system was modified so as to suit the pedestrian
environment present in Bahadurgarh city and used
by school pupils. The survey system used for the
study consists of various responsible factors such as
Connectivity to school, Footpath Surface, Footpath
Width, Obstruction, Encroachment, Potential for
Vehicle Conflict, Continuity, Safety and Security,
Walk Environment conform to (IRC:103-2012). Fig. 3: Modal Split without Considering 3 Schools.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 41

 Technical Paper

We observe that percentage of choosing “bus” as Table 2: Relationship between School Roll and
a mode has drastic change as compared to overall Independent Travel.
results and 52% as shown in Fig. 2 as compared to
42%. From the data collected some relationships School 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-700
roll
were derived which are as follows such as:
i. School Roll and Mode Choice: Table 1 travel % of students
indicates that bus usage increasing with school with
roll with the likelihood that a greater proportion of
Adults 38.07 % 54.74% 62.36% 65.56%
the pupils of small school are likely to live within
walking distance and school having high school Alone 61.93 % 45.26% 37.64% 34.44%
roll are much stronger economically as compared
to small school which directly affect the mode iii. Pedestrian facility (refer Table 5) and
choice and more students in high- income schools mode choice: On the basis of survey in which we
tend to travel through car and bikes. asked to choose the option as per their observation
Table 1: Comparison of School Roll and Mode Choice.
about the condition of footpaths i.e. (Bad, Good,
Average and Very Good) and relate it with the Mode
school of travel and conclude that proportion of pupils
200-300 300-400 400-500 500-700
roll walk to the school increasing with as the quality of
mode footpaths got better and behaviour towards school
% of students bus goes up as the quality goes down of footpaths
choice
as shown in Table 3.
Car/bike 10.38 % 11.11% 17.02% 15.86%
Table 3: Relationship between a Pedestrian
Bus 27.69 % 43.63% 45.34% 49.70% Facility and Mode Choice.
Bicycle 19.61% 12.11% 6.21% 4.91%
pedestrian Very Good Average Bad
walk 42.32% 33.15% 31.43% 29.53% quality good
ii. School roll and independent travel: The Mode
schools with high school rolls considered as % of students
choice
high-income schools and the schools with low
school roll considered as low-income schools and Car/bike 05.75% 17.85% 10.00% 12.09%
students studying in these schools are with high Bus 32.33% 36.89% 52.36% 48.72%
and low-income family backgrounds respectively.
Low-income family background students studying Bicycle 22.30% 14.70% 13.63% 17.58%
in low-income school tend to travel independently
walk 39.62% 30.56% 24.01% 21.61%
i.e. by walking or cycling unlike as high-income
family background students who travel by school iv. Pedestrian facility and independent
buses and personal vehicles such as school bus, travel: Here in Table 4, We Observe that better
cars, and motorbikes driven by their parents to pedestrian facility tended to increase independent
school more frequently as shown in Table 2. travel by students.
Table 4: Relationship between a Pedestrian Facility and Independent Travel.

pedestrian quality Very good Good Average Bad

travel
% of students
with
Adults 38.08 % 54.74% 62.36% 60.81%
Alone 61.92 % 45.26% 37.64% 39.19%

42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper

Table 5: Criteria for Pedestrian Facility

Category Factors Bad condition( Average Good condition Very good

LOS- D) condition (LOS-B) condition
(LOS-C) (LOS-A)

Design factor Footpath Unpaved Unpaved and Paved but not Paved and well
(physical Surface potholes and tree maintained maintained
characteristics) Roots

Footpath Depend on no. of Depend on no. of Depend on no. of Depend on no. of

width persons per hour persons per hour persons per hour persons per hour
(1.8m) (1.8m) (1.8m) (1.8m)

Obstruction No marking on Less visible Markings present Straight shape,

obstruction marking but not properly warning marks
maintained

Encroachment Footpaths Considerable Encroachment Completely

inaccessible Encroachment free from
Encroachment

User Safety and No lighting and Safety concerns Reasonably safer Adequate lighting
characteristics security police patrolling are compromised and police
patrolling

Comfort Not suitable for Less comfortable Reasonably good Better comfort
harsh climate lack of proper but no proper such as trees and
planning planning chairs installed.

Walk Poor environment Not Good Reasonably good Ideal

environment and stinking Environment/ environment Environment
Cleanliness
Compromised

Source: IRC: 103-2012

v. Distance from school and mode choice: vi. Distance from school and independent
Table 6 shows less inclination towards car/bike travel: As expected, independent travel decreases
and school bus for distance ranges 1km-2km. with increasing distance between home and school
Higher distances show more journeys by car and as shown below in Table 7.
school buses. Table 7: Relationship between Distance from the
Table 6: Relationship between Distance from School and Independent Travel
School and Mode Choice
Distance Ikm-2km 2km-5km >5km
distance Ikm-2km 2km-5km >5km
travel % of students
Mode with
% of students
choice Adults 30.29 % 57.73% 98.07%
Car/bike 13.94 % 13.91% 20.24% Alone 69.71 % 42.27% 1.93%
Bus 16.35 % 43.82% 77.83% vii. Age of students and mode choice: Table
Bicycle 10.12% 14.24% 1.93% 8 shows that car/bike usage is similar for 6-8 yr
and 9-11yr age group and bicycle got the highest
walk 59.59% 28.03% 0%
proportion for 15-17yr age group.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 43

 Technical Paper

Table 8: Relationship between age of Students and Mode Choice

Age 6yr-8yr 9yr-11yr 12yr-14yr 15yr-17yr

Mode choice % of students

Car/bike 17.68 % 18.67% 14.23% 08.17%

Bus 60.11 % 23.40% 46.54% 39.90%

Bicycle 03.35% 30.61% 5.99% 36.07%

walk 18.86% 27.32% 33.24% 15.86%

Source: IRC: 103-2012

viii. Age of student and independent travel: Table 11: Relationship between Transportation
Table 9 shows students with lowest age group Facility of the School and Mode Choice
travelling mostly with adults.
Transportation
Good Average Bad
Table 9: Relationship between age of Student facility
and Independent Travel
Mode
% of students
Age 6yr-8yr 9yr-11yr 12yr-14yr 15yr-17yr choice

Car/bike 13.14% 19.46% 18.33%

travel
% of students
with
Bus 54.94% 31.21% 26.14%

Adults 77.79% 42.07% 60.77% 48.07% Bicycle 12.35% 08.98% 11.49%

Alone 22.21% 57.93% 39.23% 51.93% walk 19.57% 40.35% 44.04%

ix. Transportation facility and mode choice: 6 ANALYSIS ON SAFETY ASPECTS

Table 11 clearly indicate that schools with better High traffic volume and speed are the main
transportation facility attract more students towards concerns of children and parents (wigmore et al
choosing school buses for their journey to school. 2006). The safety aspect was studied by parents’
Transport facility is classified as good, average and survey because it will be difficult for pupils
bad depending upon the number of buses as shown to explain safety concerns and make it more
in Table 10. complex. As we observe that more than 50% of the
Table 10: Criteria for Transportation pupils travelling through school bus and most of
Facility in Schools the parents use personal vehicle for their children
travelling to school due to fact that they feel safer
Criteria Good Average Bad in school bus and personal vehicles rather than
walking and cycling. But on the other hand, this
transportation facility will affect the pedestrians and cyclists travelling to
school and make them more vulnerable to accidents
No. of buses More than Less than No bus due to the increasing traffic nearby schools and de-
available per or equal to 1 bus/150 available
motivating them to use sustainable transportation
150 students 1 bus/150 students.
students such as walking or cycling. Children lack the
cognitive skills to make safe decisions regarding

44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper

approaching vehicles and gaps to cross roads
(wigmore et al 2006). If we talk about personal
safety and security, parents give more weightage
to personal safety than other factors such as school
fees, transport facility etc. Road safety, stranger
danger would be the factor for children safety
and this motivates the parents to travel with their
children. Results of the Parents’ Survey were
compiled and Following Observations were done:
Parents were asked to indicate the importance on
the following factors when deciding, how your
children travel to school. 0 indicates that the factor
is not important at all. 5 indicate that the factor is
of critical importance. The factors identified in the
survey were:
• Distance to School;
• Convenience;
• Safety – “Stranger Danger”
• Safety – Road Safety;
• Cost;
• Other.
6.1 Average Weightings
Table 12 below shows the average weighting
given by parents to factors influencing their
children’s travel choices. As expected, road and
personal safety, at 3.9 and 4.0 respectively, are
the most important factors identified by parents as
influencing travel choices for their children.
Table 13: Comparison of Factors and Age of the Youngest
Table 12: Average Influencing Factor Weighting
Influencing factors Average weightings
Distance 2.4
Convenience 3.4
Safety – Stranger Danger 4
Safety – Road Safety 3.9
Cost 2.6
Condition of footpaths 2.2
6.2 RESULTS OF PARENTS’ SURVEY
Following relationship was observed from parents’
survey:
Here we are discussing Relationship between Age
of youngest children in home and factor influencing
travel choice and neglecting other criteria such as
no. of Cars available at home and no. of school
going children at home: Table 13, below shows the
relationship between the age of the youngest child
and the factors influencing travel choices. Safety
factors, cost, distance, condition of footpath show
a slight reduction in importance at age 8-11 yr,
but convenience increase against age 8-11yr. This
is unexpected and difficult to explain. All factors
except convenience show reductions in importance
at age 8-11yr. This may reflect the mindset of
parents that that by the age of 11, children are
much more able to travel themselves, and need
less protection. Apart from the exceptions noted
above, the importance given to factors influencing
travel weightage to Safety factors were reasonably
consistent across age groups.

Factors Distance Conveyance Safety Safety Cost Pedestrian

Age (Stranger (Road Facility
Danger) safety)
<5yrs 3.1 3.5 4.4 4.3 2.6 2.8
5-8 yrs 2.4 3.6 4.4 4.5 2.6 2.9
8-11yrs 2.5 3.8 3.9 3.9 2.5 2.4
7 MULTINOMIAL LOGIT MODELLING: schools, there is no transportation facility (school
The purpose of generating a Multinomial Logit bus/van) is available. Out of remaining 7 schools,
(MNL) model was to provide a method to estimate sincere participation from one school was lacking
the mode choices of school pupils. To get the and survey data was not presenting true picture.
desired variables, The MNL model is prepared It was a mere formality to participate in the
from the small sample collected from each survey process for that school. To get the desired
school, considering survey data from six schools variables, this model could be used to explore
only because of the fact that, in two schools (one the probability of choosing different modes other
Govt. and one reputed trust school) out of these 9 than “bus” and could be helpful in future planning

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 45

 Technical Paper

procedure. Apart from this, the MNL model can recorded as ”Bus” trips other modes have much
help in estimating the factors influencing a number lower percentage individually and was not possible
of independent variables in choosing mode of to generate model considering each mode, that is
travel. why we combined all modes other than “Bus” and
The multinomial logit model (XLSTAT version named as “Other” and generated a model taking
2017): these two alternatives (Rice, 2008). The model
was prepared by taking different parameters such
In multinomial logit model there are more than as gender, age, travel independence, pedestrian
two dependent variables. Its main focus is on facility and distance from home to school. The data
finding out the probability of choosing one, out of constituting a separate entity was analyzed using
the no. of categories say “j” which is dependent the XLSTAT 2017 MNL program. 750 samples
on some explanatory parameters. The expression were collected for model formulation; out of these
used for the model is: Log [p(y =j | xi)/p(y =1 | xi)] 750 observations 300 random observations were
= αj +βjXi where the category 1 comes under the used to validate the mode
reference or control category. All other parameters
are explained relative to this control category or 7.2 Details of Model.
parameter. The probability in choosing category Validation/Number of observations: 300
“j” is as follows i.e. p(y = j | xi) = exp(αj + βjXi)/[1
+ Σk=2.J exp(αk + βkXi)]. For the control category, Model: Logit
we have: p(y =1 | xi) = 1/[1 + Σk=2.J exp(αk + Response type: Multinomial
βkXi)]. The model is generated or estimated
using a max. likelihood ratio method; the log- Control category: BUS
likelihood is expressed as: l(α,β) = Σi=1.nΣj=1. Constraints: a1=0
Jyij log(p(y=j|xi))To estimate the β parameters of
the model (linear function coefficient), here we Confidence interval (%): 95
are trying to maximize the likelihood function. An Stop conditions: Iterations = 100/Convergence =
exact analytical solution does not exist as in linear 0.000001
regression. To find the best possible solution the
software XLSTAT 2017 uses the Newton- Raphson Maximization of the likelihood function using the
algorithm. (Source: XLSTAT 2017 tutorials) Newton-Raphson algorithm
7.1 Mode Choice Estimates Table 14, 15, 16 and 17 show the descriptive
Mode choice model has generated through schools statistics of variable mode and validation data set
survey data. Almost 52% of total trips were respectively.
Table 14: Descriptive Statistic on Quantitative Variable
Variable Observations missing Without Min. Max. Mean Std.
missing deviation
Age 450 0 450 4.0 17.0 8.473 3.528
Distance 450 0 450 1.0 5.0 3.280 1.312
Table 15: Descriptive Statistic on Qualitative Variables

Variable Categories frequencies %

Boy 102 22.667
Gender
Girl 348 77.333
Adult 351 78.000
Travel With
Alone 99 22.000
Bad 319 70.889
Pedestrian
Good 131 29.111

46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper

Table 16: Descriptive Statistic on Quantitative Variable (validation set)

Variable Observations missing Without Min. Max. Mean Std.

missing deviation
Age 300 0 300 4.0 17.00 8.197 3.543
Distance 300 0 300 1.0 5.00 3.290 1.388
Table 17: Descriptive Statistic on Qualitative Variables (validation set)

Variable Categories frequencies %

Boy 77 25.667
Gender
Girl 223 74.333
Adult 239 79.667
Travel With
Alone 61 20.333
Bad 206 68.667
Pedestrian facility
Good 94 31.333

Table 18: Pseudo R-square Table 19: Test of Null Hypothesis

Pseudo- R-Square Value Statistic Degree of Chi- Pr > Chi²

Freedom square
R²(McFadden) 0.549 -2 Log 5 341.786 < 0.0001
(Likelihood)
R²(Cox and Snell) 0.532 Score 5 251.576 < 0.0001
Wald 5 109.416 < 0.0001
R²(Nagelkerke) 0.710
Table 19 shows the null hypothesis which indicates
Table 18 shows the value of pseudo -R-square that Pr >Chi2 values are <0.0001 which is ok for
which is quite satisfactory as per the requirement the model.
of the model.
Table 20: Type II Analysis

Source DF Chi-square Pr > Wald Chi-square Pr > LR

(Wald) (LR)

Age 1 17.247 < 0.0001 19.176 < 0.0001

Distance 1 104.578 <0.0001 261.410 <0.0001

Gender 1 9.526 0.002 9.959 0.002

Travel with 1 9.745 0.002 10.222 0.001

Pedestrian Facility 1 14.674 0.000 15.846 < 0.0001

Table 20 shows that value Pr>Lr for all column describes the independent
the independent variables is less than 0.05 parameters taken into consideration for the
which is good for the model. Here source model generation.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 47

 Technical Paper

Table 21: Model Parameters

Category source value Std. Wald Pr > Wald Wald Odds L.B U.B
error Chi- Chi² L.B U.B ratio (95%) (95%)
Square (95%) (95%)
Intercept 9.007 1.045 74.314 <0.0001 6.960 11.055
Age -0.365 0.088 17.247 <0.0001 -0.537 -0.193 0.694 0.584 0.825
Distance -2.213 0.216 104.578 <0.0001 -2.638 -1.789 0.109 0.072 0.167
Gender 0.000 0.000
(Boy)
Gender 1.081 0.350 9.526 0.002 0.395 1.768 2.949 1.484 5.859
(Girl)
Travel 0.000 0.000
With
Other (adult)
Travel 1.966 0.630 9.745 0.002 0.732 3.200 7.141 2.078 24.536
With
(alone)
Pedestrian 0.000 0.000
Facility
(bad)
Pedestrian 1.399 0.365 14.674 0.000 0.683 2.115 4.051 1.980 8.286
Facility
(Good)
Table 21 below shows “value” column gives the utility factors to generate the model and to find out the
probability of choosing different modes.
Table 22: Classification Table for the Estimation are 0.532, 0.549, 0.710 because as the
Sample (Variable MODE): value close to 1 the model is well adjusted.
From/to Bus Other Total % Correct ii. Table. 20 shows that the Pr > LR value is
Bus 184 28 212 86.79% much lesser than a significance threshold
Other 30 208 238 87.39% value which is (typically set to 0.05 because
Total 214 236 450 87.11% in this case confidence interval is 95%),
which concludes that the contribution of
Table 23: Classification Table for the Validation
the independent variables to the model
Sample (Variable MODE):
adjustment is significant as compared to other
From/to Bus Other Total % Correct parameters.
Bus 126 18 144 87.50% iii. From Table.21, if the “value” is negative then
Other 23 133 156 85.26% it shows that the variable is less likely to go
Total 149 151 300 86.33% for the corresponding mode as compared to
Table 22 and 23 shows the classification tables “bus” because here bus is base variable and
for estimation and validation sample respectively value 0 shows the parameter to be redundant
showing satisfactory % correct for the model. and work as a reference parameter in
particular variable.
MODEL RESULTS
iv. Table.22 and Table.23 shows the validation of
Analysis of the model to be significant and valid the model here the difference in % correct of
as per the guidelines of the software shown both the samples is 0.72 which is very good
below: or excellent result (Tushara T. et. al.2013).
i. From Table.18 we can observe that R2 (Cox and v. Finally equation of model is given below as
Snell), R2 (McFadden) and R2 (Nagelkerke) follows:

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018

 Technical Paper
Probability (other) =
( )
Where:
A= Age of the student
B= Distance in Km
C= No. Of girls
D= No. Of students travelling alone
E= No. Of cases Pedestrian Facility is good
vi. Above equation can be used to calculate the
probability of choosing mode other than “Bus”
on putting values of different parameters
i.e. distance between home and school, no.
of students with gender as “girl” and no. of
pupils travel “alone”, Age and pedestrian
facility and multiplying with their coefficients
from Table 21 i.e. from “value” column.
8 CONCLUSIONS
The first question has definitely been answered
which was asked formerly in this paper. The mode
choices by more than 3,500 Bahadurgarh school
pupils have been identified, compared critically
and examined. A number of factors have been
observed which responsible for school pupil travel
choices are such as:
Safety Concerns: Road safety and personal safety
are taken into account for school travel choice.
Children are particularly sensitive to condition
with heavy traffic volumes. Small sized pupils,
when compared with vehicles and adults, make
pupils less visible to vehicle drivers and users.
Children also lacking intellectual skills required
to make safe decisions regarding the speed of
vehicles and sight distance. According to (Turner
et.al. 2006) the level of safety for pedestrians
and cyclists increases as numbers of pedestrians
and cyclists increases. Here safety of the children
travels to school means personal safety (stranger
danger) and road safety.
Distance from School: As expected, study
indicates that as the distance to school increases
there more use of car and buses travel to school.
13.94% of pupils who live within 1km-2km range
of school travelled by car/bike, compared to those
whose residence is farther i.e. distance >5km
having percentage of 20.24%.
School Roll: The increasing strength of school
Pupils has the effect on the number of pupils who
travel by school bus. High-income schools have a
greater percentage of pupils travel by buses than
small schools.
Quality of Pedestrian Environment: The research
suggests that, the quality of the pedestrian facility
as well as walking environment has an impact on
the travel choices behaviour of school pupils.
Multinomial logit model: we can conclude that
in future, the "model equation" model generated
above in this paper would be very helpful in future
planning which provides the probability of choosing
mode other than bus by school pupils. Parameters
such as gender, distance, and independent travel
are considered to be the contributing factors in
estimating the overall pattern of the Bahadurgarh
school pupils.
School and Local Planning:
If we have to motivate the sustainable development
and to increase interests in a more active mode of
transport such as walking and cycling then the
recommendations for Transportation Infrastructure
at and near Schools given below may be followed
by planners of existing and new school facilities as
well as their surroundings. The size and location
of the school must be in such that the proportion
of pupils likely to live within comfortable walking
and cycling distance.
Transportation Infrastructure at and near Schools:
Sufficient and separate footpath and cycle lane
width must be adequate so as to cope with the
pedestrians and cyclists using these facilities
in peak hours i.e. start and close of the schools,
also sufficient visibility must be provided at
road crossings. Pupils with less intellectual skills
must be addressed when visibility and stopping
distances are considered and parking must be
provided adequately and should minimize the need
for turning or reversing for the near schools.
Usefulness of the paper in modifying Design codes:
This article is mere survey based and the overall
theme of the paper is motivating students as well
parents to use personal vehicle less frequently and
to use more environment -friendly which contribute
hugely to the traffic of the area. If we can reduce
traffic just of the school trips it will contribute
INDIAN HIGHWAYS│April 2018 49
 Technical Paper

significantly to the overall traffic congestions in
the area. It helps to get information regarding the
present status of the pedestrian facility of the area
and will be useful in upgrading the facilities which
directly influence the safety of the pedestrians.
This survey will help policy- makers to improve
infrastructure of the facility nearby localities and
can be applied to the other areas also.
As it need rigorous research and time in modifying
design codes, this article suggests improvements
in infrastructure near school localities for pupils
safety, as per the observations, the pedestrian
facilities provided in the school localities are not
as per the design criteria specified by IRC, what we
need here is to follow design guidelines specified
in the design codes strictly.
The scope for the further research:
i. This study can be further extended to
surveys of rural area schools. This will help
in identifying the impact of geographical
locations and how economically weak and
less developed infrastructure than urban areas
are different in school travel decision making.
ii. This survey can be extended to different areas
of the country and to explore whether these
factors are applicable to other areas also.
iii. This type of survey must be on the five- yearly
bases so as to identify the changing trend of
behaviour of the pupils and parents time to
time regarding school travel decision- making
process. Then the results of this survey could
be compared to the future survey data.
iv. A Study for counts of a number of pedestrians
and cyclists using facility near school
travelling to school or to home may be useful
for revision of design standards of footpaths
such as width, height etc. So that sufficient
footpath and cycle width may be provided to
cater peak pedestrian and cyclist numbers
REFERENCES:
1. Bill Rice, HOW WE GOT TO SCHOOL: A
Study of, Travel Choices at Christchurch Primary
School, ipenz transportation group conference,
Puke Ariki, New Plymouth, 2-5 November, 2008.
2. GALLIN, N. (2001), Quantifying Pedestrian
Friendliness – Guidelines for Assessing Pedestrian
Level of Service, Australia: Walking the 21st
Century, February 2001, Perth.
3. http://www.xlstat.com/en/products-solutions/
feature/dose-effect-analysis.html
4. Tushara T, Rajalakshmi P, Bino I Koshy. Mode
Choice Modelling For Work Trips in Calicut City.
International Journal of Innovative Technology
and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE) ISSN: 2278-
3075, Volume-3, Issue-3, August, 2013.
5. Turner, S., Roozenburg, A., & Francis, T.
(2006) Predicting Accident Rates for Cyclists
and Pedestrians, Land Transport New Zealand
Research Report 289, Land Transport New
Zealand, Wellington.
6. Wigmore, B., Baas, C., Wade, W., & Baas, P.
(2006) School Journey Safety – A Comparative
Study of Engineering Devices, Land Transport
New Zealand Research Report 271, Land
Transport New Zealand, Wellington

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