CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background to the Research
The clastic and carbonate facies of the Benin Basin are believed to be of importance in hydrocarbon

exploration within the basin. The Benin Basin (which is also referred to as Dahomey Basin)

represents a coastal basin stretching from the western limit of Niger Delta westwards through Benin

Republic and Togo, terminating east of Accra in Ghana with a total lateral stretch of about 500 km

(Fig. 1.1; Nwajide, 2013).

The pooling of hydrocarbon after generation depends on the exsistence of good reservoir formation,

effective trapping system and quality seal. Faults exert significant control on the migration,

entrapment and subsequent compartmentalization of hydrocarbon. Faults provide a complex impact

on the flow of hydrocarbon, sometimes allowing fluid across them, sometimes not. It is imperative to

understand the distribution of faults and their internal architecture and petrophysical property in order

to improve efficiency in exploration and development of hydrocarbon reservoirs.

In the eastern Benin Basin, a succession of organic shales and interbedded sands present a favourable

lithologic setting for hydrocarbon generation, migration and accummulatiom. Biodegraded crude, or

bitumen, deposits found on the surface are believed to have resulted from the migration by

hydrocarbon from deeper levels downdip, due to the lack of good traps.

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Figure 1.1. Generalized Geological Map of Benin Basin (after Billman, 1976)

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1.2 Aim and Objectives
This study aims at investigating the reservoir properties of outcrop and subsurface data in Benin

Basin, Nigeria. The objectives are to;

1. determine from outcrop studies the physical factors controlling the presence of hydrocarbon in

reservoir units.

2. integrate the results of outcrop studies with subsurface imaging and log data from a well in the

Eastern Benin Basin in order to determine the permeability profile of the basin.

3. investigate the frequency of occurrence of normal faults in the subsurface and the impact of

these faults on hydrocarbon fluid migration.

4. determine how the presence and distribution of hydrocarbon in the surface is affected by the

occurence of faults

5. determine if there is any correlation betweeen the existence of bitumen in the surface and

faulting activity or not.

1.3 Scope of work

The scope of this study involved the intergration of the results of detailed outcrop studies, 2D-seismic

interpretation and well log data to the study the structural controls on hydrocarbon migration which

will lead to a better understanding of the overall controls of hydrocarbon migration and entrapment in

environments with synsedimentary tectonics and clastic deposition of Eastern Benin Basin.

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1.4 Justification for the Research
Wells drilled in the shallow waters and onshore Eastern Benin Basin have generally not encountered

hydrocarbon in commercial quantities. However, there are vast deposits of tar sand (bitumen) in large

areas within the onshore section of the Eastern Benin Basin, estimated at about 15 billion barrels of

reserves (Fayose, 2007). Thus, this research is necessary to illuminate whether the existence of

bitumen on the surafce in the Eastern Benin Basin is due to the lack of good traps as evidenced in the

paucity of normal faults in the subsurface or not.

1.5 Location of the study area

The investigated areas falls within the Eastern Benin Basin(Fig. 1.1). The outcrop section is a road cut

section located about 3.3 kilometers south of Oso, along Iwopin expressway (Fig. 1.2), extending up

to 1 kilometer in length.

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Figure 1.2: Location map of the study area showing the outcrop and Avon-01 well (after Billman,
1976)

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1.6 Physiographic Settings of the Eastern Dahomey Basin

1.6.1 Topography

Jones and Hockey, 1964 classified the topographic elements of the Nigerian sector of the Eastern

Dahomey Basin into three which are; the northern upland, the Ewekoro Depression and the southern

upland (from top to bottom).

The northern upland is close to Abeokuta and the ground is high probably due to the rugged terrain

which is underlain by the basement rocks.

The Ewekoro Depression is low-lying and forms the lowland area of the Nigerian sector of the basin.

According to Slansky (1958), the Ewekoro Depression is wider at the Nigeria – Benin Republic

border and thins out eastward and finally diasppearing beyond Ijebu Ode. The limestone quarries of

Sagamu, Ewekoro and Ibeshe fall within the depression. Maximum elevation of 30 m has been

reported by Jones and Hockey (1964) but such elevation is attainable only at quarry sites. Most of the

areas within this Ewekoro depression are water logged and are seen as mud cracks during the dry

season.

The southern upland is low, gently sloping with an elevation slightly lower than that of the northern

upland. Sandstones make up a greater part of the lithology and occur as hills.

The topography is generally rugged with slight exception of the northern portion which is relatively

flat. Southwards, the topography is densely incised under the influence of increased sedimentary

cover. Heights above the sea level range generally between 100 feet and 1000 feet for most of the

areas (Nton, 2001).

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1.6.2 Climate and Vegetation

The Dahomey Basin lies within the Tropical Rain Forest area. It is covered by a variety of vegetation

types ranging from a brackish mangrove swamp and fresh water swamp flora in the coastal areas to

secondary bush and dense vegetation in the upland areas to the north. Average annual rainfal is about

75 mm while the mean daily temperature ranges from 25⁰C and 28⁰C. In view of its coastal location, a

good part of the basin is influenced by lithoral activities, which control transportation, dispersal and

the subsequent deposition of sediments.

The interplay of fluvial influences from which the sediments are derived and basinal conditions, which

control their distribution presumably gave rise to the present day linear physiography of the coastal

line.

It is believed that the Atlantic Ocean current and wave actions, with dominant souuthwestly direction,

have presented this linear shape of the shoreline through geological times. Striking the shoreline at a

45⁰ angle, the wave action generates longshore currents which transport sands and other sediment

eastwards away from rivermouths and shaping them into linear, sub-aqueous ridges running parallel

to coastline (Burke, 1972; Short and Stauble, 1967; Allan, 1965). A series of such beach ridges,

which exposed when there is drop in sea level are observed southwest Lagos, south of the Lekki

Lagoon (Dessauvagie, 1974)

South of the Okitipupa Town, such ridges described as generally absent, a situation that has persisted

in the last 7000 years or so. Here extensive mud beaches called the Mahin Mud Beach mark the

coastline. The muddy nature of Mahin Beach is caused by the combined effect of the Mahin Canyon

and long shore current which literally sweeps away huge volumes of sediments, brought down the

mouth of the Mahin River, at an estimated rate of 1 million cu.m/year (Burke, 1972). The shape of the

coastline around the mahin River which run almost orthogonal to dominant southwesternly direction

7
of the long shore current would result in accentuated scouring action of the river mouth when it hits

the coastline at an acute angle. A combination of this and probably the nature of the rocksn from

which sediments are derived could also be the reasons for the muddy coastline. The Dahomay Basin

must have developed under the inflow of two main tropical condition as evidenced from the plate

tectonics theory that the equatorial basins have remained under tropical conditionsb in the last 140

million years. These dry and wet or rainy season. The dry season commences from November to

March with a short harmattan cold dry wind spell during the month of December to January while the

rainy season cvommences ffrom the month of April to October with a short break of variable duration

between August and September. Current annual precipitation ranges between 1500 mm – 2500 mm

distributed in two peak periods; May/ June and September/ October with a seasonal temperature

averaging between 21.3⁰C and 31⁰C (Nton, 2001).

During the dry season, cold and hazxy conditions usually prevail especially towards the end of the

year while at other times, dusty and hot conditions are experienced. The pronounced effects of

alteration of the wet and dry seasons results in the fluctuation of the water table (Nton, 2001)

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Review of previous work in Eastern Dahomey Basin
Various workers have studied the various sediments of the Eastern Dahomey Basin and came forward

with the documentations concerning its age, lithology, structure, geochemistry/minerology,

stratigraphy, hydrocarbon potential, etc by employing different methods. However, few notable ones

are discussed bellow.

2.1.1 Biostratigraphy and paleo-depositional environments

Jones and Hockey (1964) described in detail the Ewekoro Formation by studying the geological

survey borehole 1582 and 1583 at Akinside (16 km, SSW of Ewekoro). They mentioned the

occurrence of Togocyamus seefriedi oppenhiem and listed 11 foraminifera and 24 ostracods identified

in the Ewekoro quarry and assigned the age of Lower Paleocene to the formation. Ogbe (1972) studied

the micropaleontology of strata exposed in the Ewekoro quarry. He recorded a diverse foraminifera

fauna containing over 40 species from the limestone and erected the microfacies unit.

Jan du Chene et. al. (1978) recovered some planktonic foraminifera as well as nanofossils from the

Ewekoro quarry and Itori-3 well respectively and concluded that the stratigraphic position of the top

part of the Ewekoro Formation and the Akinbo Formation correspond to the base of the Upper

Paleocene first defined by Hottinger and Schuab (1960) and placed in the upper part of the Paleocene.

On the basis of the planktonic zonation as proposed by Caro et al. (1975), they believed that the two

formation belong to the Paleocene.

From microflora analysis, Salami (1987) reported that the basal part of the Araromi Shale (which is

considered a subsurface equivalent of the Abeokuta Formation) indicated an Upper Maastrichtian age
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while the upper parts are of Paleocene to Eocene age. Using recovered pollen, spores and

dinoflagellate cycts, he inferred a continental environment of deposition for outcrops samples of the

upper Abeokuta Group, while the overlying Araromi Shales indicated brackish water or marginal

marine environments of deposition. The prepondence of dinoflagellate cysts and abundant wood

particles and fungal spores concurred with this proposed depositional environment.

Adegoke (1992) had reported a Maastrichtian to Paleocene age for the Cretaceous strata around Ifon-

Sabongida from which the studied samples were collected.

Okosun (1998) reviewed the early strata using micropaleontology. He concluded that the Tertiary

sediments of the south western Nigeria are composed of Araromi, Ewekoro, Imo shale, and Oshosun

Formations with ages of Early Paleocene and Late Paleocene, Late Paleocene to Early Paleocene to

Middle Eocene ages respectively.

Alves et al. (2005) worked on the palynofacies and nannofossils from cored well section of the

Araromi Formation, onshore southern Nigeria and reported that the palynofacies was dominated by

palynomorphs mainly dinoflagellates and amorphous organic matter of algae origin which indicates

open marine settings. From the palynofacies distribution patterns, they inferred depositional

environments which ranged from a very proximal oxic shelf to a distal dysoxic-anoxic deep-water

environment. The calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy indicated a Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian)

to Early Eocene age. They further noted variable nannofossil abundance, diversity and preservation

throughout the section they studied.

Bankole et al. (2006) used the occurrence of diagnostic dinoflagellate cysts to confirm the Late

Paleocene – Eocene age for the newly exposed section of the Oshosun Formation in the Sagamu

quarry, Dahomey Basin, South-Western Nigeria. They recorded abundant occurrences of diagnostic

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dinoflagellate genera such as Apectodinium, Kallospaeridium (K. brevibarbatum, K. capulatum, K.

yorubaense), Ifecysta, Senegalinium (S. orei) and Hafniasphaeridium (H. septata). They further

inferred marginal marine depositional environments based on these dinocysts, sporadic occurrences of

pollen and spores, and the fresh water algae; Derbaya glyptosperma.

Boboye, O.A. and Akinmosin, A. (2018) used geochemical and palynological evidences to study the

paleoclimate of Quarternary coastal sediments of southwestern Nigeria. The abundant occurrence of

Zonocostites ramonae, Laevigatosporites sp., Acrostichum aureum and some few long ranging

forms. These they proposed showed that the vegetation had developed under a humid climate and the

sediments were deposited during cooler and wetter conditions. The organic carbon-nitrogen ratios

(C/N/) indicate that the sediments were from aquatic sources, protein-rich and cellulose-poor. Wetter

climatic periods resulted in enhance algae productivity as a consequence of wash-in of soil nutrients,

and these periods are recorded as increased rate of organic carbon mass accumulation. The presence

and abundance of Zonocostites ramonae, Canthiumidites vanraadshoovei, Sapotaceoidaepollenites

sp. and Pachydermites diederixi forms indicate an age range of Pleistocene. Also, the dominance of

the Zonocostite ramonae depicts a mangrove swamp environment which was the most prevalent

environment of the Lagos logoon environ in the Pleistocene.

Ola-Buraimo et al. (2012) carried out the biostartigraphy of the Arimogija – Okeluse Shale sequence

through the use of palynological tool to determine the stratigraphic age and paleoenvironment of

deposition of the sequence. Early Maastrichtian age is suggested for Arimogija – Okeluse Shale based

on the fact that it lacks features such as acme occurrence of Longapertite marginatus and appearance

of Spinizonocolpites baculatus which define Middle and Late Maastrichtian ages respectively. The

paleoenvironment of deposition of the Arimogija – Okeluse Shale is marginal marine characterized by

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co-occurrence of dinoflagellate cysts such as Andalusiellasp (Peridinacean form), microforaminiferal

wall lining; agae – Botryococcus braunii and Pediasprum sp.

Adeigbe at al. (2013) identified three main palynozones in the offshore Emi-1 well Dahomey Basin,

southwestern Nigeria, these include; Magnastriatites howardii/P680 zone characterized by

quantitative base occurrence of Pachydermites diederixi and co-occurrence of Borteria sp.,

Magnastritites howardii and Racemonocolpites hians, dated Early Miocene; Crassoretitriletes

vanraadshooveni/P700 zone 2 characterized by assemblage of Crassoretitriletes vanraadshooveni,

Belskipollis elegans, Verrutricolporites rotundiporus, and Psilatricolporites crassus, dated Middle

Miocene, and Echitricolporites spinosus/P820 and Younger zone 3, characterized by co-occurrence of

Multiareolites formosus, Anthocerus sp. and Nymphae lotus, dated Late Miocene age. Their

paleoenvironmental deductions were based on the relative abundance of mangrove pollen to grass

pollen, presence of environmentally diagnostic dinoflagellates and incursion of freshwater algae into

the setting.

2.1.2 Sedimentology, Geochemistry and Hydrocarbon systems

Elueze and Nton (2004) indicated that the organic richness of the Araromi and Akinbo Formations is
adequate since the average values for the total organic carbon lie between 0.53 and 1.29 weight %.
According to them, the organic matter is mainly land derived types III and IV, which suggests gas
proneness. However, the sediments have shown to be thermally immature, probably due to insufficient
cooking time, except for possible deeper buried mature parts of the stratigraphic units, especially in
the deep offshore within the Araromi and Ewekoro Formation (Ekweozor and Nwachukwu, 1989;
Ekwueozor, 1990; Mosunmolu, 1991).

Nton et al. (2009) conducted geochemical studies of the Maastrichtian – Eocene sediments from
subsurface in the Eastern Dahomey Basin, southwestern Nigeria and found out that the total organic
carbon (TOC) of the samples ranghes from low to adequate, particularly within the dark shaly interval

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of Araromi and Afowo Formations in Aje-1 well. They concluded that the sediments of the eastern
Dahomey Basin are terrestrial organic matter, immature to slightly mature, with prospect to generate
gas rather than oil at appropriate maturity.

Akinmosin et al. (2011) found that the oil sands contained minerals which had been precipitated and
occurred as pore filling cement; these minerals included sheet kaolinite, vermiform kaolinite, k-
feldspar, pyrite crystals, and corrosion quartz and corrosion feldspar. The SEM images also showed 2-
4 µm micro pores and 2-5µm fractures. Their study showed that the clay minerals contained in the
Afowo Formation's reservoir rocks were mainly kaolinite which was not expected to have any
negative effects on reservoir quality, especially during enhanced oil recovery operations.

Field studies and geochemical composition of shallow bore holes were conducted to characterize
lithologic units of coastal plain clastic deposits of Eastern Dahomey Basin by Fakolade and Obasi
(2012). Based on different parameters, four lithofacies and subfacies were recognized as follows:
Sandstone, Siltstone, Mudstone and Clay facies. Geochemical studies revealed that Sio2 has high
content [80%] and chemical maturity index [CMI] of 12.5% for both sandstone and siltstone facies.
The mineralogical analysis revealed an average of 95.8% of quartz, 2.64% of feldspar and 1.5% of
rock fragments an indication that the sandstone and siltstone facies are of quartz arenite deposited in
fluvial environment.

Adeyemi et al. (2013) employed geophysical and sedimentological methods in characterization of tar
sand-rich area in South-western Nigeria. Correlations of geoelectric sections with borehole litho-logs
in their study revealed three layers from top to bottom of lateritic soil/clay, shale and sand/bituminous
sand. The depth to tar sand horizon ranged from 0.5 to 50.0 m. Groundwater level of about 13 to 15 m
measured in dug wells occur above tar sand horizon. They observed that the most abundant mineral in
the tar sand is quartz with subordinate amounts of microcline, muscovite and biotite. The medium
grained and moderately sorted nature of the tar sands coupled with low amount of fine particles,
indicate that the oil sand reservoir is of good quality. Open cast mining can be employed but
precaution must be taken to prevent blowout that may be induced by the overlying water bearing
horizon. The fairly thick impervious clayey overburden will prevent pollution of groundwater by waste
likely to be associated with tar sand exploitation.

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Fadiya (2015) carried out particle size analysis of some sidewall cores from ku-1 well, offshore Benin
Basin, Nigeria. He oberved that four (4) of the studied samples were medium to fine-grained, poorly
to moderately sorted and moderately consolidated while the remaining four (4) were predominantly
fine to very fine-grained, moderately to well sorted and moderately consolidated. The silt/clay sized
fractions were also substantial, averaging about 30 wt% of the studied core samples. The obtained
average grain size for each core provided an invaluable data for gravel packing operation and screen
size selection for oil production within the reservoir from which these cores were obtained.

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2.2 Regional Geology and Tectonics
The Precambrian domain of Nigeria accommodates important Phanerozoic deposition sites. Among

the later is the Benin Basin (otherwise know as Dahomey Basin, Dahomey Embayment by different

authors). Benin Basin extends from the Ghana-Ivory/Coast border through Togo and Benin Republic

to the western part of Nigeria (Figure 2.1). The basin was formed due to the opening of the South

Atlantic probably during the Neocomian (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). The basin is underlain by

basement rocks which are tilted south wards towards the Atlantic and are believed to be faulted into

series of horsts and grabens (Coker and Ejadawe, 1985). The Nigerian section of the basin is often

referred to as the Esatern Dahomey/Benin Basin.

The basin thickens towards its main axis in the Republic of Benin and dips down towards the

Atlantic. Sediments were eroded from the elevated areas deposited in the grabens in which the most

complete stratigraphic sections are preserved. However, the sedimentry succession dips only gently to

the south or southwest at about 1 degree or less, suggesting that there was very little post-depositional

tectonics in the basin (Fig. 2.2; Fayose and Ojoh, 1987).

Surface evidence of faulting in the basin is rare. Only one possible normal fault, with a throw of about

300 ft near Abeokuta, has been documented (Jones and Hockey, 1964). The lack of surface evidence

of faultiong could be due to the recent depositon of the Coastal Plains Sands, which post-dates the

movement leading to the faulting. The scarcity of faulting may also be due to the nearmess of the

onshore outcrops to the edge of the basn, where faulting is expected to be least developed.

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Figure. 2.1. Outcrop Geology of the Eastern Dahomey Basin(After Agagu, 1985)

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Figure 2.2. East-West Geological Section showing the Benin Basin and upper part of the Niger Delta,
with an inset map of souther Nigeria (After Fayose and Ojoh, 1987)

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There is a vast deposit of bitumen in the Eastern Benin Basin. However, surface indications of

bitumen in the area are almost entirely restricted to the relatively regionally elevated Okitipupa Ridge

area, which is considered to be the eastern limit of the Eastern Benin Basin. The sediments thicken

east of this area into the Niger Delta Basin. In the middle of this area, the basement outcrops as close

as about 35kilometers from the coast and this is where the axis of the ridge is probably located. This is

also the area where the sedimentary cover is thinnest (Fayose and Ojoh, 1987).

2.2.1 Stratigraphy of Eastern Benin Basin

The stratigraphy of Dahomey Basin has been reviewed by various authors; Jones and Hockey (1964),

Omatsola and Adegoke (1981), Coker et al. (1983), Agagu (1985), Enu (1990), Nton (2001).

However, Billman (1992) divided the entire stratigraphy into three chronostratigraphic units which

are:

1. Pre-lower Cretaceous folded sediments,

2. Cretaceous sediments

3. Tertiary sediments.

The basin’s sedimentary sequences of the basin have been divided into various groups and formations

by various authors. The generally recognised lithostratigraphic units of the Eastern Dahomey Basin

are; Abeokuta Group (comprising Ise, Afowo and Araromi Formations), Ewekoro Formation, Akinbo

Formation, Oshosun Formation, Ilaro Formation, and the Coastal Plain Sand/Alluvium (Table 2.1 and

Figure 2.3).

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Table 2.1: The stratigraphic units recognized in the Eastern Dahomey Basin as compiled by Various
Authors (Ikhane et al., 2012)

19
Figure 2.3: Lithostratigraphic section of Dahomey Basin (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981)

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2.2.1.1 Abeokuta Group
This is the oldest group of sediment in the basin, which is lying non-conformably on the basement

(Jones and Hockey, 1964) and it is the thickest group within the basin, with an average thickness of

200 m (Fayose, 1970). The formation width covers the whole of South-western Nigeria. It is

subdivided into three formal formations based on lithologic homogeneity and similarity of origin.

They include the Ise Formation (oldest), Afowo Formation and the Araromi Formation which is the

youngest (Adegoke, 1981). The first two correspond to the unnamed older folded sediments and the

unnamed Albian Sands respectively, while the Araromi Formation was considered equivalent to the

Nkporo Shale. The formation ranges in age from Neocomian to Maastrichiam (Omatsola and

Adegoke, 1981).

The Ise Formation

Ise Formation represents the oldest formation within the Abeokuta group. It unconformably overlies

the Precambrian Basement Complex of southwestern Nigeria, consisting of conglomerate at the base,

gritty to medium grained loose sand, capped by kaolinite clay (Agagu, 1985; Omatsola and

Adegoke, 1981). The conglomerates are imbricated and at some where ferruginous (Nton and Elueze,

2005). The Age ranges from Neocomian to Albian.

The Afowo Formation

This overlies the Ise Formation, and composed of coarse to medium grained sandstone with variable

but thick interbedded shale, siltstone and claystone. Afowo Formation indicates the commencement of

deposition in a transitional environment after the entire basal and continental Ise Formation. The

sandy facies are bituminous in both surface and subsurface section while shales are organic-rich, and

increases progressively from the lower part to the other part (Enu, 1990). The lower part of the

formation is transitional with mixed brackish to marginal horizons alternating with well sorted, clean,

sub rounded loose fluvial sands. Texturally, The sandstone in Afowo is similar to Ise Sandstone, but it

21
is moderately sorted. Using palynological assemblage, a Turonian age is assigned to the lower part of

this formation, while the upper part ranges into Maastrichtian (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981).

Araromi Formation
This is the youngest Cretaceous Formation (in the Abeokuta Group), which conformably overlies the

Afowo Formation. It is composed of fine-medium grained sandstone at the base, overlain by shales,

silt-stone with interbedded limestones, marl and lignite bands in sequence (Okosun, 1998). The shales

are dark to black in colour and they contain abundant planktonic and benthic foraminifera, ostracods,

and palynomorphs (such as pollens and spores). The Type section is found in Okitipupa which is tar-

bearing. The Age ranges from Maastrichtian to Paleocene age based on faunal content (Omatsola and

Adegoke, 1981; Agagu, 1985).

2.2.1.2 Ewekoro Formation

This Formation overlies the Araromi Formation of the Abeokuta Group. It is an extensive limestone

body, which is described to be a shally limestone unit of about 12.5 m thick which tends to be sandy

(Adegoke, 1977). The lithological composition of the unit is sandy biomicrite, shelly biomicrite, algal

biosparite and red phosphaticbiomicrite. The sandy biomicrosparite is light to brownish grey. The

limestone body is traceable over a distance of about 320 km from Ghana in the west, towards the

eastern margin of the Dahomey Basin in Nigeria (Jones and Hockey, 1964). It is believed that this

formation is associated with shallow marine environment based on abundance of coralline algae

gastropods, polypods, echinoid fragment and other skeletal debris (Nton, 2001; Reyment, 1965). A

Paleocene age is assigned to this formation based on the recovered palynomorph assemblages

(Adebiyi, 2015). Also, the radioative age of glauconite overlying the limestone and those within the

shale indicate a 54 ± 2.7 Ma age, an age not younger than Paleocene to Eocene (Adegoke et al.,

1970).

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2.2.1.3 Akinbo Formation
The Akinbo Formation lays uncomformably on the Ewekoro Formation and it is made up of shales,

clayey sequence (Ogbe, 1972). The base of the formation is defined by the presence of some

glauconitic bands with lenses of limestones and the top of the formation is pure grey, gritty sand with

little clay. The claystone are concretionary in outcrop with gentle dip of <50 SW (Nton, 2001) and are

predominantly kaolinite. The type locality is at Ewekoro quarry. The shales are grey, fissile, thick

greenish intercalation of glauconite, limestone and marl bands. The age of the formation is Late

Paleocene to Early Eocene (Bankole et al., 2005).

2.2.1.4 Oshosun Formation

Above the Akinbo Formation lies the Oshosun Formation which consists of greenish-grey or beige

clay and shale with interbeds of sandstones. The shale is thickly laminated and glauconitic. This

formation is phosphate-bearing (Jones and Hockey, 1964). The basal beds consists of facies of

sandstone, mudstones, claystones and shale (Okosun 1988) The fossil assemblage in this formation

consists of molluscs, corals, pelagic and planktonic foraminifera (Adeigbe et al., 2013). A Lower

Eocene to Middle Eocene age is given to this formation base on the palynological assemblage

(Adebiyi, 2015). Fishes and sea snakes in the shale specify that the formation was deposited in a

marine environment.

2.2.1.5 Ilaro Formation

The Ilaro Formation is above the Oshosun Formation. It consists of a massive, yellowish, and poorly

consolidated cross-bedded sandstone. The sequence is made up of coarse sandy estuarine, deltaic and

continental beds (Kogbe, 1989) which shows a rapid lateral facies changes. The base of the formation

is mineralogically dominated by Sub -rounded to rounded pure quartz grains. This Texture indicates a

beach or shoreline and nearshore environment ferruginous and limestone bands which shows a period

of non- deposition (Hiatus),occurring as a cap on the formation. The formation is sparsely fossiliferous

23
but the occurrences of some benthic foraminifera, pollens and spores have been described. This

formation was assigned an Eocene to Oligocene age.

2.2.1.6 Coastal Plain sands / Benin Formation

The youngest stratigraphic sequence in the Eastern Dahomey Basin is the Benin Formation. It is also

known as the coastal plain sands (Jones and Hockey, 1964). It overlies the Ilaro Formation and

consists of poorly, pebbly sorted sands with lenses of clays and rare thin lignite (Reyment, 1965). The

sands are in parts cross-bedded and show transitional to continental distinctiveness. The coastal plain

sand does not contain fossils but consist of plant remains (Fauna) which have been use to determine

the age of the formation to be Oligocene to Recent.

The alluvium is the modern sediments that are deposited along the main river valley that emptied their

contents into lagoon

2.2.2 Structural pattern and Tectonic settings of Eastern Dahomey

Basin
The basin is bounded on the west by faults and other tectonic structures associated with the landward

depresion of the Romanche fracture zone. It’s eastern limit is marked by the Benin Hinge Line, a

marjor fault structure marking the western limit of the Niger Delta Basin and to the west of the Banin

Hinge Line is the Okitipupa Ridge (Adegoke, 1969).

Jones and Hockey (1964), Billman (1976) and Agagu (1985) among several workers who have

presented models for the evolution of the basin subscribed to the notion that the miogeosynclinal

wedge of sediment in this basin developed through Early to Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times,

which occurred as the African plate separated and the continental margin formed. Burke (1978)

described it as that whose architecture is rift dominated because their boundaries are roughly parallel

to the early transformation of the Gulf of Geuinea.

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The structural evolution of the Eastern Benin Basin has been classified into four stages (Elvsborg and

Dalode, 1985; Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). These are the Pre-Rift Arch; the Intracratonic Rift

Valley; the Intermediate proto-Oceanic; and the Continental Margin Drift stages.

The Pre-Rift Arch Stage (Late Jurassic to Early Neocomian) involved crusal uplift followed by erosion

of the Precambrian Basement and possible Paleozoic intracontinental basin deposits. There was also

some incipient rifting that took place in the Neocomian

Rifting became influential durng the Intracratonic Rift stage (Early Cretaceous?), resulting in a series

of grabens and half-grabens. The major structures resulting from this episode generally strike east-

west while dips are associated with rotation, quick subsidence and deposition of sediments. These 2

stages correspond to the 1st stage described by Omatsola and Adegoke

The Intermediate proto-oceanic stage (Cenomanian-Santonian) was influenced by transform

movemenmts, although no evidence of significant strike-slip activity has been encountered in the

Benin Basin itself, unlike in the Benue Trough to the east. However, associated with this stage is the

Senonian uncomformity.

The continental Margin Drift stage (Santonian to Recent) is characterized by passive margin-type

deformation, including normal faulting, subsidence and oceanward rotation (Fig. 2.4). During the

Tertiary, sediment transport from the north continued and rapid sedimentation initiated growth faults,

mostly listric faults soling out within or above the Araromi Shale.

25
Figure 2.4. Tectonic Model for the Evolution of Dahomey Basin (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981)

26
Surface evidence of faulting in the basin is rare. Only one possible normal fault, with a throw of about

300 ft near Abeokuta, has been documented (Jones and Hockey, 1964). The lack of surface evidence

of faulting could be due to the recent deposition of the Coastal Plains Sands, which post-dates the

movement leading to the faulting. It is this possible lack of faulting and subsequent lack of trapping

that may be responsible for the migration of the liquid hydrocarbon to the surface as seen in the

bitumen deposits.

27
2.3 Petroleum Occurrences in Benin Basin
Occurrences of oil and gas have been found mainly in Cretaceous reservoirs offshore and as oil seeps

and tar sands onshore in the Benin Basin. Hydrocarbons in the Upper Albian reservoirs in the Aje

Field offshore Benin Basin may have been sourced from Devonian Shales, while oil seeps in the

outcrops of the Upper Cretaceous are interpreted to have been sourced from Neocomian Lacustrine

strata (Brownfield and Charpentier, 2006).

According to Brownfield and Charpentier (2006), hydrocarbon generation in the Benin Basin has been

mainly from the offshore parts of the basin, probably in deepwater areas where the source rocks have

reached a temperature of at least 100 degrees centigrade and a Vitrinite Reflectance of 0.6%,

equivalent of subjecting the rocks to about 2,700 m of overburden. Hydrocarbon generation started in

the late Miocene and continues to the present.

In the Gulf of Guinea Province, proven hydrocarbon traps include syn-transform fault-block traps,

syn- and post-trasnform anticlinal traps, erosional channel-fill traps and ponded turbidite traps. The

only reported proven trapping mechanism in the Benin Basin is the erosional channel-fill traps in the

post-transform sections, while there are seismic indications of anticlinal traps in the Syn-transform

sections. Seismic data indicate further that ponded turbidite traps could exist in the post-transform

sections of the Benin Basin, where stratigraphic trapping and updip seals are the critical factors in

defining potential targets (Brownfield and Charpentier, 2006).

28
2.4 Analytic models and research questions/hypotheses
Migration is the movement of hydrocarbons from source rock to reservoir rock and then into oil or gas

pools within reservoir rocks. At the time of generation, hydrocarbons are dispersed within the

sediments as discrete droplets. In order to accumulate as pools, these droplets must migrate from the

source rock into a reservoir rock where there is sufficient porosity to host them.

Migration is principally movement along permeability paths (due to capillarity), fluid potential

gradients (due to displacement pressure) and even temperature gradients. Migration may be over

short distances like from source to reservoir rock or over long distances (up to hundreds of

kilometers). Petroleum movement under its own local pressure from strata into well bores shows that

petroleum migrates within reservoir rocks. Hydrocarbon migration structural models have been

considered for 2 structural domains: 1.) Where faulting is absent and 2.) Where faulting is present.

2.5 Primary Hydrocarbon Migration (Source Rock to Reservoir)

The movement of hydrocarbons from source rocks where they are generated into reservoir rocks is

called primary migration. Several different mechanisms are responsible for primary migration -

Source rocks are not all alike: the pressure and temperature conditions of generation, the availability

of water, of solubilizers, of CO2, of non associated gas, all are variable in both time and space.

In order to accumulate within a porous rock medium hydrocarbons have to acquire the capacity for

continuous phase flow. This in turn requires that some critical hydrocarbon saturation be exceeded. It

has been estimated that gas begins to flow when saturation is of the order of 8 pore-volume percent

and oil flows at about 22 pore-volume percent. The required pore volume is relatively easily achieved

if much of the water content is structured close to the clay surfaces. The hydrocarbons then

29
accumulate in the position of least energy, as far as possible from the structured water, in the centers

of pores.

2.5.1 Capillarity
At the boundary between the source sediment and a potential reservoir rock, oil can cross into the

latter only by acquiring enough energy to overcome the resistance caused by the circumstances that the

reservoir rock is almost certain to be water-wet. The oil can enter the reservoir only be displacing

water.

Capillarity is the tendency of wetting liquids to ascend minute openings, less than 0.5 mm in

diameter, through the agency of a molecular surface force acting against the force of gravity. Non-

wetting liquids, like mercury “climb downwards” forming a reversed meniscus. If only one fluid is

present, the height of the capillary rise depends on the size of the opening the material of the medium

and the surface tension of the fluid. If more than one fluid is present, the terms wetting and non-

wetting become relative. The area of contact between two contiguous fluids is kept to a minimum by

the interfacial tension between them.

2.5.2 Displacement Pressure

To move from its source-rock pore space into reservoir-rock pore space, the oil’s capillary pressure

must overcome the displacement pressure of the latter, which is filled with water. The displacement

pressure, Pd, is defined as the smallest capillary pressure required to force hydrocarbons into the

largest interconnected pores of a preferentially water-wet rock.

For cylindrical pores, the value of the displacement pressure is given by:

Pd = 2 γ cos θ

30
 R
2.6 Secondary Hydrocarbon Migration (Movement within reservoir)
A reservoir rock differs from a compacted source rock in possessing both much higher porosity and

much higher permeability. Once within a reservoir rock, oil and gas migrate in search of lower energy

levels -secondary migration ; traps impede the migration and restrain the hydrocarbons because they

represent purely local minimum values of the energy potential. The dominant parameter is the

reservoir pressure; the migration is in the direction of decreasing hydrostatic pressure.

The availability of much larger pore spaces and much more continuous permeability in the reservoir

rock than in the source rock permit the rapid achievement of a single continuous-phase fluid flow

normally taking place through water-saturated, permeable strata. The physical requirements for

secondary migration are therefore three: an adequate supply of hydrocarbons to sustain it; adequately

continuous permeable pathways to facilitate it and the necessary pressure gradient to impel it. Given

these three requirements the only limit imposed on the distance of migration is that consequent upon

the size of the basin. In a large basin of long tectonic stability, migration from the basin towards the

foreland may be essentially unimpeded for scores of hundreds of kilometers.

The migration pathways have traditionally been called carrier beds, and envisaged as sandstone

formations of high horizontal permeability. They are better thought of as carrier systems, because in

addition to permeable stratigraphic horizons they may be provided by unconformities, fault or fracture

systems, old weathered zones, or penetrative diapirs. Furthermore, though secondary migration is

commonly a phenomenon taking place along the bedding direction, it may perfectly well take place

across it, especially in young, orogenic basins containing numerous stacked, weakly consolidated

sandstone members (like those of California. Indonesia or the southern Caspian). A vital consequence

31
is that oil may now be pooled scores of kilometers laterally away from its area of generation and

hundreds or thousands of meter above its horizon of generation.

2.6.1 Secondary migration by water drive

Buoyancy, reflecting the distance in densities of hydrocarbons and water, is the main mechanism of

secondary migration under hydrostatic conditions especially in coarse sands in which the pressure

readily equalizes to hydrostatic. All crude oil float on salt water, and nearly all on fresh water. Under

hydrostatic conditions, therefore, oil (or gas) tries to migrate vertically upwards through the heavier

water, displacing an equivalent volume of the water as it does so. The oil is subject to a buoyant force

(Pb) represented by a vector directed vertically upwards and equal to the difference between the weight

of a unit volume of the oil and that of a unit volume of a water that it displaced. In order words,

buoyancy is inversely proportional to density and Pb increases with a rise in the API gravity of the oil.

In simple quantitative terms, the buoyant force is the difference in pressure between the water phase

and the hydrocarbon phase at any point in the fluid column.

Pb = Pw - Po

For a continuous hydrocarbon column, Pb increases vertically upwards through it, at the free level (the

level at which water would stand in an open hole). Pb =0 : at the oil/water interface, it is equal to the

displacement pressure of the reservoir. All underground water us subject to “head” pressure, which

determines the height to which it will rise in a borehole.

Once in a reservoir rock, oil and gas pass upwards through it under the control of buoyant force until

they reach its top, which is simply the level above which a stratum (the local seal or roof rock) has

sufficiently lower permeability for its displacement pressure to prevent future rise. The oil and/ or gas

then migrate along a thin zone – possibly only the upper few centimeters – at the top of the reservoir
32
bed in the direction of the hydraulic pressure gradient. All the rest of the reservoir rock remains water-

saturated.

2.6.2 Secondary migration by gas flushing

Where two or more fluids of different densities try to occupy the same trap, the heaviest fluid is

displaced because the lighter ones move above it and force it below the spill point. Unless a

downward hydrodynamic gradient is operative, the three fluids migrate up the regional dip. Gas goes

to the top of the first trap encountered along the migration route, depressing the oil column and the

water below it and causing them to spill out of the bottom of the trap, via the spill point, to a higher

trap, updip. Some solution gas is there released from the oil, because of the reduced pressure at the

higher elevation; it forms secondary gas caps in the traps up-dip from those containing the primary

gas columns. Residual oil may be forced to occupy a synclinal trap if a late accession of gas occupies

the main trap above it. The regionally highest anticline is very likely to end up occupied by the

heaviest of the fluids, salt water. The ultimate outcome is a series of traps distributed across the

regional dip, with the lowest containing gas and the highest the heaviest oil or water (Figure 2.5).

33
Figure 2.5. Different entrapment of Hydrocarbon migration through successive, interconnected traps.
Stages (d) and (e) represent the same stage in migration but under different structural relations

34
2.7 Faulting and Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Pratsch (1996) discussed models for hydrocarbon migration in the US Gulf Coast, which may be used

as an analogue to the Benin Basin. According to him, oil and gas migration processes include

hydrocarbon buoyancy in a static or mobile water environment (major contributor), and hydrocarbon

solution in water (minor contributor). The energy required for hydrocarbon migration is obtained from

hydrocarbon buoyancy itself (major contributor), from clay re-crystallization, water heat-expansion

(minor contributor), and others. Hydrocarbons migrate mainly perpendicular to existing subsurface

isobars or parallel to subsurface pressure gradients. Isobars in turn are generally parallel to regional

structure contours; minor deviation from this rule will occur in areas of variable hydrodynamic

pressure or of overpressured cells.He went on to cite two extreme cases of oil and gas migration:

a) Where no major listric (growth) fault systems occur, vertical oil and gas migration will be

dominant. Oil and gas migrate vertically; a) from primary fields or b) directly from generating source

beds toward the surface. Hydrocarbons are trapped wherever local trapping conditions existed.

b) Where major listric (growth faults) systems occur, a major lateral migration component is

introduced. Under such circumstances, oil and gas migrate vertically and laterally from the generating

depocenter; they migrate first into primary traps at depth, from there into shallow traps when deep

traps leak or when the source beds continue to generate hydrocarbons. Required are vertical and

lateral migration pathways: Vertical pathways are furnished by salt diapirs and by regional fault

zones; lateral pathways are furnished by listric fault zones and by carrier beds following the geometry

of listric faults. Vertical migration pathways extend for more than 20,000-40,000 ft for oil and gas

generated from Jurassic and Cretaceous source beds. Lateral migration along listric faults has already

been determined for more than 15 miles (across at least five offshore blocks). Lateral migration

35
pathways include listric fault zones and carrier beds parallel to listric fault zones. Vertical oil and gas

migration was facilitated by salt diapirs and regional fault and fracture systems.

There has been no report of any studies to understand the role of faulting in the migration of

hydrocarbon to the surface in the Benin Basin. However, integrating the results of the outcrop studies

with the subsurface data will tremendously improve our understanding of reservoirs, faulting, trapping

and hydrocarbon migration in the Eastern Benin Basin.

36
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Material and Methods

3.1 Materials and Dataset
The materials and dataset used for this study include;

1. Outcrop samples
2. Well log data
3. 2D Seismic volume

3.2 Methods of Study

This research integrates the results of outcrop observations with 2D seismic and well log data. The

procedures adopted to achieve our objectives are listed below;

3.2.1 Oucrop Studies

A systematic field sampling method was used in this study. The outcrop section is located about 3.3

kilometers south of Oso, along the Iwopin expressway in Ogun state, Nigeria. It is part of a road cut

section that is almost 1 kilometer long, with exposures on both sides of the road. The outcrop section

syudied is about 20 feet thick (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). At the base of the section is an indurated,

medium to coarse-grained, non-bituminous sandstone unit. Samples 2A to 2E were taken in this unit.

Overlying this unit is a light grey bituminous shale about 3 feet thick. Above this is a dark,

consolidated, fine to coarse-grained sandstone rich in bitumen, about 2 feet thick. Samples 3A to 3E

were taken in this unit. Overlying this unit is a 6-foot thick, light brown, unconsolidated sandstone,

which is non-bituminous and medium to coarse-grained. Samples 5A to 5E were taken in this unit.

37
Figure 3.1. Field photograph showing the studied outcrop (Roadcut section)

Figure 3.2. Field photograph showing bitumen oozing out of one of the sandstone layers (Roadcut
section)

38
The beds dip to the southwest at about 2 degrees, sriking to the northeast. Samples were taken using

the auger methods. 5 samples were taken from each unit for the purpose of petrophysical and

biostratigraphic analysis, each sample taken about 200m apart, along the 1km length of the outcrop.

3.2.2 Petrophysical (Core) Analysis

Porosity and permeability values of the sandstone samples were determined in order to understand

their reservoir characteristics. Specific methods used for the determination of petrophysical properties

of the sediments are highlighted below;

3.2.2.1 Grain volume determination

The clean, dry, plug samples were individually placed in the matrix cup of a digital Helium Gas

Expansion Ultra Porosimeter. Helium at known pressure of about 200 psi from a reference cell of

known volume was allowed to expand into the matrix cup and into any available pore space. The

volume of expansion was recorded. Boyle’s Law was then applied to calculate the grain volume of the

plug sample

3.2.2.2 Grain Density Determination

This was done using the weight and the grain volume of each sample. Thus, the grain density of each

sample was calculated as follows;

Grain density (gm/cc) = true sample weight

true sample grain volume

3.2.2.3 Pore volume and Permeability to Air determination

After the grain volume measurements, the samples were individually loaded in a hydrostatic core

holder and sleeve pressure of 500 psi was applied. Helium was then injected into the sample’s pore

39
space. After stabilization the volume of gas injected was recorded and then Boyle’s Law was applied

to calculate the apparent pore volume since the measured volume include the volumes of the steel

screens. The true pore volume was obtain after deducting the steel screen pore volumes from the

measured pore volume.

Each plug sample still loading in the hydrostatic core holder (after pore volume measurement) was

then connected to an Ultra Permeameter at the same confining pressure of 500 psi. The stabilized flow

rate of dry nitrogen gas through the samples was measured for a set differential pressure and used in

conjuction with the Darcy’s Law. Thus;

Ka = (2000*P a * ma * q * L) / ((P12 – P22) * A)

Where;

Ka = Air permeability (mD)

Pa = Atmospheric pressure (atmos)

ma = Nitrogen gas viscosity (cP)

q = Gas Flow rate (cc/sec)

L = Sample length (cm)

P1 = Upstream pressure (atma)

P2 = Downstream pressure (atma)

A = Cross-sectional sample area (cm2)

At the end of pore volume and permeability measurement at 500 psi, the net confining stress was
increased to 1000 psi and the process above was repeated up to the maximum net confining stress to
5000 psi.
40
The air permeability values thus generated were then converted to liquid permeability using the

following formular from Al-Sudani, J. A. et al (2014)

Where Ka and Kl are the air and liquid permeabilites respectively in millidarcy, while A, B and C are

constants to fit the correlation with actual data measurements and φ is the core porosity.

3.2.3 Biostratigraphic Analysis

Five samples were selected from each of the six lithologically different units observed in the outcrop

samples. They were subjected to standared palynological preparation techniques. 15 grams of samples

were soaked overnight in HF after the carbonates had been removed through the introduction of HCI.

The silicofluorides were removed and heavy liquid separation with ZnCl2 (2.0 specific gravity) was

carried out on the samples. The acidified solution was then washed off while the separatant was

decanted and slightly oxidized for the recovery of palynomorphs. The prepared samples were mounted

on glass slide for microscopic interpretation.

3.2.4 2D Seismic Stratigraphy

2D Seismic data from offshore Eastern Benin Basin, about twenty kilometers from the outcrop

location, was chosen for the exercise. Two of these lines, one dip, passed through well Avon-01 (Fig.

3.3). Two of the lines were orinted approximately north-south and one was oriented approximately

east-west. The first step was to examine each seismic section for the character of events present. The

lines were then intepreted for the presence of faults and events representing surfaces of discontinuity

or unconformities, as well as stratigraphic sequences.

41
Figure 3.3: Seismic basemap of the area, showing the location of the Avon-01 well, the 3 interpreted
lines and the outcrop location.

42
3.2.5 Surface to Subsurface Tie

A stratigraphic section was constructed for the outcrop data including lithology, thickness of units and

age as interpreted from Biostratigraphy. The Avon-01 well logs were interpreted for lithology and age.

The well was then converted from depth to time using a checkshot survey taken in the well, after

which the well logs were posted onto the seismic line passing through the well. The stratigraphic

sequences and boundaries encountered in the well were then mapped onto the sesimic lines and traced

through the extent of the line. The stratigraphic sections from the seismic lines and the outcrop were

then tied together in a correlation panel.

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 Petrophysics
Table 4.1 shows the permeability, porosity and grain density values measured for all the samples. The

result shows that, all the samples have high porosity values, ranging from 34% to 42% at the surface.

These porosity values range from 22% to 31.7% at net overburden pressure of 4000 psi. They also

have high (liquid) permeability values that range from 5530 mD to 27108 mD at the surface and 481

mD to 4599 mD at a net overburden pressure of 4000 psi. The bituminous, dark consolidated

sandstone seems to be most heterogeneous in terms of permeability. The bitumen-barren

unconsolidated sandstone appears to have two major permeability zones, while the bituminous

sandstone at the top seems to have a fairly homogeneous permeability profile.

44
Table 4.1 Porosity and Permeability values of the outcrop samples
Horizontal
Sampled Liquid Fractio Helium Fractio Grain
Sample Overburden Air
Height Permeability n of Porosit n of Density
Number Pressure Permeability
(feet) (mD) Original y (%) Original (gm/cc)
(mD)

500 17810 16181 1 33.7 1

1000 13970 12662 0.784 32.8 0.973
1500 11550 10442 0.649 31.9 0.947
2000 8350 7475 0.469 28.6 0.849
2A 3 2.64
2500 6650 5938 0.373 27.8 0.825
3000 5770 5132 0.324 26.6 0.789
3500 5070 4508 0.285 26.5 0.786
4000 3460 3047 0.194 23.8 0.706

500 8540 7729.5 1 32.3 1

1000 5020 4505.3 0.588 29.4 0.91
1500 3020 2675.9 0.354 25.5 0.789
2000 1910 1685.6 0.224 24.4 0.755
2B 2.5 2.65
2500 1280 1128.8 0.15 24.2 0.749
3000 920 808.6 0.108 23.3 0.721
3500 720 631.6 0.084 22.8 0.706
4000 550 480.9 0.064 22 0.681

500 21760 19873 1 35.7 1

1000 9930 8980 0.456 32 0.896
1500 6340 5719 0.291 31.1 0.871
2000 3910 3504 0.18 28.9 0.81
2C 3.5 2.69
2500 2850 2544 0.131 27.7 0.776
3000 2070 1840 0.095 26.5 0.742
3500 1650 1463 0.076 25.7 0.72
4000 1620 1431 0.074 24.6 0.689

500 12610 11540 1 36.5 1

1000 7700 7002 0.611 34 0.932
1500 5850 5299 0.464 32.6 0.893
2000 4170 3761 0.331 31.1 0.852
2D 3 2.67
2500 3020 2714 0.239 29.8 0.816
3000 2650 2377 0.21 29.2 0.8
3500 2200 1969 0.174 28.5 0.781
4000 1810 1616 0.144 27.8 0.762

45
 500 12570 11492 1 36.1 1
1000 8340 7579 0.663 33.8 0.936
1500 5940 5373 0.473 32.1 0.889
2000 4290 3865 0.341 30.7 0.85
2E 4 2.7
2500 3360 3017 0.267 29.6 0.82
3000 2590 2319 0.206 28.6 0.792
3500 2270 2030 0.181 28.2 0.781
4000 1690 1507 0.134 27.3 0.756

500 6090 5530.2 1 33.5 1

1000 3930 3546.0 0.645 31.2 0.931
1500 2830 2542.2 0.465 29.7 0.887
2000 2140 1914.6 0.351 28.4 0.848
3A 8 2.64
2500 1640 1462.5 0.269 27.4 0.818
3000 1290 1146.2 0.212 26.3 0.785
3500 1070 948.7 0.176 25.7 0.767
4000 870 769.8 0.143 25.1 0.749

500 6250 5704 1 35.4 1

1000 3600 3261 0.576 32.6 0.921
1500 2600 2343 0.416 30.8 0.87
2000 1840 1651 0.294 29.4 0.831
3B 9 2.64
2500 1420 1270 0.227 28.3 0.799
3000 1090 972 0.174 27.4 0.774
3500 890 791 0.142 26.4 0.746
4000 730 647 0.117 25.8 0.729

500 6150 5605 1 34.9 1

1000 3650 3307 0.593 32.7 0.937
1500 2600 2346 0.423 31.2 0.894
2000 1710 1536 0.278 29.6 0.848
3C 8.5 2.66
2500 1330 1191 0.216 28.8 0.825
3000 1020 911 0.166 27.8 0.797
3500 780 695 0.127 27.1 0.777
4000 660 586 0.107 26.3 0.754

500 10490 9607 1 36.8 1

1000 5810 5284 0.554 34.1 0.927
1500 3450 3116 0.329 31.5 0.856
3D 9.5 2.65
2000 2480 2231 0.236 30.2 0.821
2500 1770 1587 0.169 29.1 0.791
3000 1300 1161 0.124 27.9 0.758
46
 3500 1050 936 0.1 27.2 0.739
4000 790 702 0.075 26.4 0.717

500 10200 9331.8 1 36.4 1

1000 6300 5728.5 0.618 34 0.934
1500 4040 3653.5 0.396 32 0.879
2000 2770 2496.4 0.272 30.8 0.846
3E 10 2.65
2500 1970 1768.0 0.193 29.4 0.808
3000 1340 1197.7 0.131 28.1 0.772
3500 1060 945.0 0.104 27.3 0.75
4000 780 693.3 0.076 26.4 0.725

500 18330 16724 1 35.3 1

1000 15180 13828 0.828 34.7 0.983
1500 12660 11530 0.691 34.6 0.98
2000 10070 9157 0.549 34 0.963
5A 17 2.68
2500 8380 7606 0.457 33.3 0.943
3000 5660 5114 0.309 31.7 0.898
3500 4490 4045 0.245 30.7 0.87
4000 3440 3093 0.188 30 0.85

500 20420 18649 1 35.7 1

1000 16990 15493 0.829 35.1 0.983
1500 14270 12996 0.696 34.6 0.969
2000 12405 11289 0.605 34.3 0.961
5B 18 2.66
2500 9700 8811 0.473 33.6 0.941
3000 7700 6977 0.376 32.7 0.916
3500 6010 5430 0.293 31.7 0.888
4000 4600 4144 0.224 30.7 0.86

500 29220 27108 1 42.5 1

1000 20220 18526 0.692 37 0.871
1500 17480 15980 0.598 36.1 0.849
2000 13690 12484 0.469 35.1 0.826
5C 18 2.66
2500 10940 9958 0.374 34.4 0.809
3000 7650 6937 0.262 33 0.776
3500 6070 5491 0.208 32.1 0.755
4000 5090 4599 0.174 31.7 0.746

500 13100 12000 1 36.9 1

1000 10080 9204 0.769 35.6 0.965
5D 20 2.64
1500 8780 8004 0.67 35 0.949
2000 6770 6148 0.517 33.5 0.908
47
 2500 5430 4917 0.415 32.5 0.881
3000 4200 3797 0.321 31.9 0.864
3500 3240 2919 0.247 30.7 0.832
4000 2900 2607 0.227 29.9 0.81

500 16650 15144 1 34.1 1

1000 12320 11163 0.74 32.7 0.959
1500 9600 8669 0.577 31.5 0.924
2000 7340 6611 0.441 30.6 0.897
5E 19 2.65
2500 5870 5279 0.353 30.1 0.883
3000 4670 4190 0.28 29.3 0.859
3500 3980 3563 0.239 28.6 0.839
4000 3160 2823 0.19 27.9 0.818

48
4.2 Biostratigraphy
The palynostratigraphic analysis was carried out using the method of Salad, 1990. Samples 1 and 2

have abundance of Longapertites marginatus, Longapertites vanendieburgi and Dictyophyllidites

harissonii. This assemblage indicates an Early Paleocene age for samples 1 and 2 due mainly to the

occurrence of L. vanendieburgi.

Samples 3,4, 5 and 6 have higher proportions of Dictyophyllidites hanisii, than samples 1 and 2 with

Longapertites marginatus and Foreomonocolpites banichiensis. This association of palynomorphs

indicates a Maastrichtian age of sample 3,4,5 and 6.

4.3 Seismic Stratigraphy

Three 2D seismic sections were interpreted in the study. The seismic events are easily classified into

5 different types, representing different chronostratigraphic intervals. The intervals generally thicken

towards the south. Between each of these intervals are events with sharp discontinuities including

toplaps, offlaps and downlaps. In all the cases, the oldest section is the Basement, followed by the

Cretaceous and then the Quarternary sediments of the Miocene, Pliocene and younger. In Line A,

figure 4.1, The Cretaceous section is totally barren of faults, while the Moicene, Pliocene and younger

sediments are faulted generally beyond the shelf break in each case, but barren of faulting landward.

In Line B, Figure 4.2, there are only a few scattered normal faults in the sedimentary sequences

deposited above the Basement. In addition, these faults generally occur towards the southern part of

the section where the thicknesses of the seismic intervals are pronounced. The faults show very little

displacement, a maximum of 0.01 seconds in the vertical direction. Towards the southeastern parts of

the section, at least 2 generations of channels can be found. In Line C, figure 4.3, just like in Line A,

the Cretaceous is mainly barren of faults, with faulting mainly in the Basement and the Miocene.

49
Figure 4.1: Line A, Seismic section in a northwest – southeast direction offshore Benin Basin
(Ajakaiye, D.E. and Bally, A.W., 2002)

50
Figure 4.2: Line B, Seismic to well tie in a northwest – southeast section showing ages of the
stratigraphic units encountered in the Avon-01 well

51
Figure 4.3: Line C, Seismic section in a northwest – southeast direction offshore Benin Basin
(Ajakaiye, D.E. and Bally, A.W., 2002)

52
4.4 Lithofacies interpretation

A stratigraphic section was constructed for the outcrop data taking into acount the lithology, thickness

of units and age as interpreted from Biostratigraphy (Table 4.2). The studied outcrop ranges from Late

Cretaceous to Early Paleocene in age. The Avon-01 well logs were interpreted for lithology and age

(Table 4.3, Figure 4.2a and Figure 4.2b) based on the Gr signatures and biostratigraphic data. The age

of the penetrated sections of the Avon-01 well ranges from Cretaceous to Upper Miocene, with

varying lithology; from unconsolidated sandstone with little shale intercalations, through well sorted

consolidated sandstone, followed by grey and black shales with streaks of sandstones which is

saparated from well sorted sandstone with shale intercalations by the Intra-Miocene Unconformity, to

freshwater sandstone at the top.

53
Table 4.2. Lithostratigraphic description of the outcrop samples

Thickness (ft) Lithological description Age

5 Consolidated sandstone unit (rich in bitumen), Early

Medium to coarse-grained Paleocene

2 Dark grey shale about 2 feet thick Early

Paleocene

6 Light brown, unconsolidated sandstone, which is Late

non –bituminous and medium to coarse-grained

Cretaceous

2 Dark, consolidated, fine to coarse-grained sandstone Late

rich in bitumen
Cretaceous

3 Light grey shale Late

Cretaceous

Basal unit Indurated, medium to coarse-grained, non- Late

bituminous sandstone
Cretaceous

54
Table 4.3. Avon-01 well stratigraphic description

Depth (ft) Lithological description Age

300 to 650 Shale Upper Miocene

650 to 1900 Well sorted sandstone with shale intercalations. Lower Eocene

Base freshwater is in this zone.

1900 to 3350 Grey and black shales, frequently sandy and 3300-

limely, with streaks of sandstones and siltstones.

Miocene/Pliocene?

3350 to 4100 Well-sorted, consolidated sandstone 3870 –Late

Maastrichtian

4100 to 4750 Unconsolidated sands with little shale Cretaceous

intercalations

4750 to 4777 Shale Cretaceous

Below 4777 Weathered basement with traces of black

Fossiliferous shales underlain by banded,

Unweathered granites

55
Figure 4.2a. Lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy of the Avon-01 well

56
Figure 4.2b. Chronostratigraphic correlation of Avon-01 well and other wells within Benin
Basin

57
4.5 Correlation of surface section with subsurface

The Avon-01 well was converted from depth to time using a checkshot survey taken in the

well, after which the well log was posted onto the 2D seismic line passing through the

well (Fig. 4.3a). The stratigraphic sequences and boundaries encountered in the well were

then mapped on the seismic lines and traced through the extent of the line. The generalised

correlation section section produced (Fig. 4.3b) showed that the area is underlain by the

Basement Complex, followed by a near Top Cretaceous section and a Top Paleocene

section; at the top of which is the intra Miocene unconformity. After this unconformity lies

the near Top Miocene section which was capped by the Top Pliocene. However, the Top

Pliocene is believed to be absent (due to erosion) at the outcrop section (Fig. 4.3b).

58
Figure 4.3a: Location of outcrop and Avon-01 with the line of section used in correlation

59
Figure 4.3b. Correlation section tying surface to subsurface geology

60
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Summary and Conclusions
Field studies and description have indicated that the oucrop of Eastern Benin Basin as

exposed along Iwopin expressway consist of medium to coarse-grained, non-bituminous

sandstone unit at the base. This is overlain by a light grey bituminous shale of about 3 feet

thick. Above the shale lies a unit of dark, consolidated, fine to coarse grained sandstone

(about 2 feet thick) rich in bitumen. At the topmost part lies a unit of 6 feet thick light

brown, unconsolidated sandstone, medium to coarse drained, which is non-bituminous.

The high porosity and high permeability values in these rocks confirm their ability to hold

and transmit hydrocarbon.

Lithological interpretation of data from the Avon-01 well showed that the penetrated

sections consists of sandstone, sandstone with little shale intercalations, and shale.

Porosity values in all the samples ranges from 34% to 42% while permeability ranges from

5530 mD to 27108 mD at the surface. The bituminous, dark consolidated sandstone seems

to be most heterogeneous in terms of permeability. The results of the well log

interpretation and outcrop sample petrophysical analyses confirm similar heterogeneous

permeability profile for both the subsurface and outcrop sections.

Palynological analysis revealed the abundance of Longapertites marginatus,

Longapertites vanendieburgi and Dictyophyllidites harissonii indicating an Early

Paleocene age for samples 1 and 2 (based on abundance of L. vanendieburgi). However,

61
samples 3, 4, 5 and 6 showed to be of Maastrichtian age due to high proportion of

Dictyophyllidites hanisii compared to sample 1 and 2, coupled with Longapertites

marginatus and Foreomonocolpites banichiensis. These ages show that the outcrop

section and the subsurface sections imaged on seismic and log data are largely of the same

age and generally corelatable.

The seismic lines showed paucity of faulting, with few normal faults observed at greater

intervals. The entire Cretaceous sections interpreted in the seismic sections appear totally

unfaulted, while younger sedimentary sections have greatly reduced frequency of faulting

landwards from the Shelf breaks.

The integration of outcrop studies with subsurface imaging and log data from Avon-1 well

in the Eastern Benin Basin enabled a surface to subsurface correlation of geologic events

which helps in understanding and tracking hydrocarbon migrations.

This study shows that trapping is inadequate, due to the paucity of faulting in the area

thereby causing updip migration of hydrocarbon, the biodegradation of which formed the

bitumen. The exposed sedimentary sequence was observed to be an updip continuation of

the sequence encountered in the wells drilled offshore.

This research is believed to be a general guide for hydrocarbon prospecting within the

Benin Basin.

62
5.2 Recommendation
Further studies is recommended with additional seismic data (possibly 3D) and more well

data and core samples/data to have a more regional view of the basin.

63
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