GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

RAJKOT

INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEMESTER-IV
INDUSTRIAL MEASUREMENT-1
(2141705)

LAB MANUAL
 Government Engineering College-Rajkot
Instrumentation & Control Engineering Department
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Subject: Industrial Measurement-1 Semester: - 4th
Subject Code: 2141705

Pr.
Name of Experiment Date Sign
No.

1 To study static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument.

2 To study and Perform temperature measurement using

Resistive Temperature detector (RTD).

3 To study and Perform temperature measurement using

Thermistor.
To study and Perform temperature measurement using
4
Thermocouple (TC).

5 To study the Orifice and Venturi tube for measurement of

flow using DP transmitter and manometer.

6 To study the Electromagnetic flowmeter, ultrasonic

flowmeter and rotameter for measurement of flow
To study the capacitive type level sensor for measurement of
7
level.
To study and perform Piezo-resistive type pressure
8
transducer for measurement of pressure.
To study and Perform strain gauge Pressure Transducer for
9
measurement load using load cell.

10 To Study the Measurement of Linear Displacement Using

Resistive transducer.

11 To study and perform semiconductor IC LM-35 for

measurement of temperature.

12 Project Report.
Practical :1

AIM: To study static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument.

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:

1) static characteristics

2) dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:

The set of criteria define for the instrument, which are used to measure the quantity which are
slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time is called “static
characteristics”

The various static characteristics are:

i. Accuracy
ii. Precision
iii. Sensitivity
iv. Linearity
v. Reproducibility
vi. Repeatability
vii. Resolution
viii. Threshold
ix. Drift
x. Stability
xi. Tolerance
xii. Range or span

Accuracy:

It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity
to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:

a. Point accuracy:
Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale.
It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.

b. accuracy as percentage of scale span:

when an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of

scale range.

Accuracy as percentage of true value:

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 Terms of the true value of the quantity being measured. Precision: it is the measure of
reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of
agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:

a) conformity:

consider a resistor having true value as 2385692, which is being measured by

ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4M due to no availability of
proper scale. The error created due to lamination of the scale reading is a precision error.

b) number of significant figures:

the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures in
which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about
the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. The precision can be
mathematically expressed as:

𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋̅̅̅𝑛̅
𝑃 = 1−| |
𝑋̅𝑛

Where P= precision

Xn= value of nth measurement

Xn= average value the set of measurement

Sensitivity:

The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in
the value of the quantity to be measured mathematically. It is expressed as,

Δq0

Δq0

Δqt Δq1

Sensitivity= infinite signal change in output

Infinite signal change in input

Δq0

Δqt

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope
of the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity varies with the input.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. Inverse
sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/sensitivity.

Reproducibility:

In the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is
specifies in terms of scale reading over a given period time.

Repeatability:

It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature drift:

Drift may be classified into three categories:

a) zero drift:

if the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to under
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.

= Δqi

Δqo

Linearity:

The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically &
linearly. The curve shows the actual calibration curve and idealize straight line.

Idealized straight line

output

Actual curve Maximum deviation

input

% non linearity= max. Deviation of output from idealized straight line

Full scale reading

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

output Characteristics with zero drift

output

span drift

nominal characteristics Nominal characteristics

input Input

fig. span drift fig. zero drift

b) span drift sensitivity drift:

if there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called
span drift or sensitivity drift.

c) zonal drift:

in case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

Resolution:

If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that
output does not change at all until increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.

Threshold:

If the input is increased vary gradually from zero there will be some min. value below which
no output change can be detected. This min. value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Stability:

It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating

life.

Tolerance:

The max. allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is
called tolerance.

Range or span:

The minimum and maximum value of quantity for which an instrument is designed to
measure Is called its range or span

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called
dynamic characteristics.

The various dynamic characteristics are:

i. Speed of response
ii. Measuring lag
iii. Fidelity
iv. Dynamic error

Speed of response:

It is defined as the rapidly with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measurement quantity.

Measuring lag:

It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the

measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:

a) Retardation type:

in this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.

b) Time delay lag:

in this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of input.

c) Fidelity:

it is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates change in the measured
quantity without dynamic error.

Dynamic error:

It is the difference between the true value of the quantity change in with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assume it is also called measurement
error.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical :2

AIM: To study and Perform temperature measurement using Resistive Temperature detector
(RTD).

APPARATUS: 1. Trainer kit.

2. Thermometer.

3. DMM.

PROCEDURE:

1. Keep the trainer kit in OFF condition (no interconnections are to be made on the
trainer kit.)
2. Place the thermometer in its designated place in the ‘RTD with heater’ module.
3. Connect the DMM across the terminal marked RTD besides the ‘RTD with heater’
(TP11 & TP12), with multimeter set in 2k resistance range.
4. Note the ambient (room) temperature (of the heater block) as indicated by the
thermometer and correspondingly note the resistance of the RTD on DMM. Note the
reading in the observation table.
5. Connect the trainer kit to the 230V AC mains supply and switch on the unit. See the
supply indicator glows.
6. Now as the heater is on the temperature will rise. Note the rise of temperature on
thermometer and corresponding resistance of RTD in the observation table.
7. Plot a graph of resistance of RTD v/s temperature.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Thermometer reading ℃ RTD resistance (ohm)

_____
[Ambient temperature]

50

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INTRODUCTION

All electrical conductors possess resistance and in every case the resistance is to some degree
dependent upon temperature in cases resistance increases with transformer temperature rise
and the change in usually undesirable effect to be made as small as possible. There are two
types of sensors namely

1. Thermistor which has a negative temperature coefficient and

2. RTD which as a positive temperature coefficient.

The percentage change of resistance for 1℃ rise is usually much smaller than it is for
negative coefficient devices like the thermister. Typically a pure metal could have a positive
coefficient of about 0.4% whereas the min. coefficient for a typical thermister at 100℃ could
be about 2.5% /℃. Thus thermometer based on a pure metal will be much less sensitive.

For certain material especially, the relationship between resistively and temperature is very
accurately predictable and can be relied upon stay constant from one sample to another and
over very long period of time.

The metal platinum is especially useful as it is resistance to corrosion and general

deterioration and has resistance temperature relationship which is nearly linear over a small
range of temperature and accurately parabolic over the range of positive temperature from
0℃ to 630℃.

The alpha of platinum RTD is listed as 0.00385. if platinum RTD of 100 were removed from
an environment of 0℃ and placed into a new environment of 100℃, its resistance would
increase from show to 138.5 ohm.(the 100 ohm of resistance at 0℃ )is multiplied by alpha (
0.00385) and this product multiplied by the 100℃ difference between the old environment
and the new environment, and than added to the 100 ohm resistance at old environment,
which equal 138.5ohm.

(100ohms X 0.00385 x 100ohms = 138.5ohms)

As the platinum thermometer is an intrinsically accurate transducer it follow that to obtain the
best result from it demains. That careful attention is paid to the elimination of all possible
sources of error. This includes:

a. The resistance of the probe leads up to the platinum element and possible
variation of this resistance with temperature.
b. Thermocouple emf’s caused by dissimilar metal junctions at unequal
temperature in the probe circuit.
c. Error in determining R100 and R0 example due to change in boiling point
with water impurities with atmospheric pressure.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Platinum thermometers have the considerable advantages of near linearity of response over
the usual ranges of interest, good repeatability of indication and stability. They are however,
repeatability insensitive and also expensive so, they are used only where is not greatest
important as for example, in certain chemical processes where temperature of reagents must
be controlled to accuracies of better than +1℃.

The resistance change in RTD’s caused by temperature is very linear. These characteristics
allow the RTD to be used, with appropriate electrical circuitry, to measure the temperature.

RTD’s may be used controlled the action of certain types of DC amplifier when increased
sensitivity and greater outputs are required. The most common form of electrical circuitry
used in conjunction with RTD is four – arm sensitive bridge. The most sensitive electrical
arrangement is realized when the four – arm bridge is used to controlled the output of a DC
amplifier.

CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION:

RTD are generally used in conjunction with other electrical components and circuitry for
most application. The most popular configuration using RTD is the whetstone bridge circuit.
Here the RTD is used in one arm of the bridge circuit to measure temperature. The excitation
of 5V DC is applied to the bridge circuit. Which change in temperature, the resistance of the
RTD changes causing a unbalance in the bridge circuit. This imbalance is amplified by
amplifier A3. The amplifier A3 produces an output voltage of 1mV/℃ which can be directly
read by the D.P.M the amplifiers A1 and A2 are buffers.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 RTD 120

Resistance(Ω) 115

110

105

27 30 35 40 45 50 Temperature (℃)

Characteristics of RTD

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical: 3

AIM: To study and Perform temperature measurement using Thermistor.

APPARATUS:

• Thermistor (Waterproof Prob)

• Digital multi meter
• Glass thermometer
• Heater System

Introduction:

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly depends on temperature. The

word thermistor is a combination of words “thermal” and “resistor”. A thermistor is a
temperature-sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material and sometimes
mixture of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large change in
resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Pure metals have positive
temperature coefficient of resistance, alloys have nearly equal zero temperature coefficient of
resistance and semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Thermistors can be classified into two types:

• Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor: -resistance increase with increase

in temperature.
• Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor: -resistance decrease with increase
in temperature.
The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs. temperature.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature-controlled
ovens. NTC thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply
circuits. Inrush current refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical
device when first turned on. Thermistors are available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest
in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm.

Experimental setup: -

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Increase the temperature of the water in a beaker in steps of 5°C.
3. Note down the temperature and corresponding resistance of the thermistor with the
help of Ohm meter / DMM.
4. Plot the graph of temperature Vs resistance for both sets of reading heating.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Temperature Resistance
Sr. No.
(°C) (Ω)
1

Conclusion:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical: 4

AIM: To study and Perform temperature measurement using Thermocouple (TC).

APPARATUS:

▪ Trainer kit.
▪ Digital multi meter.
▪ Patch cord.
▪ Glass thermometer

INTRODUCTION:

➢ The working principle of a thermocouple is dependent on the thermo-electric effect. If

to dissimilar metals are joined together so, as to form 2 close circuit, there will be two
junctions where they meet each other. If one of the junction is heated, than, a current
flows in the circuit which can be detected by a galvanometer. The amount of current
produce depends in the difference in the temperature between the two junctions and
on the characteristics of the two metals.
➢ Instrument which record variations in the current flow are calibrated in terms of
temperature and are known as thermocouple pyrometer. The wires are joined at the
ends at which forms two junction, a measuring junction and a reference junction.
Heating the measuring junction produces a voltage greater than the voltage across the
reference junction. The difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter
reading is converted to its corresponding temperature. There are various types of
thermocouples which are used in industries viz. copper constantan, iron constantan,
chromel alumel, platinum rhodium and chromel constantan.
➢ To protect thermocouples from harmful the atmosphere, corrosive fluids, mechanical
damage; ton support the thermocouple or to permit entry into pressurized system,
protecting tube or wells are supplied. The thermocouple can used to measure
difference between two temperatures. Based on possible composition of metal, there
are large no. of thermocouples available

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect thermocouple (+) to R3 input, REF. to R4 input. Also connect output 2

digital panel meter (DPM) input, as shown in figure 3. Keep P2 in center position.
2. Keep heater unit in OFF state. [the heater unit consists of the process block with
thermocouple sensor & slot for glass thermometer].
3. Also keep the glass thermometer in its designated slot in the heater unit.
4. Switch on the trainer & see that supply indicator glows.
5. Observe the temperature on glass thermometer [as ambient (room) temperature] &
record the same in the table.
6. Observe the output to reading of the DPM and with the help of pot P2 adjust the DPM
reading to read ambient (room) temperature in ℃, & record the same in the table.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 7. Switch on the heater, the temperature will rise. Observe & record the rise of
temperature on thermometer (for every degree) and corresponding output 2 reading (
now calibrated to read ℃) on the DPM. Record same in the observation table.
8. Note the meter readings for different temperature and compare the readings.
9. Switch OFF the heater and the trainer.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Thermometer reading ℃ Meter reading ℃

______
[ambient temperature]

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical : 5

AIM: To study the Orifice and Venturi tube for measurement of flow using DP transmitter
and manometer.

APPARATUS:

a) Orifice – 25mm. integral type input : 0-2000 LPH

Output: 0-1000mm wc line size 25 NB conductivity: ½” BSP(female)

b) Venture – 25mm. conical type input : 0-2000LPH

c) Output : 0-1000mm wc line size : 25NB
d) Connectivity: 1/2” BSP(female)

THEORY:

ORIFICE METER

The orifice meter is the common type of head flow measuring device for medium and large-
pipe sizes. The orifice plate inserted in a pipe line causes an increase in the flow velocity and
a corresponding decrease in the pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in the
cross-section of flow beyond the orifice plate with the maximum velocity and minimum
pressure. The particular position where the velocity is maximum and static pressure is
minimum is known as VENA-CONTRACTA.

The orifice plate inserted in the line is basically a thin plate of metal with circular opening.
The orifice configurations may be concentric, eccentric or segmented. The concentric orifice
plate consists of a central hole in a metal plate concentric with the circumference of the plate.
The effect of the orifice plate on the flow pattern in a pipe is shown in figure. Suppose that
the manometer tubes are inserted along the pipe wall at the positions shown in the figure,
then the liquid in these tubes will rise until the pressure due to column of liquid in each tube
is equal to the static pressure at that position.

Observing the different pressure values, the pattern of pressure changes can be traced along
the pipe length, as shown in figure. It may be noted that the points 5 and 6 the pressure is
lower than the upstream pressure, due to the increase in the velocity of the fluid passing
through the smaller area. The stream or jet cross-section decreases in

And the velocity is maximum. This is many due to liquid being directed inward as it
approaches the orifice and also due to inertia effects persisting in the direction for a distance
after it leaves the orifice.

Frame

Orifice Orifice

Plate bore

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Concentric Eccentric Segmental

Further, the static pressure also reaches its minimum value at the “vena –contracta “.

The distance from the orifice to these position various with the ratio of the orificediameter to
pipe diameter,but and average value would be half the pipe diameter. From the vena –
contracta,the stream section expands until it reaches the pipe diameter at the position 11
where it recovers to its upstream value. This would appear to be caused by

Dissipation of energy involving a pressure loss. For a typical value of 0.6 for the orifice to the
pipe diameter ratio, the percentage loss works out at 65% of the differential pressure. Where
such a pressure loss is a critical consideration. This point should be borne in mind.

The pressure trappings for flow rate measurement can be taken out by a variety of methods.
For pipe sizes of 0.05m or greater in diameter, the usual practice is to locate toppings at
distances D and D/2 in the upstream and downstream respectively, where D is the diameter of
the pipe.

Another type of tapping is the so called corner tapping, where holes are cut obliquely through
the flanges or the pipe base bringing the inside opening of the holes adjacent to our orifice.

The materials used for orifice platesare limited steel, stainless steel, phosphor.

Less stainless steel is used for water metering, gun metal or mild steel for air metering, and
stain less steel for steam, swage, fuel oils, coal gas, and corrosive gasses.

The main advantages of an orifice meter are its simple construction and high reliability. The
limitations are its poor accuracy, calibration which changes appreciably with wear, high
pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems with blocked tapping.

Since the pressure loss, and possible maintenance problems with blocked tapping. Since the
pressure losses are high, the device is not recommended for high velocities.

concentric orifice plate eccentric segmental

frame

orifice bore

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 2𝑔ℎ
V= K √ 𝜌

2𝑔ℎ
Q= KA √ 𝜌

2𝑔ℎ
𝜔= KA √ 𝜌

V= velocity of flowing fluid

Q= volume flow rate

𝜔= mass flow rate

𝐶
K= √1−𝛽4 = a constant

C= discharge coefficient

𝛽 = diameter ratio
d (diameter of restriction element)
𝛽= D (inside diameter of the pipe)

VENTURI TUBE:

In application where pressure loss is not acceptable, it is preferable to use and element
possessing a gradual stream area change, such as venture tube. The basic design of venture
tube comprises three section, the converging conical section at the upstream, cylindrical
throat, and the diverging recovery outlet cone at the downstream. Figures illustrate a standard
configuration of a venture tube. The inlet cone tappers down from the pipe area to the throat
section of smaller area tom produce the necessary increase in velocity and decreasing
pressure. the cylindrical throat provides a point of measurement of this decrease in pressure
where the flow rate is steady the diverging outlet cone expands from the throat o the pipe area
resulting in pressure recovery. Pressure measurements are carries out at the upstream
entrance to the cone and at the throat. Tapping tags the shape of annular chambers, and the
inside surfaces and smoothly machined with holes drilled around the circumference and at
regular intervals this enable the pressure to be averaged before transmission to the measuring
instruments. The construction of the outlet cone is important. The pressure loss due to the
turbulent eddies caused by the increasing diameter and due to friction between the fluid and
the wall of the cone, affects the measurement. The pressure loss due to turbulent eddies can
be reduced by gradual expansion, while the frictional loss can be reduced by using a sharper
cone. The result is a compromise between the two requirements. In practice, to conical angels
of 5-70 and 14-150 with pressure losses of 11-18% respectively are used, which is much
lower than that of the orifice plate, the discharge coefficient of standard type of venture tube
is about 0.99 and, this remains substantially constant for all values of throat- pipe diameter

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

ratios between 0.5 and 0.75 (m= 0.05 to 0.55). in practice, the approach to the throat is given
curve profile by means of lining, to maintain constant discharge coefficient.

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES:-

The construction of the venture tube is often dictated by its application. For normal uses,
sections are made out of gun matter, stainless steel, and cast iron. The use of gun metal and
stainless steel reduces the risk of corrosion. One advantage of venture tube is that the section
need not be circular-square or rectangular shapes have also been used formally for many
application.

PROCEDURE:-

Flow measurement,

1. Using orifice
2. Using venture
1) Keep the bypass valve approx. 25% open.
2) Keep the hand valve in series with venturi and nozzle fully closed.
3) Close the valve S11, S12, S31, S32, of manifold.
4) Connect DPT output to the input of square root extractor through digital
millimeter (|1) and digital manometer as shown in diagram. Coonect output of
square root extractor to the input flow indicator through digital millimeter (|2) as
shown in diagram.
5) Make power on to motor pump. Perform the procedure for equalizing the DP.
6) Vary the flow rate say 300lph to 2000lph in proper steps as observed on rotameter
and for every flow rate take corresponding reading. Digital millimeter meter |1
meter |2.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical :6

AIM: -To study the Electromagnetic flowmeter, ultrasonic flowmeter and rotameter for
measurement of flow

Theory: - the objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with several types of
flow measuring devices commonly used in the laboratory and in industry while performing
calibration procedure the experiment is designed to study uniform water flow over a range of
flow rates. The system consists of a pipe of several meters plumed in series. There is an inlet
water valve. An air pipe operated water flow control valve, a magnetic inductive flow meter,
a turbine flow meter, rota meter, an ultrasonic flow meter, an orifice meter and a venture
meter. The experimental setup is shown in figure1.the water that exists this pipe will be
collected for known time intervals to obtain the standard flowrate against which other devices
will be calibrated. A dye injection system is included

The primary standard:

In order to calibrate the flow meters used in this lab, you must compere the output of the
various flow meters to that of a primary standard. The output of the primary standard is
considered the “true” volumetric flowrate passing through the system. For this lab, you and
your group will come up with and implement a method using a graduated cylinder and a stop
watch to measure the volumetric flow rate passing through the system. These data will serve
Type equation here.as your primary standard. While there is no “100% correct method” for
taking these flowrate measurements. please use what you know about measurement
uncertainly to device the best possible method. In your lab write-up (in the results/discussion
section) please discuss procedure and the logic you used to arrive at such a technique.

Magnetic-inductive flow meter

Figure 2 shows the schematic structure of a magnetic flow meter. This meter operates on the
bases of the fact that when a conductive fluid (water in this case flows through a magnetic
field, a voltage is induced in the fluid. The induced voltage is promotional to the magnetic
field strength, the fluid conductivity and the velocity of the fluid (and thus the volumetric
flowrate ǫ ) for process in which the working fluid’s conductivity is not change and the
instrument’s configuration is held constant, the voltage is promotional to fluid velocity only.
In this experiment, the magnetic meter measures the voltage and converts the output to pulse
rate (pulses per second or Hertz). The pulse rate is displayed on the pulse counter in units of
kHz. Magnetic flow meters are generally expensive but higher accurate. They do not require
a flow restriction. They are useful for only conducting fluids. The value of Aw various with
the position of the float due to the taper in the tube. The meter can calibrate, and typically a
scale is shown that directly gives the flowrate. Rotameter are usually not very expensive and
there accuracy depends largely on quality of construction.

ULTRASONIC FLOWMETER: -

Ultrasonic flowmeter is ill-used in figure 6. This flow meter measures the flow based on the
difference in the time it takes for an ultrasonic wave to travel upstream as opposed to
Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I
downstream. If td is the downstream transit time from A to B, and tu is the upstream transit
time from B to A, then

transducer A

Transducer B

𝐿
td = _______________ (9)
𝑐+𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐿
tu = _______________ (10)
𝑐−𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

where L is the path length, x is the axial spacing between the transducer, C is the speed of
sound in the liquid, V is the average linear velocity of the flow, and 𝜃 is the angle between
flow direction and sound transit direction. Note that cos𝜃= X/L. solving equations (9) and
(10) gives the flow velocity:
𝐿2 ∆𝑡
v=2𝑋𝑡 _______________ (11)
𝑢 𝑡𝑑

where t= tu-td. Because V is the average velocity, some small error may be incurred
in the laminar flow regime due to the parabolic velocity profile.

A magnetic field B is generated by field coils. D is the pipe diameter. When a

conductive fluid travels with a velocity V through the magnetic field, a voltage U is induced:
U=K (VxB). D, where K is an instrument constant.

TURBINE METER: -

A diagram of a turbine meter to shown in figure 3. A turbine-type vaned rotor is placed in the
path of the fluid flow. The rotational motion of the rotor is proportional to the rate of flow
and is sense by a reluctance-type pickup coil. A permanent magnet is encased in one or all of
the rotor vanes. Each time the vane passes the pole of the coil, the change in permeability of
the magnetic circuit produces a voltage pulse at the output terminal. The pulse rate is counted
by a frequency meter or any other suitable type of counter. The count rate is calibrated
against the flow rate and is usually linear over a range of flow rate. For flow rates from 0-

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

150cc/sec the manufacturer has provided following calibration impirical relationship between
the volumetric flow rate through the meter and the output frequency:

Q=𝑆ℎ *f

in this equation Q is the volumetric flow rate in cc/sec, 𝑆ℎ is the universal shush constant,
~107cm3/kHz sec, and f is the output frequency in Hz. Turbine meter are generally expensive
and they are accurate if the composition, temperature etc. of flowing liquid remain constant,
but they are subject to were and are only useful for particle-free fluids.

ROTAMETER:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

The rotameter offers the advantage of a wide range of flow rates that can be directly
measured. It is a variable-area meter with a float. Moving freely in a tapered tube. Figure 4
shows the structure of rotameter. For each flow rate, the float is lifted to some point at which
the upward and downward forces acting on it are in equilibrium.as a fluid moves upward the
tube, the float acts as an obstruction and creates a pressure drop (also see orifice and venture
meter). This pressure drop and the buoyance of the float (which may be positive or negative)
produce an upward force on the float which is balanced by the gravitational force. The
pressure force is dependent on the flow rate and the annular area between the float and the
tube. As the float rises, the annular area increases, there by requiring a larger flow rate to
maintain the float position. The basic equation for thermometer can be developed in manner
similar to that for the orifice meter, as shown by equation (3):
2𝑔𝑉𝑓(𝜌𝑓−𝜌𝑤)
Q=Awc( )
𝐴𝑓𝜌𝑤

Where, Q= volumetric rate of flow f𝑡 2 /sec

Vf= volume of the float, f𝑡 3

𝜌𝑓, 𝜌𝑤 = density of the float and the fluid, 1bm/f𝑡 3

Af,Aw = area of the float and the annular orifice, f𝑡 2

C = discharge coefficient.

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical :7

AIM:- To study the capacitive type level sensor for measurement of level.

MATERIAL REQUIRED : capacitive type transducer,

THEORY:-
The capacitance between two conductive surfaces varies with three major factors:
• The overlapping area(A) of those two surfaces
• The distance between them(d)
• The dielectric constant of the material in between the surfaces.

If two out of three of these variables can be fixed (stabilized) and the third allowed
to vary, then any measurement of capacitance between the surfaces will be solely indicative
of changes in that third variable. The value of capacitance is determined by:
(a) The area of the plates
(b) The distance between the plates
(c) The type of dielectric between the plates
Some transducers work by making one of the capacitor plates movable, either in such a way
as to vary the overlapping area or the distance between the plates. Other transducers work by
moving a dielectric material in and out between two fixed plates:
Capacitive transducers can be classified as :
1. Variable capacitive transducer
2. Differential capacitive transducer

Variable capacitive transducer varies according to:

(a) Area of overlap,
(b) Distance between plates,
(c) Amount of dielectric between plates.

Transducers with greater sensitivity and immunity to changes in other variables can be
obtained by way of differential design.

Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing:

(a) Area of overlap
(b) Distance between plates
(c) Dielectric between plates.

The differential devices shown above have three wire connections rather than two: one wire
for each of the “end” plates and one for the “common” plate. As the capacitance between one
of the “end” plates and the “common” plate changes, the capacitance between the other “end”
plate and the “common” plate is such to change in the opposite direction. This kind of
transducer lends itself very well to implementation in a bridge circuit.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Capacitance Level Gauge:-

A simple condenser / capacitor consist of two electrode plates separatedby a small thickness
of an insulator (which can be solid, liquid, gas or vacuum)called the dielectric. The change in
liquid level causes a variation in thedielectric between the two plates, which in turn causes a
corresponding changein the value of the capacitance of the condenser. Therefore, such a
gauge isalso termed a dielectric level gauge.

The magnitude of the capacitance depends on the nature of thedielectric, varies directly with
the area of the plate and inversely with thedistance between them. The capacitance can be
changed by any of thesefactors.

In a parallel plate condenser which has identical plates each of area A(cm2) separated by a
distance d (cm) and an insulating medium with dielectricconstant K (K = 1 for air) between
them, the expression for the capacitance is given by

From the above equation it is observed that the capacitance variesdirectly with the dielectric
constant which in turn varies directly with theliquid level between the plates. Figure 29.1
shows the schematicarrangement of a capacitance level gauge. The capacitance would be at
aminimum when the tubes contain only air and at a maximum when the liquidfills the entire
space between the electrodes. The change in capacitance canbe measured by a suitable
measuring unit such as a capacitive Wheatstonebridge by either manual null balancing or
automatic null balancing using the nulldetecting circuit with a servo-motor that indicates the
level reading.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Fig. 29.1 Dielectric liquid level gauge

For the measurement of level in the case of non-conducting liquids, the bare probe
arrangement may be satisfactory since the liquid resistance is sufficiently high. For
conducting liquids, the probe plates are insulated using athin coating of glass or plastic.

The capacitance type level gauge is relatively inexpensive, versatile,reliable and requires
minimal maintenance. These units have no moving parts,are easy to install and adaptable to
large and small vessels. Further, suchdevices have a good range of liquid level measurement,
viz. from a few cm tomore than 100 m. In addition, apart from sensing the level of the
common liquids, these gases find wide use in other important applications such as
determining the level of powdered or granular solids, liquid metals (high temperatures),
liquefied gases (low temperatures), corrosive materials (like hydrofluoric acid) and in very
high pressure industrial processes.

CONCLUSION:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical : 8

AIM: To study and perform Piezo-resistive type pressure transducer for measurement of
pressure.

APPARATUS:

1. Main unit.
2. Pressure chamber with piezo electric type pressure transducer, pressure input valve
for air from pressure generator, pressure release valve.
3. Pressure generator.

THEORY:

When pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically deformed. This deformation result in

flow of electric charge (with lasts for a period of few seconds) the resulting electric signal can
be measured as an indication of the pressure which was applied to a crystal. These sensor
cannot detect static pressure, but are used to measure rapidly changing pressure resulting
from blasts, explosions, pressure pulsation (in rocket motors, engines, compressor) or other
source of shock or vibration. Some of this rugged sensor can detect pressure event having
“rise times” on the order of millionth of a second.

When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to quartz crystal, a charge is developed across
the crystal that is promotional to force applied. The fundamental difference between this
crystal sensor and static force devices such as strain gauges is that the electric signal
generated by the crystal decays rapidly. This characteristic makes these sensors unsuitable for
the measurement of static forces or pressure but useful for dynamic measurement. Piezo
electric devices can further be classified according to whether the crystals electrostatic
charge, its sensitivity, or its resonant frequency electrostatic charge is measured. Depending
on which phenomenon is used, the crystal sensor can be called electrostatic, piezo resistive,
or resonant.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the required supply and switch ON the unit. See that the supply indicator
glows.
2. Connect the piezo electric transducer output connector to the input jack provided on
the panel.
3. Connect the pressure generator to the pressure input valve for air.
4. Release all the air present in the pressure chamber by pressing the pressure release
valve.
5. Wait for few minutes to stabilize the system.
6. Adjust with zero adjustment potentiometer on the panel, such that meter reads
0.00kg/𝑐𝑚2 .

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 7. Now Apply max. Pressure (say 1.20kg/𝑐𝑚2 ) from the pressure generator. Note the
reading, adjust with span adj. pot. To show the max. Pressure applied (say
1.20kg/𝑐𝑚2 ) on the display.
8. Release all the air present in the pressure chamber by pressing the pressure release
valve (as per point 4 above).
9. Repeat two to three times, the points 6,7 & 8 as above for stable reading.
10. Now apply 0.20kg/𝑐𝑚2 pressure from the pressure generator and note down the
output reading from the display.
11. Repeat the above procedure for different input pressure.(the max. capacity of the
pressure generator is 1.2kg/𝑐𝑚2 approx.)

Note: the pressure release valve is to be used to decrease the pressure in the pressure
chamber.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Pressure in the pressure chamber Digital readout

kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐 kg/𝒄𝒎𝟐

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

CONCLUSION:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical: 9

Aim: - To study and Perform strain gauge Pressure Transducer for measurement load using
load cell.

Apparatus:

(1) Trainer kit

(2) Dead weight

(3) Digital multi-meter

Circuit Description: -

The circuit is made up of full bridge. i.e. all four arm of bridge are active strain gauges. They
are mounted in load cell on S beam, such that it can be used in both ways i.e. elongation on
compression. The bridge is exited using built in +5V DC supply.
The output of bridge is given to instrument amplifier using IC1, IC2 and IC3.
The output of instrument amplifier at zero load is compensated by zero adjustment
potentiometer provide on the panel.
The output of instrument amplifier is given to an amplifier IC4 whose gain is calibrated using
internal pot, such that output voltage reads directly in kilogram.

Fig: Strain Gauge with Load Cell

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Procedure:-

1. Connect the required supply to the unit and switch on the unit. See that the supply
indicator glows.
2. Connect load cell connector to the input Jack provided on the panel.
3. Wait for few minute to stabilize the system.
4. Adjust with zero adjust potentiometer on the panel, such that meter read 0.00 Kg.
5. Now keep load of 2 Kg on the load cell and note that reading adjusts with span adjust
pot to show 1.99 Kg.
6. Remove load from load cell and adjust the reading with zero port such meter will
show 0.00Kg.
7. Repeat two or three times point 5 and 6.
8. Repeat above procedure with different load the maximum capacity of the strain
gauge with load cell trainer is 2 Kg.

Observation Table:-

Load In The P0 In Kg. Meter Reading In Kg.

Conclusion:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical : 10

Aim: -To Study the Measurement of Linear Displacement Using Resistive transducer.
Apparatus:
(1) Trainer kit
(2) Digital multi-meter
Introduction:

Control is based on information. Industrial automation system must extract

information from the physical process that is being controlled. Input transducers converts’
physical parameters into electrical signal that correspond to what is happening. In the
broadest sense, a transducer is any device that receive energy in one form from one system
and retransmits it, viewed as a transducer.
Position & Displacement:

Displacement is the difference between the position of some object and a reference
point. Displacement can be linear or rotary. Potentiometric transducer can be used to measure
both linear and angular displacement. This element can be formed by winding resistance wire
on a form or by depositing resistance material. The wiper contact moves along the resistance
element in response to motion applied to the input shaft. If a voltage is applied across
terminals A and B. Then some portion of that voltage will appear across A and C. Most of the
potentiometer transducers are nominally linear. It input shaft is as its mechanical centre
position. Half the applied voltage will appear at C. In other words there is a linear
relationship between the shaft position and the output signal.
The actual performance of a displacement potentiometer will deviate from nominal
linearity. Manufactures rate them according to worst case deviation. A 1% linearity rating or
better is typical for transducer service. Potentiometer resolution is another source of error.
Suppose a 100 each turn represents 0.5 ohm of resistance. This is the smallest change that the
transducer can resolve.
Potentiometric transducers are relatively inexpensive and easy to apply. However
there are some limitations, for example attempts to make the resolution very high usually
results in proper linearity. They are temperature sensitive. A characteristic that are considered
to be low to medium accuracy transducers.
Circuit Description:-

The circuit demonstrated here works on the principle of a constant current flowing
through the linear potentiometric transducer. Transducer LPT (P1) along with R1, R2 forms
the constant current source. The drop across transducer (LPT) is sensed and amplified by IC1.
When the variable transducer is at 0 cm, drop across P1 is available at IC1 which is nullified
by zero adjustment of P2 and the display reads ’00.00’. Now such that the display reads
’05.00’ v. IC2 works as a differential amplified.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

 Fig: Measurement of linear displacement using resistance transducer.

Procedure:-

(1) Connect the transducer at TRANSDUCER INPUT on main panel. Now connect
main supply to main unit and switch on the unit.
(2) Bring the resistive transducer to 0 positions on the linear (mm) scale.
(3) Observe the reading as shown by the meter. Adjust with zero adjust potentiometer
so the display reads 00 mm.
(4) Now slowly move the resistive transducer from 0 to 50 mm.
(5) Observe the reading as shown by meter adjust with span adjust potentiometer. So
that display reads 50 mm.
(6) Again adjust 000 on DPM (digital panel meter) by bringing resistive transducer
from 5 cm to 0.
(7) Also again adjust 50 mm on meter by bringing resistive transducer to 50 mm
position.
(8) Repeat the above procedure to zero adjusts and span adjustment 2- times.
(9) Now take read in for every 1 mm displacement starting from 0 and note the meter
reading in the observation table.
(10) Plot a graph of resistive scale reading v/s meter reading.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Observation Table:-

Resistance transducer scale reading (mm) Meter Reading

(mm)

Conclusion:-

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Practical : 11

AIM: To study and perform semiconductor IC LM-35 for measurement of temperature.

APPARATUS:

• LM-35 IC
• Thermometer
• Digital Voltmeter
• Heater System

Introduction:

The LM35 is one kind of commonly used temperature sensor that can be used to
measure temperature with an electrical o/p comparative to the temperature (in °C). It can
measure temperature more correctly compare with a thermistor. This sensor generates a
high output voltage than thermocouples and may not need that the output voltage is
amplified. The LM35 has an output voltage that is proportional to the Celsius temperature.
The scale factor is .01V/°C.

The LM35 does not need any exterior calibration and maintains an exactness of +/-
0.4°C at room temperature and +/-0.8°C over a range of 0°C to +100°C.One more significant
characteristic of this sensor is that it draws just 60 microamps from its supply and acquires a
low self-heating capacity. The LM35 temperature sensor available in many different
packages like T0-46 metal can transistor-like package, TO-92 plastic transistor-like package,
8-lead surface mount SO-8 small outline package.

The LM35 temperature sensor is used to detect precise centigrade temperature. The
output of this sensor changes describes the linearity. The o/p voltage of this IC sensor is
linearly comparative to the Celsius temperature. The operating voltage range of this LM35
ranges from-55˚ to +150˚C and it has low-self heating. This is operated under 4 to 30 volts.

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I

Applications of LM35 Temperature Sensor:

• Measuring temperature of a particular environment and HVAC applications

• Providing thermal shut down for a component/ circuit
• Checking Battery Temperature

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Increase the temperature of the water in a beaker in steps of 5°C.
3. Note down the temperature and corresponding voltage with the help of DMM.
4. Plot the graph of temperature Vs resistance for both sets of reading heating.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Temperature Voltage
Sr. No.
(°C) (mV)
1

Conclusion:

Instrumentation and Control Department Industrial Measurement -I