Accepted Manuscript

Simulating early Mars hydrology with the MARSSIM landform evolution model: New
insights from an integrated system of precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow

Benjamin D. Boatwright, James W. Head

PII: S0032-0633(18)30431-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2019.04.001
Reference: PSS 4657

To appear in: Planetary and Space Science

Received Date: 28 November 2018

Revised Date: 14 March 2019
Accepted Date: 2 April 2019

Please cite this article as: Boatwright, B.D., Head, J.W., Simulating early Mars hydrology with the
MARSSIM landform evolution model: New insights from an integrated system of precipitation,
infiltration, and groundwater flow, Planetary and Space Science (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.pss.2019.04.001.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 Simulating early Mars hydrology with the MARSSIM landform evolution model: New

2 insights from an integrated system of precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow

4 Benjamin D. Boatwright* and James W. Head

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5 Department of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Sciences

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6 Brown University

7 Providence, RI 02912 USA

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9 *Corresponding author: benjamin_boatwright@brown.edu

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james_head@brown.edu
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Submitted to Planetary and Space Science

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13 Manuscript: November 28, 2018

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14 Revision: February 12, 2019

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15 Abstract

16 The MARSSIM landform evolution model has been used successfully over the past three

17 decades to simulate sediment transport on the surface of Mars. The model relies on an advection-

18 diffusion relation that has been used to describe the difference in scale efficiency and profile

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19 concavity in landscapes. Beyond this, MARSSIM has also been used to simulate groundwater

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20 flow, eolian transport, and impact cratering. We first describe the history of the model in the

21 published literature, followed by an in-depth analysis of the physical theory on which it is based.

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22 We review the successes and limitations of the current model and how these have been

23 addressed. Other parts of the model included in the source code have been rarely used, so we

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also investigate new applications in these areas. Finally, we propose a modification to the model
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25 that would allow for an integrated system of precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow,

and provide a practical example on a simulated cratered terrain similar to those found in past
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27 MARSSIM studies. We find that the introduction of an integrated model has noticeable effects
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28 on erosion patterns within the simulation domain compared to cases of either complete
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29 infiltration or complete runoff.

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31 Keywords: Mars, landform evolution model, hydrology, geomorphology, climate

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32 1. Introduction

33 The evolution of landscapes is often understood through analogies with continuum

34 mechanics, and models of sediment transport are typically based on some form of the advection-

35 diffusion equation. Diffusive sediment transport is the result of surface topography being

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36 modified under the influence of gravity as a function of slope; such a model has been previously

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37 used to describe crater degradation on the Moon [Soderblom, 1970; Craddock and Howard,

38 2000; Fassett and Thomson, 2014]. This presents a problem for Mars, where the geologic

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39 evidence points overwhelmingly toward the involvement of advective fluvial processes in the

40 evolution of landscapes, especially during the planet’s earliest history [Craddock et al., 1997;

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Craddock and Howard, 2002; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2005; Irwin et al.,
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42 2005]. Disentangling the relative contributions of diffusive and advective processes on the

43 surface of Mars remains challenging, as both processes are likely to have had some effect on the
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44 landscape we observe today.

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45 The MARSSIM landform evolution model, otherwise known as DELIM or MSLM (see
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46 Howard [2009] for most recent documentation), has used the advection-diffusion relation to

47 successfully recreate the gross morphology observed in ancient martian landscapes [Howard,
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48 1994, 2007; Craddock et al., 1997; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008;

49 Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]. This and many other models are based
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50 on numerical simulations of geomorphic processes. Each process is governed by a set of

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51 equations that acts upon a topographic surface, which is rendered as a matrix of elevation values

52 (a digital elevation model, or DEM). These DEMs may either be generated synthetically or

53 extracted from real topographic datasets (e.g. MOLA gridded topography [Smith et al., 2001] or

54 high-resolution stereo pairs [Neukum et al., 2004; McEwen et al., 2007]). Qualitative and

55 quantitative data are derived from the changes in elevation that take place in the DEM; these

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56 results are often compared to or contrasted with the morphometric characteristics of the surface

57 that the model is attempting to reproduce.

58 We describe the history of the MARSSIM model as it is presented in the literature and

59 the physical theory underlying it. We then discuss the model’s successes and limitations when

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60 applied to Mars. We also provide descriptions and potential applications for some less frequently

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61 used components of the model. Finally, we provide a practical example of a modification that

62 could improve the existing model to even better represent the hydrologic cycle of Mars by

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63 incorporating an integrated system of precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow.

64 2. History of MARSSIM

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As its name implies, MARSSIM has mostly seen usage as a model for simulating
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66 geomorphic processes on the surface of Mars, although it has also found a few non-martian

applications [Howard, 1997; Fagherazzi et al., 2004; Howard and Moore, 2008; Matsubara and
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68 Howard, 2009]. We focus only on the papers that describe the model as it is applied to Mars,
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69 with the exception of the original publication that describes the model itself and is more general
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70 in nature [Howard, 1994].

71 The bulk of the current model is presented in this initial publication, with minor additions
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72 and changes described in papers as late as 2018. Prior to Howard’s pioneering 1994 study,

73 several other quantitative models of landform evolution had been explored [e.g. Ahnert, 1976;
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74 Kirkby, 1986; Willgoose et al., 1991]. Howard [1994] compares and contrasts the MARSSIM
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75 model with these previous treatments. The underlying assumption in the literature up to that time

76 was that the transport capacity of many geomorphic processes could be approximated by a

77 single, transport-limited power law function of contributing area and topographic slope [Howard,

78 1994]. However, Howard argues that erosion rates in nature are sometimes observed to be much

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79 lower than would be predicted by transport limitation alone; this is due to a second regime

80 known as weathering-limited transport (“detachment-limited” in the paper) where, instead of

81 being limited by the ability of the fluid to entrain sediment, erosion is limited by the inherent rate

82 at which erodible material becomes available, i.e. weathering. The concept of weathering vs.

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83 transport limitation in fluvial channels dates back to Carson and Kirkby [1972], but the Howard

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84 study was the first attempt to integrate these concepts into a computational model. Howard

85 [1994] outlines the advective and diffusive components of the MARSSIM model as well as the

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86 numerical methods used to solve the differential equations that describe them.

87 Craddock et al. [1997] are the first to implement the model on Mars in order to compare

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simulations of fluvial erosion and mass wasting to morphologic observations of degraded craters.
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89 Major findings that have been reinforced by later studies include the distinction between the flat-

floored, steep-walled topographic profiles produced by fluvial erosion and the more rounded,
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91 bowl-shaped topographic profiles produced by mass wasting. The former shape is the one
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92 predominantly observed for degraded martian craters, suggesting that fluvial erosion played a
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93 significant role. However, the lowering of crater rims and slight shallowing of crater wall slopes

94 compared to fresh craters means fluvial erosion could not have been the only process at work,
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95 and therefore some additional mass wasting is likely.

96 Forsberg-Taylor et al. [2004] follow up on the work of Craddock et al. [1997] by

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97 simulating different processes of martian crater degradation. It is also the first to introduce the
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98 eolian erosion model that is included in the current release version of MARSSIM. By testing

99 eolian processes against fluvial ones, the study concludes that the observed dissection of crater

100 walls and flat floors is more consistent with fluvial erosion, supporting the conclusions of

101 Craddock et al. [1997]. Fluvial erosion is the preferred explanation for the observed distribution

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102 of relative crater infilling, where most ancient craters on Mars have a high degree of relative

103 infilling indicative of rapid initial degradation through fluvial processes.

104 Howard [2007] is the first to provide an impact cratering model. The paper also

105 introduces a hydrologic balance model, explored further by Barnhart et al. [2009] and Matsubara

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106 et al. [2011, 2013, 2018], in which ponding of runoff in topographic depressions (i.e. lakes) can

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107 be offset by a constant evaporation rate. This adds a layer of complexity in which craters can act

108 as basins for fluvial channels and potentially influence the integration and development of valley

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109 networks. These two processes are quantified through an X ratio, which is the ratio of net

110 evaporation to runoff (higher ratios indicate more arid conditions with greater relative

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evaporation). Observational evidence suggests that overflowing and breaching of lake basins was
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112 a common occurrence on early Mars [Fassett and Head, 2008], and simulations using lower X

ratios tend to support this notion quantitatively. The lack of visible integration by these
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114 breaching channels may be due in part to interruption by subsequent impact events.
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115 Luo and Howard [2008] introduce a groundwater flow model to MARSSIM. A long-
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116 running debate has centered on the relative contributions of runoff and groundwater sapping to

117 the formation of valley networks. Groundwater sapping has been invoked to explain observations
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118 of poor drainage integration, near-constant valley width, and amphitheater-shaped headwalls; in

119 total this has been used as evidence against the necessity of a warm and wet early Mars climate
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120 [e.g. Squyres and Kasting, 1994]. Conversely, higher-resolution imagery has revealed greater
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121 dissection and smaller, branching tributary networks that often begin at drainage divides;

122 subsequent morphometric studies have provided evidence for a runoff origin of the valley

123 networks based upon these more recent observations [e.g. Craddock and Howard, 2002; Howard

124 et al., 2005; Irwin et al., 2011]. Luo and Howard [2008] use MARSSIM to test the efficacy of

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125 groundwater seepage erosion in unconsolidated sediment and seepage weathering of bedrock,

126 and compare these to erosion arising only from runoff. While sapping processes in the model

127 tend to recreate the characteristic morphologies of groundwater-fed valleys, a number of other

128 necessary conditions may be more difficult to reconcile, such as the requirement that grain sizes

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129 be small for seepage erosion to be effective, or that additional runoff is necessary to remove the

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130 weathered sediment from headwalls. Recent work by Lapotre and Lamb [2018] has confirmed

131 with a theoretical model that valley formation through groundwater sapping is unlikely to occur

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132 on Mars in competent basaltic bedrock.

133 Barnhart et al. [2009] also use MARSSIM to simulate valley network formation.

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Specifically, they use the Parana Valles catchment as a study area, which is then modified into an
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135 initial conditions surface (ICS) by erasing valley networks, reconstructing degraded craters, and

removing infilled sediment from basins in the DEM. In so doing, the study demonstrates the
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137 capability of the model to use either real topographic datasets or modified initial conditions
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138 surfaces as input. Valley network incision is simulated over the ICS with different effective
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139 discharges representing different climate states, from arid to semiarid to humid. They find that

140 arid to semiarid conditions produce results that best match the modern topography. They also run
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141 simulations with an indurated surface crust that is represented in the model by a resistant surface

142 layer. Based on these results, they conclude that valley networks were likely to have formed
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143 through punctuated flooding events followed by long dry episodes with significant evaporation
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144 and/or infiltration, according to best fits of the X ratio.

145 Matsubara et al. [2011] use the hydrologic balance model [Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al.,

146 2009] to determine the highest possible X ratio that still allows overflow of lake basins as a

147 proxy for the aridity of the climate. They perform both a global analysis of equatorial lake basins

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148 as well as selected higher-resolution regional studies. They find that X ratios of 3-7 are required

149 to create exit breaches from basins, many of which formed in areas not previously identified as

150 open-basin lakes [Fassett and Head, 2008]. Such X ratios are equivalent to those found during the

151 Last Glacial Maximum in North America, suggesting that warm and wet climate conditions were

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152 not necessary to cause lake overflow on Mars. Notably, groundwater flow is not included in their

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153 modeling, which in the context of MARSSIM has thus far has only been investigated by Luo and

154 Howard [2008]. They argue that groundwater contributions to maintaining lake levels are

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155 relatively small and that their results would be largely insensitive to this addition.

156 Matsubara et al. [2013] follow a similar principle to Barnhart et al. [2009] and Matsubara

157
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et al. [2011] in using the X ratio to gauge the hydrologic conditions responsible for the observed
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158 incision depth and channel gradient of martian valley networks. They develop an elevation-

dependent formulation of the X ratio as an approximation for orographic precipitation. A second

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160 change relates to flood attenuation through lakes, which is implemented to reflect the observed
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161 attenuation of flood discharges as a function of lake area. These are promising improvements to
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162 the previous runoff model, which is strictly dependent on drainage area with uniform

163 precipitation assumed.

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164 Most recently, Matsubara et al. [2018] revisit the roughly 300-Myr period of crater

165 degradation thought to have taken place in the Middle and Late Noachian prior to the formation
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166 of valley networks, as suggested by Howard et al. [2005] and Irwin et al. [2005, 2011]. This
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167 builds directly upon previous work on Noachian crater degradation by Craddock and Maxwell

168 [1993], Craddock et al. [1997], and Forsberg-Taylor et al. [2004] that has confirmed the

169 dominant role of fluvial erosion in creating and maintaining the characteristic topographic

170 profiles associated with degraded craters on Mars. Using a similar technique to Barnhart et al.

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171 [2009], this study recreates initial regional topography before the emplacement of impact craters

172 for study areas in Noachis Terra and Terra Cimmeria. They then reproduce the cratering history

173 as an active emplacement process alongside fluvial erosion and mass wasting while testing a

174 wide parameter space. They find that the most arid conditions simulated generally reproduce the

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175 actual topography with the greatest accuracy, suggesting that degradation in the earlier Noachian

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176 was slow and runoff-inefficient.

177 3. Parameterization

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178 3.1. Flow paths and sediment routing

179 We have given a brief outline of how the MARSSIM model has been used in the past,

180
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and the different geomorphic processes that have been investigated in the context of early Mars
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181 geology and climate. We now turn to each of these processes and describe their

parameterizations in the model in greater detail. At the beginning of each simulation, the
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183 MARSSIM model reads an input DEM and calculates how sediment will be routed downslope.
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184 The model first determines the local gradient at each cell as it relates to the eight surrounding
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185 cells; this is known as a d8 flow direction model, and the steepest downslope gradient among

186 these eight is assumed to be the path that the sediment will take. Local topographic minima, or
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187 “depressions,” will always result in the deposition of sediment at that location.

188 Drainage basins are constructed by iterating through the above flow direction scheme and
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189 determining for each cell which other upstream cells in the matrix contribute runoff to it. This
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190 leads to a certain additive discharge being routed through each cell. At depressions, the runoff

191 may either vanish (dry depressions) or collect and potentially overtop the depression (wet

192 depressions). Wet depressions have been used specifically in studies where a hydrologic balance

193 between runoff and evaporation is assumed, such that water can pond to some degree [Howard,

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194 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018], whereas dry depressions

195 prohibit runoff collection and thus the formation of lakes. For simulations that allow the

196 formation of lakes, a net lake evaporation rate (total evaporation less precipitation) can be

197 specified [Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018].

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198 The actual amount of sediment contributing to the cell is a function of all the transport

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199 processes being modeled in a given simulation. In the following sections, we describe mass

200 wasting, runoff, groundwater seepage, eolian transport, and impact cratering as erosive agents

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201 with an additional background weathering rate. This combination of processes comprises the all

202 the transport processes investigated in the MARSSIM literature for the planet Mars [Howard,

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1994, 2007; Craddock et al., 1997; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008,
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204 Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018], with the exception of gully erosion

[Howard, 1999a] and lava flows [Howard, 1999b], which have only appeared in abstracts. While
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206 all of these would act in parallel in nature, each process in the model must be treated
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207 sequentially.
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208 In order, the model first adjusts the elevation of bedrock or thickness of regolith due to

209 mass wasting and background weathering, then routes any sediment through a single fluvial
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210 channel of constant width. These three processes are grouped together as “divergence-

211 dependent,” as the elevation changes are all functions of the divergence of a volumetric sediment
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212 flux. Fluvial channels may either have alluvial or bedrock beds depending on the ability of the
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213 stream to transport away alluvial material. Sediment is assumed to be transported instantaneously

214 through bedrock channels relative to the simulation timescale, and sediment is deposited in

215 alluvial channels until reaching an equilibrium alluvial gradient, beyond which any remaining

216 sediment is routed downstream to the next cell. If the flow path reaches a point beyond which no

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217 sediment can be deposited (a depression or fixed nonalluvial location), then the model will

218 backgrade any leftover sediment up the channel. Other processes that are parameterized strictly

219 as elevation changes (eolian transport, impact cratering, etc.) are modeled after divergence-

220 dependent processes. A representative flowchart of the model architecture is presented in [Fig.

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221 1].

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222

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223 Figure 1. Flowchart illustrating the operation of the MARSSIM model. Gray boxes are input and
224 output files, white boxes are values calculated by the model, rounded boxes are sediment
225 transport processes, and user-defined input parameters are written in italics. After each iteration,
226 the model may write an output file and/or use the new topographic data to recalculate gradients
227 and drainage areas for the next iteration.

228 Regolith may be generated by direct weathering of bedrock through any of the above

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229 processes. Bedrock is assumed to have a constant resistance to weathering and subsequent

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230 erosion, and regolith is proportionally more erodible than bedrock by some factor. The default

231 input assumes an initially uniform regolith thickness, but an input regolith thickness matrix may

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232 also be used [Howard, 2009]. Likewise, the resistance of the bedrock may be defined by a 3-D

233 matrix that can vary both laterally across the domain and with depth [Barnhart et al., 2009;

234 Howard, 2009].

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235 In short, the flow routing model in MARSSIM determines drainage areas and flow paths

236 according to the topographic gradients in each cell of the DEM, which it then uses to calculate
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237 the effects of a series of geomorphic processes that lead to sediment transport. All sediment will
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238 either be transported downslope and deposited at depressions or deposited in an alluvial bed
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239 somewhere along the flow path.

240 3.2. Divergence-dependent processes

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241 The first processes considered within the MARSSIM modeling sequence are those that

242 are dependent on the divergence of a volumetric sediment flux. The fundamental goal of
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243 landform evolution modeling is to determine how the elevation of the surface changes over time,
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244 which may refer either to net erosion (negative) or deposition (positive). Erosion in this general

245 sense is caused by the combined effects of geomorphic processes that are, in different but related

246 ways, controlled by the topographic slope. The slope is simply the spatial derivative (gradient) of

247 elevation, whereas the erosion rate is the time derivative of elevation. A two-dimensional form of

248 this relationship, as might be used to characterize topography, is as follows:

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249 = + − + (1)

250 The above is commonly found in continuum mechanics, where it is known as an

251 advection-diffusion equation (ADE). Advection and diffusion have been used to explain the

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252 differences in scale efficiency and profile concavity of landscapes [Gilbert, 1909]. In this case

253 the ADE is not describing the physical motion of individual grains; rather, it is describing the

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254 change in elevation as a result of sediment transport as a whole, where the gradient is that of the

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255 topography. The ADE can be expressed volumetrically as the divergence of a sum of fluxes,

256 where each flux is representative of a volume of sediment per unit area (a depth). The divergence

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257 measures the difference in the fluxes between a given cell and those surrounding it, balancing the
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258 net flow between cells. The rate of change in sediment depth between cells is equivalent to the

259 rate of elevation change in the DEM.

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260 The model considers mass wasting, which is diffusive, and fluvial erosion through

261 bedrock and alluvial channels, which is advective. The total change in elevation due to
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262 divergence-dependent transport / is therefore a function of the volumetric fluxes for mass
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263 wasting qm, bedrock channel transport qf, and alluvial channel transport qs [Howard, 1994]:

= −∇ ∙ + +
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264 (2)

265 3.2.1. Mass wasting and background weathering

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266 Erosion through mass wasting is defined in MARSSIM as a single diffusive equation
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267 taking into account the combined influences of rainsplash, creep, and landsliding. In canonical

268 terrestrial applications [e.g. Culling, 1960, 1963], the mass wasting flux qm is taken to be linearly

269 proportional to the topographic slope S at low slopes. MARSSIM includes a nonlinear

270 component to take into account episodic landsliding processes that occur on steeper slopes where

271 the traditional linear formulation may break down. The mass wasting flux varies nonlinearly with

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272 topographic slope as the slope approaches some threshold value St, analogous to an angle of

273 repose for the given material beyond which slope failure is expected to occur [Howard, 1994,

274 2007; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009]:

= + −1
!/!" #$
(3)

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276 Each term is scaled by a diffusivity constant Ks or Kf, which depends on material

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277 properties. The nonlinear term in [Eqn. 3] leads to a discontinuity as S approaches St such that

the mass wasting flux on slopes ≥ St is infinite. This presents obvious mathematical limitations

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279 when attempting to model the evolution of surfaces that include slopes steeper than the threshold

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280 value; St = 0.8 (~39˚) is assumed for unconsolidated regolith and St = 2.7 (~70˚) for bare bedrock
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281 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009;

282 Matsubara et al., 2018]. The model differentiates between these two states by determining
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283 whether or not each cell is covered with regolith, and if so how thick the regolith is.

284 The threshold slope for regolith is well within the range of slopes observed on Mars
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285 [Aharonson et al., 2001], but it is difficult to determine whether locations with slopes beyond the
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286 threshold are actually regolith-mantled. The MARSSIM model implements a workaround known

287 as a “maximum diffusivity increase” such that the difference in the flux between two timesteps
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288 does not exceed some value (usually 0.025 m2/yr), thus avoiding numerical instabilities
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289 [Howard, 2009]. This and other models generally assume that the nonlinear components of mass
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290 wasting can be treated as quasi-continuous at sufficiently low spatial resolutions and long

291 simulation timescales. The source code also incorporates an option to use a slightly different

292 form of [Eqn. 3], as first proposed by Roering et al. [1999]:

=
&' !
!⁄!" #
293 (4)

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294 Different studies by Martin and Church [1997] and Martin [2000] fit a hyperbolic tangent

295 (tanh) function to empirical data for landsliding events in the Queen Charlotte Islands, British

296 Columbia. Instead of approaching a discontinuity at St, the tanh function uses St as an inflection

297 point between creep and failure regimes that are characterized by two distinct, steady-state

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298 diffusivities. This represents the time-averaged influences of both processes:

= + + +1 + tanh 2−
! !"

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299
) * 01 * (5)

=
34567 !" /01 #
* 4567 !" /01 #

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300 (6)

301 We have introduced an additional q0 correction factor not included by Martin such that

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302 the y-intercept of the function is zero, as well as standardizing the naming conventions such that
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303 [Eqns. 3-5] include the same term St. The steepness factor hx dictates how quickly the transition

304 from creep to landsliding occurs about the inflection point St, and is also empirical.
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305 [Eqns. 3-5] are scaled by the slope diffusivity Ks, and [Eqns. 3] and [5] are also scaled by
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306 a failure diffusivity Kf. The diffusivity is an intrinsic property of the material being transported
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307 and determines the timescale over which diffusion occurs. For most geologic materials, Ks << 1

308 m2/yr, due to the slow, incremental nature of creep processes [Martin, 2000 and references
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309 therein]. The near-failure diffusivity Kf is typically a few orders of magnitude greater than the

310 slope diffusivity Ks in each instance.

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311 An additional background weathering rate is assumed to convert bedrock to regolith

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312 isovolumetrically (resulting in a change in regolith thickness but no change in elevation). This

313 conversion rate of the bedrock decreases as a negative exponential function of the overlying

314 regolith thickness [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard, 2007, 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

315 89
= :$1
exp −>? # / @A (7)

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316 B / is the maximum conversion rate if the location were bare bedrock, H is the

317 regolith thickness, and –c is a constant decay rate. Kbw is the local relative resistance if a variable

318 bedrock resistance matrix is used. Higher values indicate greater relative resistance, which will

319 result in a lower weathering rate proportional to 1/Kbw. In the case of a resistant surface layer,

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320 Kbw is set to a characteristic resistance with layer thickness Hd [Barnhart et al., 2009].

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321 3.2.2. Flow geometry and hydrologic balance

322 Most MARSSIM studies have been concerned at least in some way with the effects of

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323 fluvial erosion [Howard, 1994, 2007; Craddock et al., 1997; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo

324 and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]; therefore, the bulk

325
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of the model is dedicated to simulating fluvial processes and sediment transport in channelized
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326 flows. The model assumes certain mathematical relationships for fluid flow and sediment
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327 transport that are dictated by the topography and channel geometry, but does not model the

328 dynamic processes of fluid-sediment interaction, which occur at much smaller spatial and
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329 temporal scales than the model is intended to simulate. Accordingly, it does not model the
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330 physical process of precipitation onto the ground surface (rainsplash is incorporated into a

331 general mass wasting flux). Instead it is assumed that precipitation and runoff are constant
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332 everywhere such that every cell in the simulation is undergoing continuous fluvial erosion within

333 a single channel of known width and slope. Likewise, channel erosion occurs as a bulk transport
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334 process and does not involve the entrainment or settling of individual grains.
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335 The flow geometry model establishes relationships between regional hydrologic

336 properties such as discharge, drainage area, and channel width. The effective discharge Q due to

337 runoff through any simulation cell is expressed as a power law relationship with the drainage

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338 area A that contributes to it [Howard, 1994, 2007; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard,

339 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

340 D = EFG (8)

341 The discharge exponent e is a particularly important parameter, as it determines the

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342 runoff efficiency and is the primary hydrologic proxy for climate and precipitation. A low

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343 discharge exponent is indicative of low runoff efficiency and high infiltration, such as in deserts;

344 a high discharge exponent likewise indicates high runoff efficiency with less infiltration,

SC
345 characteristic of more humid environments. In the special case of e = 1, where there is a linear

346 relationship between discharge and drainage area, the runoff yield P can be defined as the

347
U
precipitation rate P’ scaled by a fractional runoff yield RB [Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009;
AN
348 Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]. Otherwise P is expressed in units that make its physical
M

349 meaning difficult to interpret, and is better thought of as an empirical scaling factor. We address

350 one potential way to resolve this issue of scaling in Section 5.1 and further in Appendix C. P and
D

351 e are both dependent on climate, but while P dictates the absolute scaling of the discharge, e is a
TE

352 more intrinsic measure of the efficiency of runoff over a given terrain. The runoff yield could

353 still be very high (such as in a flash flood), but the discharge exponent will ultimately determine
EP

354 how efficiently the runoff is manifested as discharge for a given drainage area.

355 The precipitation rate P’ is not a standalone input variable; rather it is part of a hydrologic
C

356 balance equation introduced by Howard [2007] that takes into account both net evaporation as
AC

357 well as inflow and outflow from open-basin lakes for a given drainage area:

358 HIJ = HKL + FM − FN #E′PQ + FN E′ − R# (9)

359 Vout and Vin are the outflow and inflow terms, respectively; AL is the surface area of a

360 presumed lake; AT is the total drainage area including both the lake and uplands; and E is the

18
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

361 annual average evaporation rate off the lake (with P’ expressed in the same units in this case).

362 Importantly, [Eqn. 9] is expressed in terms of a volumetric flux, and the term (AT–AL)P’RB is

363 representative of the discharge Q over the drainage area (AT–AL). The general term P cannot be

364 in used in place of P’RB in [Eqn. 9] unless e = 1 in [Eqn. 8], as it would invalidate the

PT
365 simplifying assumption that P can be treated as a linear function of the precipitation rate.

RI
366 Some of the variables in [Eqn. 9] are used to calculate an X ratio that quantifies the

367 proportion of net evaporation to runoff, with higher X ratios corresponding to more arid

SC
368 environments [Howard, 2007; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]:

369 S = R − ET #/E′PQ (10)

370
U
The discharge may also be expressed as the product of the hydraulic radius R, channel
AN
371 width W, and flow velocity V [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard,
M

372 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

373 D = PUH (11)

D

374 The flow velocity has traditionally been defined with the Manning equation [Manning,
TE

375 1891] as a function of the hydraulic radius, channel gradient S (the same topographic slope S

376 from [Eqns. 3-5]), and a roughness coefficient N:

H = P )/V /W
EP

/)
377 (12)

378 Wilson et al. [2004] note that the dependence on gravity is not explicit in the Manning
C

379 equation, but can be incorporated using an analog derived from turbulence theory [Gioia and
AC

380 Bombardelli, 2002]:

381 H= P/X# /Y
PZ # /)
(13)

382 Here the roughness coefficient N has been replaced by a dimensionless constant Km,

383 whose value is determined empirically from terrestrial observations of the relationship between

19
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

384 N and the grain size d. By combining and rearranging [Eqn. 12] and [Eqn. 13], the roughness

385 coefficient, and thus the flow velocity, can be expressed as a function of both gravity and grain

386 size [Wilson et al., 2004]:

W=
[/\

][/ &:

PT
387 (14)

388 H= Z P
/) )/V /)
/X /Y
(15)

RI
389 The value of Km varies widely but generally decreases with increasing grain size. The

SC
390 original definition of flow velocity in MARSSIM follows [Eqn. 12] [Howard, 1994], but this was

391 later modified to include a correction factor Kn for martian gravity [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004;

U
392 Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

H=
&^ ][/ _ /` ! [/
AN
a
393 (16)

394 Since the Wilson et al. [2004] definition of the roughness coefficient already includes
M

= ZbBc , which
/)
395 gravity, we prefer to adapt [Eqn. 16] into the form of [Eqn. 15] by setting L
D

396 removes the redundant gravity term in the numerator. The roughness coefficient can then be
TE

397 defined by [Eqn. 14].

398 Finally, the channel width W is related by a power law relationship to the discharge Q
EP

399 [Howard, 1994, 2007; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al.,

400 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

C

401 U= AD
@
(17)
AC

402 3.2.3. Sediment transport in fluvial channels

403 The original purpose of the DELIM model as described by Howard [1994] was to

404 incorporate differential fluvial erosion processes between regimes of transport limitation and

405 weathering limitation. In the weathering-limited case, the divergence of the sediment flux qf is

406 proportional to the shear stress τ imparted by the flow of water with specific weight ρfg [Howard,
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

407 1994, 2007; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009;

408 Matsubara et al., 2018]:

−∇ ∙ =& d − de #
&"
409 (18)
89

d = f ZP

PT
410 (19)

411 τc is a critical shear stress required to overcome resistance to sliding friction, and Kbw is

RI
412 the local relative resistance as in [Eqn. 7], since the stream is assumed to incise directly into

SC
413 bedrock under weathering-limited conditions. In the model, [Eqn. 19] is parameterized such that

414 the shear stress can be expressed as a power law function of the slope S and drainage area A,

U
415 using the same variables as in previous equations [Howard, 1994]:

V/i
d = f Z+ 2 F
g [h8# a
AN
j/ * VG @#/i
&9
416 (20)

417 This form is somewhat cumbersome mathematically when compared to [Eqn. 19], but
M

418 recall from [Eqn. 8] the relation between the effective discharge Q, the runoff yield P, and the
D

419 discharge exponent e, both important climate parameters. By relating the discharge to the shear
TE

420 stress τ, we confirm the intuition that runoff has a direct influence on the sediment flux, and the

421 efficiency of the runoff will determine how the sediment flux is affected by climate. A full
EP

422 derivation of the runoff-dependent shear stress relation is given in Appendix B.

423 In transport-limited systems, the analogous relation to [Eqn. 18] is given instead as a
C

424 dimensionless sediment transport rate with dimensionless shear stress, where the shear stress is
AC

425 normalized by the specific weights ρfg and ρsg of the fluid and sediment, respectively, and the

426 grain size d [Howard, 1994, 2007; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008;

427 Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

428 ∗
= G d ∗ − de∗ #l (21)

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

d∗ =
m
n' ] no ]#
429 (22)

430 Ke is a sediment transport factor that decreases with increasing grain size. The divergence

431 of the dimensional sediment flux qs can be derived from the dimensionless form (note that in this

PT
432 case qs is defined in terms of a flux per unit time per unit channel width) [Forsberg-Taylor et al.,

433 2004; Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]:

RI
l [/
n' ] no ] `/
−∇ ∙ = −∇ ∙ p q s t
m mr
G n' ] no ] [/
no
434 (23)
Φ#

SC
435 Φ is the porosity of the bedload sediment. Regolith is assumed to be more erodible than

436 bedrock by a factor Kr such that the sediment fluxes for bedrock qf and qs become Krqf and Krqs

437 for regolith, respectively.

U
AN
438 In total, divergence-dependent sediment transport is accomplished in the model through a

combination of diffusive mass wasting and advective transport in fluvial channels. The mass
M

439

440 wasting flux is governed by a nonlinear diffusion equation that varies as a function of
D

441 topographic slope. Fluvial erosion is a function of the shear stress imparted on sediment grains
TE

442 by the fluid, which is scaled by various factors of channel geometry that are ultimately controlled

443 by climate. The discharge may be related to precipitation and evaporation through a hydrologic
EP

444 balance equation, but this assumes a linear relationship between discharge and drainage area.

445 3.3. Groundwater flow and seepage

C

446 The interaction of water derived from precipitation with a permeable subsurface is of
AC

447 critical importance to understanding the full effects of fluid flow on the surface of Mars. As such,

448 MARSSIM includes a groundwater flow model that can simulate the effects of seepage

449 weathering and erosion at points where the groundwater table intersects the land surface. A

450 constant recharge rate is used that is representative – but not explicitly a function of – the runoff

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

451 rate at the surface. Groundwater flow is functionally isolated from runoff unless it reemerges as

452 seepage, and accordingly no dynamic model of infiltration or recharge is employed.

453 Groundwater flow in the model is governed by Darcy’s law and uses the DuPuit–

454 Forchheimer assumption of an unconfined, steady-state aquifer with flow only in the horizontal

PT
455 direction [Luo and Howard, 2008]:

D]A = * ℎG ∇ℎA

RI
456 (24)

ℎG =
vwx y09 #
y
457 (25)

SC
458 ]A +z =0 (26)

U
459 K0 is the hydraulic conductivity at the surface, and he is a proxy for aquifer thickness
AN
460 when simulating an unconfined aquifer whose hydraulic conductivity decreases exponentially

461 with depth. This value is controlled by a groundwater depth scale β with units of inverse depth.
M

462 The product K0he is equivalent to the integrated hydraulic conductivity (transmissivity) of the

463 subsurface for unit width perpendicular to the flow direction. ∇ℎA is the hydraulic gradient,
D

464 which describes the change in the hydraulic head hw (water table height) with distance. The water
TE

465 table height is calculated iteratively from an initial constant depth until it reaches an equilibrium
EP

466 configuration. The groundwater flow rate qgw is offset by a constant recharge rate Ixy, which is

467 defined as its own input variable.

C

468 The hydraulic conductivity at the surface K0 is a function of the permeability expressed in
AC

469 units of darcy κ0, the specific weight of the fluid, and the viscosity of water µ [Howard, 2009]:
|} no ]
* = × 10 )
~
470 (27)

471 Groundwater seepage occurs when the height of the water table exceeds the elevation of

472 the land surface, where it rejoins any preexisting runoff. At cells where groundwater seepage

23
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

473 occurs, the total discharge in that cell is taken as a weighted sum of the individual components of

474 seepage and runoff, as defined by the groundwater flow fraction fgw [Howard, 2009]:

475 D I = 1 − €]A D + €]A D]A (28)

476 The emergence of groundwater can also lead to weathering through the destabilization of

PT
477 slope materials. This process is given in the model as a power law function of the groundwater

89

RI
478 discharge to the surface Qgw, and contributes to the background weathering rate [Luo and

SC
479 Howard, 2008; Howard, 2009]:

= ]A D]A
•9
480 (29)

=+
U
exp −>? # + 2/
89 :$1 •9
481 @A (30)
AN
482 The groundwater flow model is therefore comprised of two components: an unconfined,

steady-state flow in the subsurface with additional surface seepage that may either lead to
M

483

484 erosion of already cohesionless regolith or weathering of bedrock into regolith. Groundwater
D

485 flow is offset by a recharge rate that is defined independently of infiltration from runoff.
TE

486 3.4. Eolian transport

487 Erosion and deposition may also occur in the model outside of fluvial activity and mass
EP

488 wasting. The tendency of a location to undergo deposition or erosion by eolian transport is

489 modeled heuristically according to an exposure index Iεk that is a function of the eight-point
C

490 weighted sum of the gradients Si surrounding a given cell with elevation z along a transect k at
AC

491 distances ∆xi (typically the resolution of the cell) [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Luo and Howard,

492 2008]:

493 z‚ƒ = ∑LKˆ K exp −…∆‡K #⁄∑Kˆ

L
exp −…∆‡K # (31)

494 K = K − #⁄∆‡K (32)

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

495 The factor –η determines how quickly the weighting of the exposure index decays with

496 distance away from the cell. Isolated peaks or ridges are preferentially eroded while valleys and

497 depressions are filled in. The actual erosion rate due to eolian transport is set by a separate

498 weighting function that uses a minimum and maximum eolian erosion rate Emin and Emax

PT
499 (negative indicating deposition) and tenth and ninetieth percentile rates E10 and E90 [Howard,

RI
500 2009]:

= + Œ •
‰ Š:‹^ 3Š:$1 Š:‹^ Š:$1 &‰
) ) [/
3&‰
501 (33)

SC
= −1
)•‰•
502 ‚ √) Š‘} Š[}
(34)

503
U
[Eqn. 33] is only meant to serve as an approximation to long-term eolian degradation
AN
504 through airfall deposits as well as eolian scour by saltation, although the saltation process itself is

505 not modeled [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004]. Regolith is assumed to be more erodible than
M

506 bedrock by the same factor Kr as for fluvial erosion.

D

507 3.5. Impact cratering

TE

508 Impact cratering is a pervasive process on all planetary bodies, and cratered landscapes

509 are ubiquitous in the most ancient terrains of Mars as a result of late heavy bombardment. Even
EP

510 more so than the dynamic process of impact, crater basins can act as important geomorphic

511 agents, becoming sinks for fluvially-derived sediment.

C

512 The MARSSIM model provides a module specifically for creating impact craters within
AC

513 the topographic domain in order to study their effects upon sediment transport [Howard, 2007;

514 Matsubara et al., 2018]. These may either be emplaced as an initial conditions surface before the

515 simulation begins, or actively during the simulation alongside other geomorphic processes.

516 Cratering is modeled as an instantaneous change in topography relative to the simulation

517 timescale, as opposed to a dynamic event involving sequential excavation and modification.

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518 Impact craters are either “small” or “large” based on a given simple-to-complex transition

519 diameter, which occurs at ~7 km for equatorial craters on Mars [Robbins and Hynek, 2012]. The

520 geometry of the crater interior is parameterized through power law functions of the diameter with

521 depth d, rim height h, and cavity shape exponent m from global studies of fresh martian craters

PT
522 [Garvin et al., 2003; Table 1]. The current model does not create central peaks or other impact

RI
523 structures. An ejecta thickness function is derived such that the volume of the ejecta is

524 approximately equal to the volume excavated from the crater, decaying with a factor –n.

SC
X = 0.21 *.” X = 0.36 *.—˜
Simple (D<7 km) Complex (7<D<100 km)

ℎ = 0.04 *.V ℎ = 0.02 *.”—

Depth

š = 1.04 *.VYY š = 1.62 *. —

Rim height

U
Crater shape exponent
525
AN
526 Table 1. Fresh crater geometry measurements for impact cratering model, adapted from Garvin
527 et al. [2003].

The resultant deviation of the complete crater profile ∆H from the mean pre-impact
M

528

529 elevation zavg is given as a function of the radial distance r from the crater center. The deposited
D

530 material may either be all bedrock (a “hard” crater) or all regolith (a “soft” crater), at which point
TE

531 the regolith depth is reset to the initial regolith thickness specified in the parameter file [Howard,

532 2009]. Random variation is also allowed according to a log-normally distributed variable P
EP

533 [Howard, 2007]:

ℎ+X E ›≤
)c

∆? ›# = œ •
C

L
ℎ E › >
)c
534 (35)
•
AC

535 Since the model is resolution-limited, a minimum and maximum modeled crater diameter

536 must be defined. Typically, the minimum is equivalent to the scale of three cells while the

537 maximum is equal to half the width of the domain [Howard, 2007]. The model generates craters

538 in random locations with an impact frequency 1/Ti, where Ti is the average recurrence interval

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539 between impacts as a function of surface age and area, and a diameter D is taken from a –2

540 power law production function [e.g. Werner and Tanaka, 2011]. The local change in elevation

541 due to the impact ∆zi is governed by an inheritance parameter Ii; the inheritance parameter

542 determines how much of the pre-impact topography will remain. For Ii = 1, meaning complete

PT
543 inheritance, the crater profile ∆H will be superimposed upon the topography at every point; for Ii

RI
544 = 0, there is no inheritance, and the crater will erase topography and be deposited exactly as ∆H

545 referenced to the mean pre-impact elevation zavg [Howard, 2007; Matsubara et al., 2018]. The

SC
546 inheritance parameter is scaled such that it is always zero at the center of the crater and reaches a

547 maximum value at the rim [Howard, 2007]:

∆ =œ U
∆? ›K # + q1 − zK
)c‹ )
•
s B¡] − K ›≤
AN
K
∆? ›K # + ¢ B¡] − ›>
548 (36)
K

1 − zK 1 − zK < ∆? ›K #/ℎ
¢=£ ¥
M

∆? ›K #/ℎ 1 − zK > ∆? ›K #/ℎ

549 (37)
D

550 The term G is included such that the inheritance parameter is superseded beyond the
TE

551 point where it would be greater than the inherent ∆zi caused by the deviation ∆H in the

552 deposition of distal ejecta.

EP

553 Both eolian and impact processes are intended primarily as heuristic approximations of

554 the processes they simulate, providing the necessary backdrop for fluvial activity and mass
C

555 wasting to occur. While they may not be as physically precise as the latter, they can still be used
AC

556 as indicators of qualitative differences in erosion patterns [e.g. Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004] and

557 as initial conditions for further exploration of geomorphic evolution [e.g. Howard, 2007;

558 Matsubara et al., 2018].

559 4. Discussion

560 4.1. Current model successes and limitations

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561 The MARSSIM model is a powerful tool for understanding the evolution of landscapes

562 through sediment transport. While the parameterizations used in the model have some empirical

563 validation, it is still important to bear in mind the uncertainties and limitations inherent in the

564 results of any modeling exercise, and what manner of interpretations can be derived from them.

PT
565 We provide a brief summary below of how some of the uncertainties in model processes have

RI
566 been addressed in the literature. By employing a set of reasonable best estimates, the model

567 results can be used to understand the tradeoffs and interactions between different geomorphic

SC
568 processes on large scales. We have avoided citing specific values for variables in our foregoing

569 description of the model, since many of these are poorly constrained for Mars; an exhaustive list

570
U
of the parameter space that has been explored with MARSSIM is given in [Table 2]. The
AN
571 MARSSIM source code also provides a directory of example runs that includes input parameter

files with the variables that were used for each simulation [Howard, 2009].
M

572

Name Symbol Units Value(s) Notes

Mass wasting and background weathering
D

Bedrock ∂zmax/∂t m yr-1 0.0002-0.02 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,

weathering rate 2007]
TE

0.0001-0.001 [Matsubara et al., 2018]

0.0001 [Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et
al., 2009]
Slope gradient a 3 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
exponent 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008;
EP

Barnhart et al., 2009]

2 Oregon Coast Range [Roering et al.,
1999]
Weathering decay c m-1 0.03 [Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard,
C

rate 2008; Barnhart et al., 2009]

0.02 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004]
AC

Resistant surface Hd m 0-10 [Barnhart et al., 2009]

layer thickness
Steepness factor hx 0.19 “Group B” basins
0.1 “Group A” basins
Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada
[Martin, 2000]
Local relative Kbw 0-100 [Barnhart et al., 2009] for resistant
resistance surface layer – otherwise defined by 3-
D resistance matrix
Failure diffusivity Kf m2 yr-1 0.5 [Howard, 1994; Forsberg-Taylor et al.,
2004; Howard, 2007; Luo and
Howard, 2008]

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0.1 Median value [Martin, 2000] from

[Martin and Church, 1997]
0.05 [Barnhart et al., 2009]
Slope diffusivity Ks m2 yr-1 0.02 [Howard, 2007; Matsubara et al.,
2018]
0.0036 Oregon Coast Range [Roering et al.,
1999]
0.0005 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,

PT
2007; Barnhart et al., 2009] from arid
[Carson and Kirkby, 1972; Martin,
2000]
0.0002 Median [Martin, 2000] from [Martin

RI
and Church, 1997]
Threshold slope St m m-1 2.7 Bedrock [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004;
Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard,
2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara

SC
et al., 2018]
1.27 Oregon Coast Range [Roering et al.,
1999]
0.8 Regolith [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004;

U
Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009;
Matsubara et al., 2018]
AN
Flow geometry
Channel width b 0.5 [Howard, 1994, 2007; Forsberg-Taylor
exponent et al., 2004; Luo and Howard, 2008;
Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al.,
2018]
M

Discharge e 1.0 [Howard, 1994; Luo and Howard,

exponent 2008]
0.7 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
D

2007]
0.6 [Howard, 1994]
0.3-1.0 [Matsubara et al., 2018] variable with
TE

climate
0.3-0.7 [Barnhart et al., 2009] variable with
climate
0.3 [Craddock et al., 1997]
m s-2
EP

Gravitational g 9.81 Earth

acceleration 3.71 Mars
Flow velocity Km 6.01 Best estimate [Wilson et al., 2004]
constant 5.32 Arithmetic mean for different channel
bed types [Wilson et al., 2004] from
C

[Gioia and Bombardelli, 2002]

Channel width Kw m1-3b s-b 5.0 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
AC

constant 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008;

Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al.,
2018]
Manning N m-1/3 s 0.061 Based on median grain size [Wilson et
roughness al., 2004] from Viking and Pathfinder
coefficient [Golombek and Rapp, 1997;
Golombek et al., 2003]
0.0545 Best estimate [Wilson et al., 2004]
0.03 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
2007; Luo and Howard, 2008;
Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al.,

29
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2018]
Discharge P m3-2e s 1.27x10-3 [Barnhart et al., 2009] for e = 0.5
constant (runoff 7.56x10-4 [Matsubara et al., 2018] for e = 0.5
yield) 3.0x10-5 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
2007]
3.5x10-7 [Luo and Howard, 2008]
X-ratio 1.5-20 [Howard, 2007]
1-10 [Barnhart et al., 2009]

PT
–1-19 [Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013]
–1-15 [Matsubara et al., 2018]
Grain size d m 0.02 Fine gravel [Forsberg-Taylor et al.,
2004; Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al.,

RI
2009; Matsubara et al., 2018]
0.064 Median [Wilson et al., 2004] from
Viking and Pathfinder [Golombek and
Rapp, 1997; Golombek et al., 2003]

SC
0.0068 Median, Bradbury Rise conglomerate
[Williams et al., 2013]
0.0002 Sand [Howard, 2007; Luo and
Howard, 2008]

U
Fluvial channels
Sediment Ke m2 s-1 40.0 Sand [Howard, 2007; Luo and
AN
transport factor Howard, 2008; Matsubara et al., 2018]
8.0 Fine gravel [Forsberg-Taylor et al.,
2004; Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al.,
2009]
Regolith Kr 10-100 [Matsubara et al., 2018]
M

erodibility factor 10 [Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et

al., 2009]
3 [Howard, 2007]
D

1-10 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004]

Bedrock Kt m2 s kg-1 0.01 Weak substrate [Luo and Howard,
erodibility 2008]
TE

0.0003-0.003 [Matsubara et al., 2018]

0.0003 [Barnhart et al., 2009]
0.0002-0.02 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004]
0.0001-0.0002 [Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard,
EP

2008]
Sediment p 3.0 Sand [Howard, 2007]
transport exponent 1.5 Fine gravel [Forsberg-Taylor et al.,
2004; Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al.,
C

2009; Matsubara et al., 2018] or sand?

[Luo and Howard, 2008]
Fluid density ρf kg m-3 1000
AC

Sediment density ρs kg m-3 2650 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,

2007; Luo and Howard, 2008;
Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al.,
2018]
Critical shear τc kg m-1 s-2 (Pa) 0 [Craddock et al., 1997; Howard, 2007;
stress Luo and Howard, 2008; Barnhart et
al., 2009]
Dimensionless τc* 0.05 [Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004; Howard,
critical shear 2007; Luo and Howard, 2008;
stress Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al.,
2018]

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“negligible” [Howard, 1994]

Sediment porosity Φ 0.5 [Howard, 2007; Luo and Howard,
2008; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara
et al., 2018]
Groundwater
Groundwater flow fgw 0 or 1 [Luo and Howard, 2008] – see text
fraction
Recharge rate Ixy m yr-1 1.0 Unconsolidated sediment

PT
0.04 Navajo Sandstone
[Luo and Howard, 2008]
Seepage Kgw m1-3s s1-s 0.001-0.002 [Luo and Howard, 2008]
weathering

RI
constant
Seepage s 1.0 [Howard, 2009]
weathering

SC
exponent
Groundwater β m-1 0.00347-0.00693 [Luo and Howard, 2008]
depth scale
Permeability κ0 10-12 m2 (darcy) 1.005 Unconsolidated sediment
0.039 Navajo Sandstone

U
[Luo and Howard, 2008]
Fluid viscosity µ kg m-1 s-1 (Pa s) 0.0012 [Howard, 2009]
AN
Eolian transport
10th percentile E10 m yr-1 0.0 [Howard, 2009]
eolian erosion rate
90th percentile “ “ E90 m yr-1 0.2 [Howard, 2009]
m yr-1
M

Maximum “ “ Emax 1.0 [Howard, 2009]

Minimum “ “ Emin m yr-1 -0.01 [Howard, 2009]
Exposure index η 0.00004 [Howard, 2009]
decay factor
D

Impact cratering
Inheritance Ii 0.9 [Matsubara et al., 2018]
parameter 0.4-1.0 [Howard, 2007]
TE

573
574 Table 2. List of model variables with values cited in the literature. Citations from Howard
575 [2009] use the relevant parameter files for each module found in the “example_runs” folder.
EP

576 As it is primarily intended to simulate fluvial processes, MARSSIM uses a detailed

577 parameterization of sediment transport in channelized flows. In this sense it is a high-level

C

578 model, using bulk transport relations to make generalizations about finer-scale interactions
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579 between fluid and sediment. These are ultimately limited by the resolution of the DEM, since

580 individual channels cannot be rendered at a resolution higher than a single cell width, which is

581 often wider than a typical fluvial channel. This means that the model is less useful for simulating

582 how the landscape evolves locally due to the existence or absence of specific fluvial

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583 morphologies (braiding, meanders, etc.) and rather reflects overall changes in topography due to

584 the mechanics of the flow.

585 The distinction between transport-limited and weathering-limited modes of fluvial

586 erosion is drawn from the ability of the fluid to entrain sediment, which in MARSSIM is

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587 represented by the shear stress being imparted on individual grains [Eqn. 19]. The application of

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588 a shear stress relation to sediment transport is known more generally as a stream power model, in

589 which sediment transport is assumed to be a power law function of both channel slope S and

SC
590 drainage area A [e.g. Sklar and Dietrich, 1998; Whipple and Tucker, 1999]. This model is

591 attractive both for its simplicity and wide applicability to a number of different sediment

592
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transport processes. However, complications to this model have been raised in the
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593 geomorphology literature over the past few decades. As opposed to direct entrainment by

flowing liquid water, sediment transport at fine scales may instead be controlled by bedload
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594

595 abrasion or plucking [e.g. Chatanantavet and Parker, 2009]. In other scenarios, sediment-covered
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596 beds may reduce erosion rates [e.g. Shobe et al., 2017]. These considerations require fairly exact
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597 knowledge of the physical properties of the sediment. While reasonable approximations can be

598 made, the disadvantage of these bed-specific models on Mars is that they may not be any more
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599 accurate than the simpler stream power models at present, due to a lack of strong constraints on

600 bed material properties on Mars. As such, MARSSIM maintains the stream power model in its
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601 formulations, and in this way only intends to replicate large-scale geomorphic signatures and
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602 interactions between different processes.

603 While the physics underlying the mass wasting component of MARSSIM is widely

604 accepted, there remain complexities here as well that are poorly understood. The model uses

605 either of two nonlinear equations to account for additional slope failure processes [Eqns. 3-4],

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606 and validation of such treatments is ongoing. As with bed sediment properties, diffusivity

607 measurements require extensive field observation, and such values for Mars are difficult to know

608 with certainty. Mass wasting has been invoked mostly as a secondary process to explain the

609 decrease in crater wall slopes of equatorial highland craters on Mars, while the overall

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610 maintenance of steep slopes with flat floors has been attributed to backwasting and infilling from

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611 fluvial activity [Craddock et al., 1997; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004]. Therefore the hypothesis of

612 mass wasting as a process contributing to the overall softening of topography on Mars is likely

SC
613 sound, outside of attempting to define the exact rate at which this process occurs. Less detailed

614 descriptions have been given on the parameterization of the remaining supplementary modules,

615
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and some of these values come only from the unpublished model documentation or source code
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616 [Howard, 2009]. Greater caution should be exercised in the use and interpretation of these parts

of the model.
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617

618 The success of MARSSIM at reproducing observed landforms has been quantified
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619 through various statistical methods, which have often involved a modified initial conditions
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620 surface compared to the original topography. Barnhart et al. [2009] and Matsubara et al. [2018]

621 have both used a method of root mean squares (RMS) to quantify the goodness of fit between
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622 elevation histograms binned by the difference in elevation relative to a baseline. This allows the

623 analysis of other model variables to be constrained to runs that fall within some threshold of
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624 similarity in the overall pattern of erosion, while combinations of parameters that result in
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625 topography far outside the expected range can be discarded. Variables can also be compared

626 against one another to highlight statistical significance. Correlation coefficients and R2 values

627 have been determined between a number of properties relating lake overflows [Matsubara et al.,

628 2011] and valley network incision [Matsubara et al., 2013] to variance in hydrologic parameters

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629 such as discharge and topographic slope. The usefulness of the model ultimately resides in the

630 desired result: MARSSIM is best suited to simulations that attempt to reproduce large-scale

631 topographic variation and erosion patterns due to specific combinations of geomorphic

632 processes. Statistical methods may be applied for the purpose of additional quantitative analysis,

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633 but these should be complementary to qualitative measures of reproducibility.

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634 4.2. New applications

635 The standard model only requires two input files, which are the parameter file and an

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636 input elevation DEM. Other input files are available, but in some cases they must be created with

637 separate software and converted into a format that is readable by Fortran [Howard, 2009]. Three

638
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such input files are possible with the current model architecture: a variable regolith thickness
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639 matrix, a variable bedrock resistance matrix, and an influent river parameter file [Howard, 2009].

None of these has been reported in the published literature for Mars, but their implementation
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640

641 would allow the introduction of spatial heterogeneity into some of the key physical
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642 characteristics of the landscape.

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643 The variable regolith thickness matrix requires a simple 2-D ASCII file (inreg.dat) with

644 the same dimensions as the DEM that prescribes an initial regolith thickness for each cell
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645 [Howard, 2009]. The thickness of regolith on the surface of Mars and its variation from place to

646 place is not well known, but it could be reasonably assumed that sediment transport processes
C

647 have redistributed material away from steep slopes and into basins over time. Variable regolith
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648 thickness could provide a more realistic initial condition for subsequent sediment transport in the

649 model, which is highly dependent on the thickness and differential erodibility of regolith vs.

650 bedrock.

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651 Even with variable regolith thickness, the material properties of the substrate are

652 currently confined in the model to a single layer of bedrock with a characteristic erodibility that

653 determines both the background weathering rate (∂zmax/∂t in [Eqn. 6]) and the efficiency of

654 erosion in bedrock channels (Kt in [Eqn. 17]). Both of these equations are scaled by a local

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655 relative resistance Kbw, which in the nominal case is equal to unity (indicating no spatial variation

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656 in erodibility), or in the case of a resistant surface layer, can be set to a constant value >1 over a

657 given thickness Hd [Barnhart et al., 2009]. The variable bedrock resistance matrix (resist.in)

SC
658 takes this a step further by allowing the value Kbw to vary both with location and depth. Unlike

659 the 2-D regolith thickness matrix, the 3-D resistance “cube” must be converted into a direct

660
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access file in order to be read by Fortran. A separate program (matrix_3D.f90) is provided in the
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661 source code for this purpose [Howard, 2009].

This raises the possibility of defining multiple layers of different erodibility within the
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662

663 subsurface; this could be reflected either in the stratigraphy of the bedrock or in some other
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664 mechanical property such as the presence of a cryosphere. The rock record of Mars contains an
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665 abundance of sedimentary strata, many of which have been shown to be differentially eroded and

666 preserved [e.g. Malin and Edgett, 2000; Grotzinger and Milliken, 2012], and a global crysophere
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667 has been theorized to exist at depth throughout the geologic history of Mars [e.g. Clifford, 1993;

668 Clifford and Parker, 2001]. Likewise, the influence of an ice-cemented substrate has been
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669 demonstrated to potentially affect the formation of valley networks due to the competing
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670 influences of mechanical and thermal erosion [Cassanelli and Head, 2019]. Even to a first order,

671 the ability to incorporate stratigraphy into MARSSIM would represent a major improvement in

672 the ability to test hypotheses of fluvial erosion and transport of sedimentary rock, particularly

673 with higher-resolution studies of specific formations or regions of interest. For example, the

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674 Mars 2020 rover landing site in Jezero crater [Goudge et al., 2015; Golombek et al., 2018]

675 features exposed sedimentary structures whose origins and mechanisms of formation could be

676 tested with MARSSIM using the variable bedrock resistance matrix.

677 The influent river parameter file (inriver.prm) allows point sources of discharge and

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678 sediment flux to be assigned within the DEM. An initial value is given for the number of point

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679 sources being modeled, which the code then iterates according to the parameters provided for

680 each [Howard, 2009]. The parameters are the x and y coordinates for the source as well as its

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681 discharge and sediment load. For each cell where such a source is present, the discharge is added

682 to the preexisting discharge from the cell’s drainage area [Eqn. 8], and the sediment yield is

683
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added to the sediment yield from the surrounding cells as if it were a bedrock channel [Eqn. 18]
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684 [Howard, 2009].

Simulations using influent rivers were performed by Fagherazzi et al. [2004] for
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685

686 deposition of sediment by large rivers onto continental shelves in the Atlantic Ocean to
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687 determine the effect of sea level change on underwater fluvial morphology. We envision the
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688 influent river parameter file could also be utilized in a planetary context, allowing for more

689 accurate representations of depositional features with point sources of flow, such as gullies,
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690 alluvial fans, and deltas, in situations where the model’s default formulation of areally uniform

691 runoff would be undesirable. The formation of deltas can be modeled explicitly either by
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692 allowing wet depressions (and therefore lakes) and/or specifying a universal ocean elevation
AC

693 beneath which water will exist everywhere in the domain [Howard, 2009]. If the flow routing

694 algorithm determines that sediment is being routed underwater, it will automatically deposit a

695 delta according to a delta foreset gradient specified in the parameter file [Howard, 2009].

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696 The current MARSSIM literature has reported mostly on simulations with constant

697 runoff. A few modifications already exist within the source code to allow for runoff and

698 precipitation to vary spatially. Divergence-dependent runoff allows the effective discharge to be

699 scaled with the divergence of the topographic slope ∇ ∙ #, instead of strictly according to the

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700 runoff yield P as in [Eqn. 8]. The source code uses the following formulation, where fS is the

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701 weighting factor for the divergence-dependent component [Howard, 2009]:

/) /)
D = Œ 1 − €! #E + €! E 1+ • FG
∇∙!# ∇∙!#
) )
702 (38)

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703 A different implementation of the non-uniform runoff model is described by Matsubara et

U
704 al. [2013]. Instead of being dependent on the divergence of the topographic slope, they use an
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705 elevation-dependent model such that the X ratio [Eqn. 9] decreases exponentially as a function of

706 a reference elevation HR. This roughly approximates orographic precipitation:

S = exp ¦ − §?_ # − 1
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707 (39)

a and b are fitting parameters taken from a previous study of the Great Basin region on
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708

709 Earth [Matsubara and Howard, 2009]. The fit is adapted to Mars by setting HR equal to zero and
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710 setting the parameter a such that [Eqn. 39] matches previously calculated X ratios [Matsubara et
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711 al., 2011]. Recent climate modeling studies have shown that an adiabatic cooling effect in a

712 thicker early martian atmosphere may have led to the accumulation of ice in the southern
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713 highlands [Forget et al., 2013; Wordsworth et al., 2013, 2015; Head and Marchant, 2014] and
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714 orographic precipitation of snow along the martian dichotomy boundary [Scanlon et al., 2013].

715 This has led to the formulation of a Late Noachian Icy Highlands (LNIH) climate scenario in

716 which most of the valley networks and other Late Noachian/Early Hesperian fluvial features

717 were formed by occasional snowmelt from an ice sheet existing at higher elevations [Head and

718 Marchant, 2014; Fastook and Head, 2015]. The orographic precipitation model in MARSSIM

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719 could potentially be combined with general circulation models to simulate the effects of

720 orographic precipitation along the dichotomy boundary, and the influent river parameter file

721 could be used to simulate point sources of flow from snowmelt as outlined in the LNIH climate

722 scenario.

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723 Finally, Matsubara et al. [2013] incorporate flood attenuation into their calculations of

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724 discharge. Specifically, the downstream discharge from a lake basin becomes an exponential

725 function of the ratio of the upstream discharge to the lake area multiplied by a flood attenuation

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726 coefficient KA:

727 DIJ = DKL exp ¨− © P − Pe #ª (40)

728
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R is the ratio of the lake area to the mean annual discharge into the lake, where Rc is a
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729 critical ratio below which no attenuation occurs. Matsubara et al. [2013] use KA = 10 for
M

730 “medium attenuation” and KA = 1000 for “high attenuation.” These values are arbitrary but are

731 used to explore a wide parameter space that is otherwise unconstrained for Mars.
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732 The applications described above are in many cases ready to be used with the standard
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733 build of the model; in other cases, some modifications would be necessary. Full advantage

734 should be taken of these particular resources by those wishing to utilize MARSSIM in the near
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735 future, as new results with these modifications could present significant advances in our

736 understanding of landform evolution on Mars, particularly in regard to the spatial heterogeneity
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737 of climatic and geologic properties of interest.

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738 5. The integrated hydrologic system

739 5.1. Rationale

740 In Sections 3.2 and 3.3, we briefly outlined the manner in which the model isolates

741 surface runoff from groundwater recharge. Observational studies of open-basin lake hydrology

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742 have shown that an integrated hydrologic system should have existed during the Late

743 Noachian/Early Hesperian terminal epoch [Craddock and Howard, 2002; Howard et al., 2005;

744 Irwin et al., 2005], particularly in the case of lakes connected both by overland flow through

745 valley network chains and by groundwater recharge [Fassett and Head, 2008]. This is also

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746 consistent with rover observations of relict near-surface groundwater activity in Meridiani

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747 Planum [McLennan et al., 2005] and Gale crater [Hurowitz et al. 2017], as well as global-scale

748 numerical simulations of groundwater upwelling [Andrews-Hanna et al., 2007].

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749 To review, the hydrologic balance equation governs the assumed relationship between

750 precipitation and runoff, where the runoff yield P is a fraction RB of the precipitation rate P’

751 [Eqn. 9]:

U
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752 E = ET PQ (41)
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753 Inherent in this formulation is that both P and P’ are expressed as depths per unit time

754 (RB is unitless), and as such the discharge exponent e must be unity in [Eqn. 8]. We use this
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755 simplified linear case for discharge in our simulations of an integrated hydrologic system, This is
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756 often not true in nature, especially for the arid conditions assumed for early Mars, where a best

757 fit discharge exponent of e = 0.3 has been used [Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2018].
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758 For the discharge Q to have the correct units of m3/s, the runoff yield P must be expressed in

759 units of m3-2e/s. For e = 1 this allows P to have units of m/s. Otherwise, a scaling factor can be
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760 applied to P (derived in Appendix C) to convert it into the correct units for any given value of e.
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761 In an integrated hydrologic system, RB will represent the fraction of precipitation

762 remaining after losses to infiltration and evaporation over the land surface:

PQ = 1 −
3Š
g«
763 (42)

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764 The rate at which precipitation is lost to infiltration is dependent upon the physical

765 properties of the regolith. An instantaneous infiltration rate f can be modeled by

766 parameterizations of Darcy’s law for vertical unsaturated flow in a medium with hydraulic

767 conductivity K, such as with the Green–Ampt method [e.g. Mays, 2010]:

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€=
0} 3¬3N
N
768 (43)

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769 The Green–Ampt method considers both a pressure head ψ and gravitational head L with

770 an additional ponded depth at the surface h0. L is the depth of a wetting front below which the

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771 regolith is assumed to have an ambient moisture content. If h0 and ψ are small in comparison to

U
772 L, then the instantaneous infiltration rate f can be approximated by the hydraulic conductivity of
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773 the regolith K.

774 The effect of evaporative losses has been explored previously in the MARSSIM literature
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775 [Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]. In this context, an X

776 ratio has been used to parameterize evaporation from filled lake basins [Eqn. 10], but we assume
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777 in the integrated system that evaporation will occur first over the land surface before runoff is
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778 able to drain into lakes, and after infiltration has taken place. Groundwater seepage will also be

779 subject to evaporation as it becomes incorporated into runoff. By solving for E, the annual
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780 average evaporation rate can be expressed in terms of the precipitation rate P’, the infiltration
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781 rate f, the groundwater seepage rate qgw [Eqn. 26], and the X ratio:

R = ET + S ET − € + ]A #
AC

782 (44)

783 The runoff yield P can then be defined in terms of the precipitation, infiltration, and

784 evaporation rates:

785 E = ET − € + R# (45)

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786 The hydrologic balance equation [Eqn. 9] was developed for applications in MARSSIM

787 that did not involve groundwater flow modeling [Howard, 2007; Barnhart et al., 2009; Matsubara

788 et al., 2011, 2013, 2018]. In an integrated system, there will be an additional groundwater

789 seepage component added to runoff, resulting in a modified hydrologic balance equation:

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790 HIJ = HKL + FM − FN # E′ − € + R# + ]A # + FN E′ − R# (46)

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791 The existing model uses a groundwater flow fraction fgw to scale runoff contributions

792 from seepage as a fraction of the total groundwater flux [Eqn. 28]. However, assuming that the

SC
793 groundwater flux is not attenuated as it seeps from the subsurface, we treat the seepage

794 component of runoff as additive in our integrated model in lieu of a groundwater flow fraction.

795
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Applying these concepts correctly to a modeling architecture requires careful
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796 consideration of the different timescales used and how they are reported. Precipitation and
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797 infiltration are essentially instantaneous on geologic timescales, while evaporation and

798 groundwater recharge are more often reported as annual averages. The periodicity of the
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799 instantaneous processes (i.e. precipitation and infiltration) is a key factor in determining how
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800 annual averages are manifested as instantaneous rates. Periodic precipitation and infiltration

801 during infrequent, intense storm events is typical of deserts on Earth, and similar conditions have
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802 been postulated for early Mars [e.g. Barnhart et al., 2009]. We introduce a periodicity T that

803 represents the recurrence interval of precipitation events in an integrated hydrologic system, and
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804 is a scaling factor that can be used to convert between annual averages and instantaneous rates.
AC

805 We describe three scenarios for our simulations of an integrated hydrologic system

806 below. Each simulation is run for 106 years according to the approximate timescale required for

807 the formation of valley networks through periodic precipitation and runoff [Barnhart et al.,

808 2009]. The simulation domain is 128x512 pixels at 1 km/pixel resolution, resulting in an area

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809 ~6.6×105 km2. We set the boundary conditions to be periodic in the y direction and non-periodic

810 in the x direction, such that runoff can flow downhill and out the bottom of the domain. The

811 input DEM is a heavily cratered surface as might have been present prior to the formation of

812 valley networks, and is generated using the “makecrater” function in MARSSIM [Howard,

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813 2009]. Since previous MARSSIM studies have not combined groundwater flow with ponding

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814 and evaporation in lake basins, we conservatively assume that groundwater flow will be small

815 enough not to contribute significantly to lake infilling as opposed to runoff, but will contribute to

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816 the overall erosion and transport of sediment. This means the X ratio will dictate evaporation

817 over the land surface but not in lake basins for cases when only groundwater seepage is modeled.

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818
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819 Figure 2. Cross-sectional diagram of an integrated hydrologic system for Run 2 in which
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820 precipitation exceeds infiltration, after Fassett and Head [2008]. Precipitation falls at a rate P’
821 and runs off at rate P’RB after accounting for losses to infiltration f and evaporation E. Runoff
822 contributes to fluvial erosion over land as well as ponding and potential basin breaching in open-
823 basin lakes. Infiltration provides a recharge mechanism for groundwater flow, which seeps to the
824 surface at a rate qgw and contributes to runoff. Mass wasting and background weathering will
825 contribute some small additional amount to overall erosion.

826 5.2. Simulations

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827 Run 1: Complete infiltration. In the first case, infiltration will exceed precipitation, such

828 that no runoff occurs initially, and geomorphic work can only be accomplished when

829 groundwater seeps to the surface. This is similar to the complete infiltration scenario tested by

830 Luo and Howard [2008], but key differences between their study and the integrated hydrologic

PT
831 system are the inclusion of evaporation over the land surface and the effects of infiltration. Luo

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832 and Howard [2008] and subsequent MARSSIM studies [e.g. Matsubara and Howard, 2009;

833 Matsubara et al., 2011, 2013, 2018] use the current-day Desert Southwest of the United States as

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834 an environmental analog for early Mars. The annual average recharge rate to groundwater

835 reservoirs in the Desert Southwest is ~0.02 m/yr (6.34×10-10 m/s) [Luo and Howard, 2008],

836
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which should correspond to the groundwater seepage rate qgw. Because the runoff term in the
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837 modified hydrologic balance equation [Eqn. 46] will only depend on qgw and E, the condition E <
M

838 qgw must be met in order for any runoff and basin filling to be sustained. This illustrates the

839 difficulty with which significant geomorphic work can be achieved by groundwater seepage
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840 alone, particularly in arid climates where the evaporation rate is high. Indeed, if we use a
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841 recharge rate of 0.02 m/yr in our simulations, very little groundwater seepage actually occurs

842 even over timescales of 106 years. For the sake of demonstration, we accommodate this
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843 limitation by choosing the most favorable combination of parameters for groundwater seepage in

844 the space explored by Luo and Howard [2008], with a seepage rate qgw = 1.0 m/yr (3.17×10-8
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845 m/s), effective aquifer depth he = 200 m, bedrock weathering rate ∂zmax/∂t = 0.1 m/yr, and slope
AC

846 and failure diffusivities for mass wasting Ks = 0.02 m2/yr and Kf = 0.5 m2/yr, respectively. For

847 Run 1, we set the X ratio to 0.5, resulting in an annual average evaporation rate E = 0.5 m/yr

848 (1.59×10-8 m/s) and total runoff from seepage ]A − R = 1.59×10-8 m/s. The runoff yield P

849 [Eqn. 45] will be zero in Run 1 because all precipitation is lost to infiltration.

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850 Run 2: Mixed runoff and infiltration. In the second case [Fig. 2], groundwater seepage

851 continues at the same rate as Run 1, but precipitation exceeds infiltration such that some amount

852 of runoff from precipitation occurs in addition to runoff from seepage. Annual precipitation in

853 arid terrestrial environments is estimated to be ~0.2 m/yr (6.34×10-9 m/s) [Luo and Howard,

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854 2008]. Runoff resultant from this precipitation will be mitigated first by infiltration, which

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855 occurs at a rate higher than, and separate from, recharge to the groundwater system (i.e. regolith

856 at the surface is generally more permeable than lithified bedrock containing an aquifer). We use

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857 a hydraulic conductivity of silty to clean sands of K = 3.10×10-6 m/s [Luo and Howard, 2008] to

858 represent the instantaneous infiltration rate f in Run 2, per our approximation of [Eqn. 43].

859
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The instantaneous precipitation rate must be equal to or greater than the infiltration rate in
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860 order for runoff and surface erosion to occur. This allows us to calculate a lower bound on the
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861 recurrence interval T. By taking the ratio of the annual average precipitation rate to instantaneous

862 infiltration rate, we find that T has a lower bound of 3.10×10-6/6.34×10-9, or ~500. This value
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863 represents the minimum interval over which precipitation can recur to both exceed instantaneous
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864 infiltration into the subsurface and result in an annual average rate equal to the assigned value.

865 We use a slightly higher T = 1000 such that approximately half of the precipitation infiltrates

while the other half runs off, resulting in an instantaneous precipitation rate P’ = 6.34×10-6 m/s.
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866

867 For a simulation of 106 years, precipitation will occur for a cumulative 103 years when T = 1000.
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868 This is accomplished by modeling precipitation for one out of every 1000 iterations.
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869 Evaporation will also affect runoff according to [Eqn. 44]. Matsubara et al. [2011] find

870 that X ratios between 3 and 7 are the best statistical fit to reproduce exit-breached lake basins

871 identified on Mars [Fassett and Head, 2008], so we adopt an X ratio of 5. For the instantaneous

872 precipitation rate P’ used above, this results in an annual average evaporation rate E = 5.71 m/yr

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873 (1.81×10-7 m/s) [Eqn. 44] for the same seepage rate qgw = 1.59×10-8 m/s used in Run 1.

874 Accordingly, the runoff yield P = 3.06×10-6 m/s [Eqn. 45] for Run 2.

875 Run 3: Complete runoff. For an integrated system, it would be difficult to attain complete

876 runoff without the existence of an impermeable boundary layer. We include this as a third case,

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877 however, keeping in mind the likelihood that such conditions would have other unpredictable

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878 effects on the subsequent erodibility of the surface by fluvial flows or other mechanisms that we

879 do not consider. If we assume no infiltration or subsequent groundwater seepage, and the same X

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880 ratio of 5, the annual average evaporation rate E = 1.20 m/yr (3.81×10-8 m/s) and the runoff yield

881 P = 6.30×10-6 m/s for Run 3. The parameter values we use for our simulations are summarized

882 in [Table 3].

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6.34×10-6 m/s 6.34×10-6 m/s
Parameter Run 1 Run 2 Run 3

3.10×10-6 m/s
Precipitation P’ –
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Infiltration f – –
X ratio 0.5 5 5

3.06×10-6 m/s 6.30×10-6 m/s

Evaporation E 0.5 m/yr 5.71 m/yr 1.20 m/yr
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Runoff yield P –
Seepage rate qgw 1.0 m/yr 1.0 m/yr –
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Effective aquifer depth he 200 m 200 m –

Background weathering 0.1 m/yr 0.1 m/yr 0.1 m/yr
∂zmax/∂t
Slope diffusivity Ks 0.02 m2/yr 0.02 m2/yr 0.02 m2/yr
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Failure diffusivity Kf 0.5 m2/yr 0.5 m2/yr 0.5 m2/yr

883
884 Table 3. Parameters used in the three simulation runs of the integrated hydrologic system.
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885 5.3. Results

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886 [Fig. 3] shows shaded topography images of the three output DEMs when applied to an

887 initially fresh cratered surface with a north-south regional slope. The broadest and most

888 discernible difference between the three cases is the style of erosion and deposition caused by

889 either groundwater sapping or runoff from precipitation. These differences were identified in the

890 simulations of Luo and Howard [2008], and our results are consistent with this previous work.

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891 The complete infiltration case [Figs. 3b,e] results in the incision of sapping channels on

892 numerous crater walls and the subsequent deposition of sediment as smooth deposits on crater

893 floors. Ponding in crater basins results in the deposition of submarine sediment fans in the

894 second two cases [Figs. 3c-d,f-g] when runoff from precipitation is modeled, in addition to

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895 channel incision in the uplands.

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896 New insights are gained from the combination of groundwater seepage and runoff from

897 precipitation in the integrated hydrologic system [Figs. 3c,f]. The integrated system produces

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898 distinct erosion patterns unlike either of the two end members, particularly within crater basins.

899 In our simulations, the instantaneous rate of groundwater seepage is approximately two orders of

900
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magnitude lower than the runoff rate. Slow but continuous groundwater sapping weathers and
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901 mobilizes sediment during quiescent periods, which can then be more easily transported in much

more vigorous channelized flows during periods of infrequent precipitation. This results in
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902

903 greater erosive activity on crater walls and rims and overall greater infilling of crater floors,
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904 where more complex drainage patterns are also evident as opposed to the smooth deposits
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905 produced by seepage erosion.

906 The exact results of our simulations are inevitably rate-dependent. Differing amounts of
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907 erosion will occur as the simulation timescale and relative rates of precipitation, infiltration, and

908 groundwater flow are varied. We have chosen to simulate the integrated hydrologic system with
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909 approximately equal contributions from groundwater seepage and runoff from precipitation in
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910 order to best demonstrate their combined effects on the resultant landscape. While our choices of

911 parameters are reasonable within our knowledge of the prevailing conditions on early Mars, they

912 are not intended to replicate exactly any one place or time. Rather, our goal has been to

913 demonstrate a range of possible outcomes that include a qualitatively distinct example in the case

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914 of an integrated hydrologic system that has not previously been considered in the context of

915 planetary landscape evolution modeling.

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916

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917 Figure 3. Simulation results for an integrated hydrologic system as described in Section 5.2.
918 Panels a-d show output elevation DEMs overlaid on hillshade files: a) initial fresh surface, b)
919 complete infiltration, c) mixed infiltration and runoff, and d) complete runoff. Panels e-g show
920 elevation change from the initial fresh surface: e) complete infiltration, f) mixed infiltration and
921 runoff, and g) complete runoff. Parameters used for each simulation are summarized in Table 3.

922 6. Conclusions

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923 The MARSSIM landform evolution model is a powerful tool for understanding how

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924 geomorphic processes shape the topography of planetary surfaces through sediment transport.

925 The model has been tested and improved over the past three decades with numerous

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926 publications, and the original formulations have remained largely robust. We have attempted to

927 summarize key elements of the source code in order to provide the community with a better

928
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understanding of the model’s wide range of capabilities, especially for those who may not have
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929 previously been familiar with the methods involved.

930 As with any model, there are limits to how accurately MARSSIM is able to reproduce the
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931 conditions and processes that have shaped the surface of Mars. We have highlighted the
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932 successes and limitations of the current model, and considered other parts of the model that have
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933 rarely been used in the published literature but offer new possibilities for exploring Mars

934 geomorphology in even greater detail. Finally, we have outlined a new way of connecting
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935 precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow in the model such that they form an integrated

936 system. Our simulation results present a new, distinct scenario for the hydrology of early Mars.
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937 Although we have chosen to focus on MARSSIM, the discussion here is not limited to any one
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938 model architecture, nor do we intend for it to be taken as criticism of past modeling efforts. We

939 hope the information provided in this review might act as a framework for future planetary

940 landform evolution modeling studies, whether with MARSSIM or another model. In any case,

941 the continued development of computational methods will remain crucial to our understanding of

942 the geomorphic processes that shape planetary surfaces.

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943 Appendix A: Model implementation

944 The MARSSIM model, now in its third release [Howard, 2009], is written in Fortran90

945 and is distributed as open source under the GNU General Public License agreement

946 [https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.en.html]. The source code is available for download at the

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947 University of Virginia Geomorphology Homepage [https://erode.evsc.virginia.edu]. The model

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948 can be compiled and run in the command line using any modern Fortran compiler such as

949 gfortran [https://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/GFortran].

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950 The operation of the model is governed by a parameter file (marssim.prm), which defines

951 all of the variables described above in addition to boundary conditions and various constraints on

952
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the output and calculation of numerical solutions [Howard, 2009]. First, the model must read an
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953 input DEM (inelev.dat), which is an ASCII file containing a 2-D matrix of elevation values with

specific dimensions in the x and y directions; 256x256 pixels is a standard size [Howard, 2009].
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954

955 The model must also be provided with a resolution in order to properly scale the sediment
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956 transport processes occurring in the simulation. A standard resolution is 0.4 km/pixel, or a
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957 domain size of 102.4x102.4 km for a 256x256 DEM [Howard, 2007]. If desired, the model is

958 currently built to read in additional input matrices for variable regolith thickness (inreg.dat),
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959 variable bedrock resistance (resist.in), and influent rivers (inriver.prm) [Howard, 2009]. The

960 model may be run with either periodic or non-periodic boundary conditions at the x and y
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961 boundaries of the domain; doubly periodic boundary conditions are typically used in order to
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962 conserve mass, although some simulations have been periodic in the x direction and not the y

963 direction to simulate a drainage divide or other non-eroding boundary [e.g. Howard, 1994].

964 Differential equations are solved in the model using a finite difference approximation. To

965 ensure numerical stability, the minimum of the largest stable timesteps for each process being

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966 modeled is used as the overall simulation timestep [Howard, 1994]. Due to the nature of the

967 equations, sediment transport in alluvial channels is much more sensitive to numerical

968 instabilities than erosion either in bedrock channels or by mass wasting [Howard, 1994]. This is

969 due largely to the fact that alluvial channels tend to occur in areas with shallow slopes and large

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970 drainage areas, so even a small change in the contributing area can cause much larger changes in

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971 the resultant sediment flux [Howard, 1994]. To avoid this problem, MARSSIM ignores short-

972 term fluctuations in alluvial channel regrading and only simulates larger basin-scale changes that

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973 occur on similar timescales to other processes [Howard, 1994]. A recalculation timing parameter

974 is used to scale the relative frequency of different processes acting on the surface, and a

975
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reasonable approximation of these timescales can be achieved through dimensional analysis
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976 without sacrificing a significant amount of accuracy. MARSSIM runs at the largest stable

timestep by default, but if higher temporal resolution is desired, a minimum and maximum
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977

978 timestep range can be specified in the parameter file [Howard, 2009].
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979 As a simulation runs, the model will output various files at given intervals relative to the
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980 simulation timestep; these include tabular reports on the evolution of model variables as well as

981 grayscale image files in .raw format (these can be converted to other image formats using
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982 command line applications such as GDAL [http://www.gdal.org] or image editing software such

983 as Photoshop). These images include a relative elevation file (relele.raw), a hillshade image
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984 (bshade.raw), and color-cued maps of discharge (discharge.raw) and lake basin extent
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985 (submerge.raw) [Howard, 2009]. Most importantly, the model writes one or more output DEM

986 files (outelev.dat) that can be directly compared to the original input DEM. Much of the other

987 results provided by the model can also be calculated with the output DEM in programs such as

988 ArcGIS [http://www.arcgis.com].

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989 Appendix B. Derivation of stream power equation from shear stress

990 The volumetric sediment transport flux in fluvial channels has been expressed as a power

991 law function of the channel slope S and drainage area A; this is known as a “stream power”

992 equation and takes the general form [e.g. Dietrich et al., 2003]:

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993 = -F L
(B1)

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994 The applicability and potential drawbacks of the stream power model are discussed in

995 Section 4.1. The MARSSIM model assumes a stream power model in its formulations of

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996 sediment transport, which requires that the sediment transport be expressed in terms of a shear

997 stress:

998
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d = f ZP (B2)
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999 A form of the stream power equation can be derived from [Eqn. B2] through a sequence
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1000 of substitutions using the channel geometry equations. [Eqn. 10] can be rearranged to solve for

1001 the hydraulic radius R, which is then expressed in terms of the discharge Q [Eqn. 7], flow
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1002 velocity V [Eqn. 11], and channel width W [Eqn. 16]:

P=
®
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¯°
1003 (B3)

V/i
P= =+ 2
g [h8# © ± [h8# a g [h8# ©± [h8# a
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&9 _ /` ! [/ &9 ! [/
1004 (B4)

1005 Finally, the form of R given in [Eqn. B4] can be substituted into the shear stress equation;
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1006 the area term A is then factored out to result in a stream power equation:
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V/i V/i
d = f Z+ 2 = f Z+ 2 F
g [h8# © ± [h8# a g [h8# a j/ * VG @#/i
&9 ! [/ &9
1007 (B5)

1008 Appendix C. Derivation of scaling factor for nonlinear runoff yield

1009 A coefficient K can be defined to convert the runoff yield P’RB into a correctly scaled

1010 value of P, and has units of m2-2e:

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1011 E= ET PQ # (C1)

= š)
`h ±
)G
1012 (C2)

1013 The runoff yield becomes a total depth in units of m by multiplying by the simulation

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1014 timescale. The coefficient K is therefore the time-integrated runoff depth raised to the power 2-

1015 2e:

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) )G
1016 = ET PQ ∗ #) )G
= ∗² = š) )G
(C3)

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1017 The final form of the unit conversion in terms of P’RB and the simulation timescale t is

1018 the following:

E = ET PQ ∗ #) ∗ ET PQ # = ET PQ #V
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)G )G ) )G
1019 (C4)
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1020 Acknowledgements

1021 We would like to thank Caleb Fassett and Christian Huber for helpful comments on the

1022 manuscript. We would also like to thank Alan Howard, the developer of the MARSSIM model,

1023 for his valuable feedback on our work. We gratefully acknowledge support to JWH for

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1024 participation in the Mars Express High-Resolution Stereo Camera Team (JPL 1237163).

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Simulating early Mars hydrology with the MARSSIM landform evolution model: New

insights from an integrated system of precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow

Benjamin D. Boatwright and James W. Head

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Highlights

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• MARSSIM is a powerful computational tool for understanding early Mars hydrology

• Model parameterizes an advection-diffusion relation to simulate sediment transport

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• Modification of current model allows groundwater infiltration from runoff

• Addition of infiltration represents distinct landform evolution scenario for Mars

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