ME-403

Power Plants
Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Farhan Ausaf
Nuclear Energy
 The atomic structure
• Atoms
• Electrons , protons and neutrons (nucleon)
• Atoms may be transformed into others by
virtue of change in nucleons and/or electrons.
 The atomic structure
• Isotopes
• Atomic number and mass number
• Neutrino and positrons
 Mass and energy conversion
• Exothermic reactions
• Endothermic reactions
• Chemical reactions

• Nuclear reactions
 Energy from nuclear reaction
• Nuclear energy can be calculated using
Einstein's law
 Fusion and Fission

• Fusion is the combination of two

or more light nuclei to form a
heavier nucleus
• In fission a heavier nucleus is split
into two or more lighter nuclei.
 How Fusion works
• Most suitable reaction involves:
– Deuterium (D)
– Tritium (T)
(Isotopes of Hydrogen)

• Temperatures of >10 million deg. C

• Plasma: State in which electrons
have been removed from atomic
nuclei

Nuclear Fusion Animation

 Fission
• Nuclear fission is a decay process in which an
unstable nucleus splits into two fragments of
comparable mass.
• Fission was discovered through experiments in
which uranium was bombarded with neutrons to
produce two massive fragments (called fission
fragments) and two or three free neutrons.
– Occasionally a light nuclide, such as H-3 is produced.
 Nuclear Energy From Fission

Spit atoms
Neutrons

Uranium atom
Splitting Atoms Releases Neutrons,
Making Heat
Heat

Neutrons
 Two Typical Fission Reactions:
U  n
235
92
1
0 U 
236
92
* 137
56 Ba  Kr  2 n
97
36
1
0

U  n
235
92
1
0 U 
236
92
* 140
54 Xe  Sr  2 n
94
38
1
0
 Distribution of mass numbers for fission
fragments from the fission of U-235.
• Most of the
fragments have
mass numbers
from 90 to 100
and from 135 to
145.
• Fission into two
fragments with
nearly equal
mass is unlikely.
 Radioactivity
• Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear
decay or radioactivity) is the process by which
the nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy
by emitting radiation.
• A material that spontaneously emits such
radiation is considered radioactive.
 Radioactivity
• Alpha decay
• Beta decay
• Gamma radiations
• Positron decay
• K capture
• Neutron emission
 Decay rate and half-life
• Half-life is the time required for a quantity to
reduce to half its initial value.
Half lives of some radioactive isotopes
Isotope Half life Activity
Tritium 12.26 years 
Carbon 14 5730 years 
Krypton 87 76 minutes 
Strontium 90 28.1 years 
Xenon 135 9.2 hours  and 
Barium 139 82.9 minutes  and 
Radium 223 11.43 days  and 
Radium 226 1600 years  and 
Thorium 232 1.41x1010 Years  and 
Thorium 233 22.1 minutes 
Uranium 233 1.65x105 Years  and 
Uranium 235 7.1x108 Years  and 
Uranium 238 4.51x109 Years  and 
Neptunium 239 2.35 days and 
Plutonium 239 2.44x104 Years  and 
 Neutron Energies
• Newly born fission neutrons have energies
ranging between 0.075 to about 17 MeV
• As they collide with objects they decelerated
and this process is called scattering.
• Neutrons are classified as
– Fast (greater than 105 eV)
– Intermediate
– Slow (less than 1eV)
• Prompt and delayed neutrons
 Thermal Neutrons
• Fission neutrons are scattered by the
materials in the core.
• The lowest energies they reach are those that
put them in thermal equilibrium with the
molecules of the medium they are in.
• A thermal neutron is a free neutron with a
kinetic energy of about 0.025 eV
 Nuclear cross section
• Radius of nucleus roughly 1/1000 of an atom
• The probability of neutrons colliding with
nuclei is proportional to an effective x-
sectional area,
• This varies with the nucleus, type of reaction
and neutron energy.
 Neutron cross section and neutron
energy
• 1/V region: IN the low energy range, the
absorption cross sections are generally inversely
proportional to the square root of the neutron
energy
• Resonance region: Most neutron absorbers
exhibit one or more peaks occurring at definite
neutron energies.
• Fast-neutron region: The cross sections usually
under go a gradual decrease as neutron energies
increase.
Microscopic cross section for Uranium
fuels
 Fission in Uranium
• Both the common isotope U-238 (99.3%)
and the uncommon isotope U-235 (0.7%)
can be easily split by neutron bombardment.
– U-235 by slow neutrons
– U-238 by neutrons with a minimum of 1 MeV
of energy.
• Fission resulting from neutron absorption is
called induced fission.
• Some nuclides can undergo spontaneous
fission without initial neutron absorption
Nucleons more tightly bound in Fission Product Nuclei
– Gives 200 Mev Energy per Fission
 U235 + n → fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

➢If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then

the number of fissions doubles each generation. In
that case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions
and in 80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a mole)
fissions.
 Chain Reactions
• Fission of a uranium nucleus, triggered by
neutron bombardment, releases other
neutrons that can trigger more fissions,
creating a chain reaction.
• If an least one neutron from U-235 fission
strikes another nucleus and causes it to
fission, then the chain reaction will continue.
 Chain Reactions
• If the reaction will sustain itself, it is said to be
"critical", and the mass of U-235 required to
produced the critical condition is said to be a “critical
mass".
• A critical chain reaction can be achieved at low
concentrations of U-235 if the neutrons from fission
are moderated to lower their speed, since the
probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater.
 Chain Reactions
• The chain reaction may
be made to proceed
slowly and in a
controlled manner in a
nuclear reactor or
explosively in a bomb.
• The energy released in a
chain reaction is
enormous, far greater
than that in any
chemical reaction.
Chain Reactions
 Global Total Primary Energy Supply,
2012
Nuclear provides about 5% of total energy and 10.8% of global electricity generation.

Natural Gas Coal

21.27% 29.01%

Nuclear
4.80%
Petroleum
31.45% Hydropower
2.36%

Geothermal,
Biofuels and Solar, etc.
Waste 1.06%
10.05%
 Worldwide Nuclear Power Reactors

• There are 440 nuclear power reactors in 31

countries.
• 30 more are under construction.
• They account for over 10% of the world’s
electricity.
• They produce a total of 351 gigawatts (billion
watts) of electricity.
World Nuclear Power Plants
 Nuclear Electricity Production by Countries and
Regions in Gigawatts (World Total 350 Gigawatts) and
percent of electricity
US 97
North America Region 109
France 63
Germany 21
U. K. 12
Western Europe Region 126
Japan 44
Asia Region 66
Eastern Europe Region 11
Former Soviet U. Region 34
 Top 10 Nuclear Generating Countries, 2013
800

700

600
Billion kiloWatt-hours

500

400

300

200

100

0
United France Russia Korea, China Canada Germany Ukraine United Sweden
States South Kingdom
Data: Energy Information Administration
 Advantages
• Clean
• Plentiful Supply
• High energy content in uranium
– Small fuel pellet
– Can provide base load power
– Energy savings in transportation
• Operating cost is low after construction
 Disadvantages

➢Radioactive waste disposal

➢High security risks

➢Nuclear proliferation and terrorist attacks.

➢Radioactive waste can be used for production

of nuclear weapons.
A Uranium Fuel Pellet
Uranium Is Mined and Refined
 Uranium Ore  Uranium
hexafluoride  Gas  Solid
Enrichment Concentrates the Uranium
Isotope
Uranium Is Encased in Solid Ceramic
Pellets
Fuel Rods Filled With Pellets Are
Grouped Into Fuel Assemblies
 How a Nuclear Reactor works
• 235U
fissions by absorbing a neutron and
producing 2 to 3 neutrons, which initiate on
average one more fission to make a controlled
chain reaction
• Normal water is used as a moderator to slow
the neutrons since slow neutrons take longer
to pass by a U nucleus and have more time to
be absorbed
 How a Nuclear Reactor Works
• 235U
is enriched from its 0.7% in nature to
about 3% to produce the reaction, and is
contained in rods in the water
• Boron control rods are inserted to absorb
neutrons when it is time to shut down the
reactor
• The hot water is boiled or sent through a heat
exchanger to produce steam. The steam then
powers turbines.
 CONTROL RODS
➢Control rods made of a material that absorbs
neutrons are inserted into the bundle using a
mechanism that can rise or lower the control
rods.
➢. The control rods essentially contain neutron
absorbers like, boron, cadmium or indium.
 Controlling the Chain Reaction

Fuel
Assemblies

Control rods

Withdraw control rods, Insert control rods,

reaction increases reaction decreases
Safety Is Engineered Into Reactor
Designs
Containment Vessel
1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall

3 foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall

5 foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield
4 foot thick leaded concrete with
1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out

Reactor Vessel
4 to 8 inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel

Weir Wall
1.5 foot thick concrete
 Types of Nuclear Reactors
• Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
• Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
Anatomy of a Nuclear Power Plant

Source: NRC
BWR
 Advantages (BWR)
• The reactor vessel and associated components
operate at a substantially lower pressure of
about 70–75 bars (1,020–1,090 psi) compared
to about 155 bars (2,250 psi) in a PWR.
• Fewer components due to no steam
generators and no pressurizer vessel.
Anatomy of a Nuclear Power Plant

Source: NRC
PWR
 Advantages (PWR)
• Compact in design.
• PWR reactors are very stable
• No contamination by radioactive materials.
• Safe in case of power cutouts.
 FBR
• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable
of generating more fissile material than
it consumes.
 Overview of Fast Breeder Reactors
• Produce more fissile material than is consumed

• Technology first developed in the 1950’s

• Utilize uranium 60 times as efficiently as PWRs

• Cooled typically by liquid metal

 Fast Breeder Reactors vs. Pressurized Water Reactors

• FBR • PWR
– Fuel is enriched to 15- – Fuel is enriched to 3-5%
20% – Moderator: water
– Moderator: none – Heat transfer by water
– Heat transfer by liquid – Reactor under high
metal or metal alloys pressure
• Typically sodium
– Fissile material is only
– Reactor under low consumed
pressure
– ~1.2 fissile atoms
produced per fission
 FBRs Today
Output Mwe Operation
• Only six active today
USA

EBR 1 0.2 1951-63

– Half of these are in Russia
EBR 2 20 1963-94

• Average lifespan of reactors is

Fermi 1 66 1963-72

SEFOR 20 1969-72

Fast Flux TF N/A 1980-93 only about 20 years

UK
– Many shut down prematurely
Dounreay FR 15 1959-77

Prototype FR 270 1974-94 – Superphenix (France) and KNK 2

France (Germany) were never
Rapsodie N/A 1966-82 operational
Phenix 250 1973-Now

Superphenix 1 1240 1985-98

Germany • Plagued by political controversy

KNK 2 21 1977-91

India

FBTR N/A 1985-Now

• Only one notable accident
Japan

Joyo N/A 1978-Now

– Monju (Japan) in 1995
Monju 280 1994-96, 08? – A pipe carrying secondary
Kazakhstan
sodium ruptured
BN350 135 1972-99

Russia

BR 5/10 N/A 1959-71, 1973-Now

BOR 60 12 1969-Now

BOR 600 600 1980-Now Table: World Nuclear Association, June 2006
 Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
• Uses the fast neutrons from 235U fission on surrounding
238U to produce 239Pu

• In 10-20 years, enough Pu is produced to power another

reactor
• No moderators are allowed
• No water, must use liquid sodium coolant
• U must be at 15%-30% enrichment to generate power
with fast neutrons while breeding Pu
• This is at weapons grade enrichment, however
• Super-Phenix in France has operated for 20 years
 Breeding Fuel
• Theory
– Each fission produces on
average 2.4 neutrons
• Fissile material: U-235,
Pu-239 or Pu-241
– Critical reaction
• One neutron per fission
causes another fission
– 1.4 neutrons are left
over to enrich depleted
fuel
• Practice
– Typical FBR produces
about 1.2 fissile atoms
per consumed fissile
atom
– Can produce enough
fissile material in 10
years to replace spent
fuel and enough to
power another reactor
for 10 years
 FBR Design
1) Highly enriched uranium or plutonium
2) Control rods (same material as core)
3) Depleted uranium
4) Heat is transferred from primary to
secondary sodium
5) Heat is transferred from secondary sodium
to water
LMFBR
 Liquid Metal Coolant
• Typical metal used is sodium
– Some reactors use lead, lead-bismuth alloy, or sodium
fluoride salt
• Advantages of sodium
– Low melting temperature (98°C)
– High boiling temperature (892°C)
– High heat capacity
– System can run at low pressure
• Risks of sodium
– Burns when it comes in contact with air or water
– Poisonous fumes