Introduction to the Aircraft

An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air, or, in general,
the atmosphere of a planet. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using
the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.
The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft are flown by an
onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by
onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft
propulsion, usage and others.

Different Types of Aircrafts

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Amphibian aircraft can land and take off from Ground as well as Water.

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Different Parts of Aircraft / Helicopter

FUSELAGE : This is to form the basis for attachment of other parts, to accommodate
pilot, crew, passengers, cargo, fuel tanks ammunition etc.

ENGINE : This provides the necessary thrust to get the aircraft into the air and provides
a sustained flight.

MAIN PLANES : Its main purpose is to provide the lift required to maintain the aircraft
in flight. It provide the attachment point for ailerons and flaps. It may also be used for
housing fuel tank, undercarriage and other accessories.

TAIL PLANE : It is also known as “horizontal stabilizer”. It assist the aircraft to

maintain the Longitudinal stability in flight. It also provides the attachment points for
elevators.

FIN : It is also known as “vertical stabilizer”. It assist the aircraft to maintain

directional stability of an aircraft. It also provides the attachment points of rudder.

AILERON : It is a control surface, hinged to the rear of the main plane towards the
wing tip. It provides the lateral control of an aircraft.

ELEVATOR : It is the control surface, hinged to the rear of the tail plane to provide the
longitudinal control (nose up and down or pitching movement) of an aircraft.

RUDDER : It is the control surface, hinged to the rear of the Fin to provide the
Directional control of an aircraft.

UNDER CARRIAGE : It is also known as “landing gear” or alighting gear. It is the

structure on which the aircraft is supported on ground, while take off and landing.

AIRCRAFT : Any vehicle designed to be supported by air heavier or lighter than air,
mechanically or non-mechanically driven.

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AEROPLANE : A mechanically driven, fixed or swing wing aircraft, heavier than air,
which is supported by the dynamic reaction of the air against its wing.

AIRSHIP : Elongated balloon with airborne rudder

and fin for control in fight; propelled mechanically.
Mainly there are 3 types – 1. Non rigid, 2. Semi
rigid 3. Rigid.

How to get lift

When there is relative movement between aerofoil and

air, due to shape of aerofoil (wing) there will me low pressure region at the top of the wing and
high pressure region at bottom of wing. This low pressure pulls the wing up and high pressure
region push the wing up. If we take the resultant of
both the push and pull force, it will be clled lift.

Lift
Lift is generated when an object changes the direction of flow of a fluid or when the
fluid is forced to move by the object passing through it. When the object and fluid move relative
to each other and the object turns the fluid flow in a direction perpendicular to that flow, the
force required to do this work creates an equal and opposite force that is lift.
The lift generated by an airfoil depends on such factors as:
• Speed of the airflow
• Density of the air
• Total area of the segment or airfoil
• Angle of attack (AOA) between the air and the airfoil

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 The AOA is the angle at which the airfoil meets the incoming airflow (or vice versa). In
the case of a helicopter, the object is the rotor blade (airfoil) and the fluid is the air. Lift is
produced when a mass of air is deflected, and it always
acts perpendicular to the resultant relative wind.
A symmetric airfoil must have a positive AOA to
generate positive lift. At a zero AOA, no lift is generated.
At a negative AOA, negative lift is generated. A cambered
or non-symmetrical airfoil may produce positive lift at zero,
or even small negative AOA.
The basic concept of lift is simple. However, the
details of how the relative movement of air and airfoil
interact to produce the turning action that generates lift are
complex. In any case causing lift, an angled flat plate, revolving cylinder, airfoil, etc., the flow
meeting the leading edge of the object is forced to split over and under the object. The sudden
change in direction over the object causes an area of low pressure to form behind the leading
edge on the upper surface of the object. In turn, due to this pressure gradient and the viscosity
of the fluid, the flow over the object is accelerated down along the upper surface of the object.
At the same time, the flow forced under the object is rapidly slowed or stagnated causing an
area of high pressure. This also causes the flow to accelerate along the upper surface of the
object. The two sections of the fluid each leave the trailing edge of the object with a downward
component of momentum, producing lift.
Four forces in Balance

There are four forces

work on fixed wing aircraft as well
as on rotor wing aircraft
(helicopter). When these forces
are balanced ie thrust and drag,
lift and weight becomes equal
and opposite to each other, the
aircraft fly straight and level
flight.

 Thrust—the forward force

produced by the power
plant/propeller or rotor. It
opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case, as explained later.
 Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor,
fuselage, and other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward parallel to
the relative wind.

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 Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or
baggage. Weight pulls
the aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift and acts vertically
downward through the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG).
 Lift—opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the air
acting on
the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flight path through the center of lift.
Control of Aircraft
The aircraft is controlled in three directions.
Whenever an aircraft changes its attitude in flight, it
must turn about one or more of three axes. Figure
shows the three axes, which are imaginary lines
passing through the center of the aircraft.
The axes of an aircraft can be considered as
imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns like a
wheel. At the center, where all three axes intersect, each is perpendicular to the other two.

The axis which extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the
tail is called the longitudinal axis. The axis which extends crosswise, from wing tip to
wing tip, is the lateral axis. The axis which passes through the center, from top to
bottom, is called the vertical axis.
Thus, the motion about the longitudinal axis is called roll; motion along the lateral
(cross wing) axis is called pitch. Finally, an aircraft moves about its vertical axis in motion
which is termed yaw. This is a horizontal movement of the nose of the aircraft. Roll , pitch, and
yaw-the motions an aircraft makes about its longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes-are
controlled by three control surfaces.
Roll is produced by the ailerons, which are located at the trailing edges of the
wings. Pitch is affected by the elevators, the rear portion of the horizontal tail assembly.
Yaw is controlled by the rudder, the rear portion of the vertical tail assembly.

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Construction of Aircraft

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 Fuselage is made of Longerons, stringers, Frame, Formers and Bulkheads, further
these assemblies are covered by skin. Longerons and stringers are longitudinal members and
Frame, Formers and Bulkheads are circular members.

Wing is made of Spar, stringers, Ribs and Bulkheads and covered by skin. Spar and
stringers are longitudinal structural members and ribs are circular members.

Longerons, stringers, Frame, Formers, Bulkheads and ribs are called aircraft structural
members. These are main load taking members in a/c. Hence these are called primary
structure.

The stringers are smaller and lighter than Longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have
some rigidity, but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of the skin. The strong,
heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn, hold the stringers. All of
these joined together form a rigid fuselage framework.

There is often little difference between some rings, frames, and formers. One
manufacturer may call a brace a former, whereas another may call the same type of brace a
ring or frame. Manufacturers’ instructions and specifications for a specific aircraft are the best
guides.

Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression from bending the
fuselage.

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Primary Structure :- Primary structures are those structural members of a/c which are
main load taking members in a/c. Failure of which will cause loss of a/c and loss of life eg
Longerons, Frame, Formers, Bulkheads.

Secondary Structure :- Secondary structures are those structural members of a/c which
are not main load taking members in a/c but share some aerodynamic load. Failure of which
may cause damage to a/c but no loss of life eg stringers and ribs.

Tartary Structure :- Tartary structures are those structural members of a/c which do not
carry any aerodynamic load of a/c. But provide smooth path to airflow. Failure of which will
cause any damage to a/c and passengers. eg fairing and covering.

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