Understanding

Culture, Society,
and Politics
(Handouts)

Credits to Owner

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 The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

The Study on Culture, Society, and Politics

Culture is the subject of Anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for political science. These are
disciplines of the social sciences.

The very goal of these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement through
the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline necessarily expose its learners to
the following:

 social diversity and inequality,

 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 advocacy for social change and order.

Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what makes us
human, anthropology delves in objects and materials we have created, our interconnectedness and
adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication, and our understanding of the
world around us.

Goals of Anthropology

 describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind

 describe and assess the cultural development of our species
 describe, explain, and analyze the present-day human cultural similarities and differences
 describe and explain human biological diversity today

Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government, and the analysis
of political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an understanding on ―who gets
what, when they get it, and how they get it.‖

Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy, and
philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty; and on how the said subject matters
affect economy, public and private life, law, and public services.

Goals of Political Science

 be immersed in current affairs

 build an understanding on the local, national, and international politics
 learn how political activities are organized in and out of our country
 provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This social sciences discipline mainly
focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Goals of Sociology

 understand ourselves better

 build a better understanding of mankind
 help with decision-making, both our own and that of larger organizations

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  gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is going on
in a situation, and present alternatives

Key Points

 The study on culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and responsible civic
engagement through the development of critical thought.
 Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science expose its learners to social
diversity and inequality, self-reflective knowledge and practice, appreciation of complexity, and
advocacy for social change and order.
 Anthropology is a social science discipline that study humans and their society in the past and
present.
 Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government, and the analysis
of political activity and political behavior.
 Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.

Anthropology and Sociology

Humans are interesting subjects for a study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to the
associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society and colloquially known as the twin
social sciences are anthropology and sociology.

Anthropology

 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they
behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human (such as
physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and with social aspects (such as
language, culture, politics, family. and religion).

Sociology

 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This social sciences discipline
examines how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by wider social,
economic and political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from
the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies

Anthropological and Sociological Perspective on Culture and Society

In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on the other hand,
culture comes first as a subject matter followed only by society.

Let us put the two concepts this way.

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  When talking about culture, we are talking about things that are tangible, almost like objects. They
are our language, our technology, and our institutions - things like our churches, our schools, or even
our houses.
 However, culture is also intangible; it is our values and our behaviors. Our culture includes our norms,
the standards or rules of acceptable behavior.
 Culture is what makes society "them." It gives a community the form, shape, or identity.
 Society, sociologically speaking, is the people living and interacting with one another to create a
culture. Its population bonded together by their shared beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions;
in other words, by their culture

Society and Culture as a Complex Whole

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

 With this premise, it can be said that culture is a result of society, which these two come together
and dependent on each other.
 Culture just like every person which comprise society is susceptible to change or even death.
 The society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture change along.
New trends exist. Technology innovates, and new forms of communications and thus interaction
have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values, and
standards of society.

Key Points

 Anthropology is the study of people in the world, their evolutionary history, how they behave, adjust
to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships.
 A culture is a way of life of a group of people. Its subjects include people's symbols, language,
values, and norms.
 Society is a community or group joined because of sustained bond and interaction.

CHAPTER 2: Defining Culture and Society

Lesson 1: Society and Culture

Culture and Society

Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.

Culture
 Culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society" (E.B. Tylor 1920 [1871]).
 Culture encompasses almost all social aspects including our "language, customs, values, norms,
mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and institutions of family, education,
religion, etc."
 Our culture defines who we are.
 Whatever it is that we do, it is part of our culture.

Society
 Society can be defined as the interaction among people where they can share a common culture.

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  Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common culture; it can also be formed by gender,
shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.

For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet and caring.

Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?

The Relationship of Culture and Society

Culture and society are two closely interrelated concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed, it needs
human interaction; it needs people to interact with one another, and it needs people to practice it
continuously. Without a society practicing their common culture, the culture may cease to exist.

Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue to
thrive. A society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society need each
other so they can both develop and prosper.

Lesson 2: Aspects of Culture

Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name
a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Examples:

 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional music
during the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway musical while the popular music during the
1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined in using computers and tablets especially when playing games,
some children were not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some game developers to
introduce Filipino street games as video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have
already developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.

Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.

If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because of diversity,
culture is subjected to debate and analysis.

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Tips

 Our society needs to preserve our indigenous culture as well as try to develop it further and spread it
further so that we can still maintain our identity as a nation.
 Our culture changes and adapts to our current society but that doesn't mean that our traditional
culture should be forgotten.
 Different cultures exist in the world but there is no culture greater than the other. We should learn to
accept our differences and help other culture learn ours as well as we should also try to learn theirs.
 We should also not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because it is their unique culture.

Key Points

 Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed and a set of characteristics that help us relate
and bond with other people.
 Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place which shares the same culture.
 It is crucial to preserve and spread our culture and our traditional ways if we want to keep it alive.
We are facing lots of changes, developments and technological advances today and we tend to
forget to look back on our old culture and traditions.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation of our society.
Culture continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
 Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in our world and to get
to know the culture of others as wells as to spread ours; we need to share it with them.
 If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested. Because of diversity, culture is subjected to
debate and analysis.

Aspects of Culture: Socialization and Enculturation

Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While the members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that differentiate
them from others in the community.

Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms or expectations
and societal values as a member of the society.

Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed.

Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization: family, community, mass media, and religion.

Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most important social group
that a person has. It is also considered as the principal agent of socialization.
 We first start learning things with the help of our parents and our whole family. They are the main
source of our traits, behaviors, the values, norms and rules that we follow, and the ideas we initially
believe in.

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Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our community. One is the
school. In schools, we expose to ideas, values, norms, and behavior that may be different from what
we learned in our family.
 We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our peers. Since
children and teenager spend most of their time with their peers, researches show that peer groups
can create their sub-culture (Mondal, 2015).
 Our peers can also influence us with different norms, values, and behavior that they got from their
families, and vice versa.

Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass media. Mass media comes in the form of
television, movies, books, magazines, and now even social networking sites. Mass media proved to
play a major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal, 2015).
 Unfortunately, we can learn both good and bad behaviors through mass media that is why it is very
important that we are supervised when we are accessing all forms of media.

Religion

 Another agent is our religion. Through our family, we are immediately exposed to the teachings of
our religion. It helps shape us as individuals and equips us with the attitude and behavior our religion
deems right.

Aspects of Culture II
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various
ways and situations.

Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed below:

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to
acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with
other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature. It is an
essential part of building our character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.

Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend migrated to America
with her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after three months of being in America, she started to
act and look differently and she is using some slang words you only hear Americans say. This is the process of
enculturation. Your friend is slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is necessary so she
would fit in.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one society to another. One
good example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish
colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and
enculturation. We learned their culture by socializing with them, through the church and the schools they
established.

Tips

 The people or groups we socialize will greatly affect our behavior because we learn most of it
through them.
 Socialization begins during our childhood, even just right after we were born. The first group that
teaches us socialization is our family.
 Throughout our lives, we will get to interact with a lot of different people from different cultures. We
will learn different behaviors, norms, or values from them. It is up to us to identify what we will
keep/practice and what we will reject.
 Not all behaviors that we acquire can help us. There are some behaviors we learn that can be
destructive in the long run.

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Key Points

 Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in
which a person is immersed.
 Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, etc. to
acquire a personal identity.
 There are different agents of socialization that help us acquire and learn the culture. These are
ourfamily, school, peer groups, mass media, and religion, to name a few.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways and
situations.
 Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization/enculturation.

Aspects of Culture III: Patterned Social Interaction

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and
the bad?

There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever
we do something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be
unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their
cooperation, their child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior
and culture.

Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards
a common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud
of you. You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to
enhance your spelling skills.

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Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve
their goals. But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity
within a group because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you
and your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com).
People usually coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he
failed his exam.

Aspect of Culture: Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our
culture are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body
language when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This
shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.

Aspect of Culture:Integrated and at Times Unstable

The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to time. Our
social interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict. A simple social
exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.

Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the next
day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and you
cooperated with each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your sibling fight
almost every day, you will still tend to unite in times of need.

Tips

 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes when we do
harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something wrong to us in return because of
this concept.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do our best
to win and in the process enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and
cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be friendly
and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change when we feel threatened.

Key Points

 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
 There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition,
conflict,and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we will
receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to
achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult to
interact with other people.
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  Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects our
behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable; it may change depending on the situation we are in. We
may be in conflict with one person today but may become friendly with him or her in other
situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and situations;
learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation; patterned social interactions,
integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social interactions.

Aspects of Culture I
There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name
a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people. If
culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of diversity,
culture is subjected to debate and analysis.

Aspect of Culture II
Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to
acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with
other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even one society to another. One good
example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spaniards/Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish
colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and
enculturation.

Aspects of Culture III

We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and
situations; and learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Let us continue identifying some aspects of culture.

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and
the bad?

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There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever
we do something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be
unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their
cooperation, their child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior
and culture.

Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards
a common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud
of you. You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to
enhance your spelling skills.

Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve
their goals. But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity
within a group because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you
and your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion
Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com).
People usually coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he
failed his exam.

Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our
culture are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body
language when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This
shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.
 Integrated and at Times Unstable
 The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to
time. Our social interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict.
A simple social exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.
 Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the
next day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and

11
 you cooperated with each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your
sibling fight almost every day, you will still tend to unite in times of need.

Tips

 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes when we do
harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something wrong to us in return because of
this concept.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do our best
to win and in the process enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and
cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be friendly
and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change when we feel threatened.

Key Points

 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
 There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition,
conflict,and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we will
receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to
achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult to
interact with other people.
 Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects our
behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable; it may change depending on the situation we are in. We
may be in conflict with one person today but may become friendly with him or her in other
situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and situations;
learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation; patterned social interactions,
integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social interactions.

Lesson 3: Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism
People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other culture in the context of their own culture. Language,
behavior, customs, or religion, which are understandably unique for every culture are the common subjects
of these judgments. Sociologically speaking, this ideology or tendency is known as ethnocentrism.

Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior to all others. It is also the belief that
one's own culture is the main or normal standard by which other cultures may be measured or understood.
Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects in a wider or encompassing perspectives.
It may cause people to practice bias and intolerance.

Seeing the belief and behavior of others, which are different from yours, as brute, confusing, or dirty is an
ethnocentric thought or behavior. The tendency to be avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards
members of another culture is also a manifestation of ethnocentrism.

Cultural Relativism
Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in associating their culture from
another’s. There are people who accept and respect the evident differences from members of the society.
When people recognize that each culture is naturally different from others, that is cultural relativism.

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Cultural relativism does not mean that we should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences.
Instead, it requires understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context free from
another’s biases.

Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and
should be treated as such. Introduced by Franz Boas in 1887, according to him,"...civilization is not
something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization
goes."

With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be evaluated not based on your own
cultural context but on the social community the people themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means
respect and tolerance.

In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to practice or to show cultural
relativism. There should be no reservations and blind opinions while they are immersed in a community of
their subject. One may also practice this concept by learning and recognizing that there are reasons or
cultural significance why people of a certain community act and talk the way they do.

How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism

It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possess an ethnocentric attitude or behavior. There is
nothing wrong with that because not all people are equipped with sufficient knowledge and exposure to
cultures across the globe, unlike social scientists or anthropologists. Thus the hardship in understanding and
tolerating other’s acts and values. But we also have to recognize that ethnocentric behavior if not
controlled may cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern times when everyone calls for social or
cultural inclusion.

Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached the areas populated by
the natives whom they consider savage and uncivilized, they saw the promise to civilize and tame the
people they conquered through religion (Christianity) and colonialism. Despite its advantages, we can say
that the Age of Exploration changed the course of world history in a way which deprived the conquered.

It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be mitigated through the
recognition and application of cultural relativism. A person can practice cultural relativism by recognizing
that our culture shapes what we consider to be beautiful, ugly, appealing, disgusting, virtuous, funny, and
abhorrent and that this should not be the basis for evaluating other culture. Cultural relativism shapes our
understanding of different issues in the society as to why certain religion believe in this and other not, or how
come this group eat this type of dish, wear this weird clothing, sing and dance along music while others
prefer not to. What we need is an open heart and unbiased and critical mind, exposure, education, and
involvement in activities, programs supporting and recognizing the uniqueness and beauty of every culture
for us to truly grasp what cultural relativism means.

Key Points

 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may
be measured. It is also the tendency to think of one’s culture as superior to other cultures.
 Cultural Relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their
cultural context, and should be treated as such. It calls for an unbiased evaluation and
understanding of other cultures.
 Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.

Lesson 4: Cultural Forms and Threats

Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to another, legacy magnifies
one’s life and living. It is said that legacy is what cultural heritage is.

According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to inform.

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  architectures such as buildings, houses, and structures
 artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
 things that made people who they are like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals, and traditions

Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way of living people of
yesterday had. Through these objects, we are presented with facts and figures which help us draw the
landscape of the world once was.

Tangible and Intangible Heritage

Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by society or group and passed on
from generation to generation. Cultural heritage can be categorized as either tangible or intangible.

Tangible Heritage
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible heritage is a physical artifact or
objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science, or technology of a specific culture.

Objects that can be stored are included in this category:

 traditional clothing,
 utensils (such as bead work, water vessels),
 vehicles (such as the ox wagon),
 documents (codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
 public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (buildings, historical places,
monuments, temples, graves, roads, and bridges fall into this category as well).

Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible heritage is not a physical or
concrete item. Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture.

Intangible heritage includes:

 songs,
 myths,
 beliefs,
 superstitions,
 oral poetry,
 stories, and
 various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for
historical materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an
avenue for them to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or
unearthed and once owned by a cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).
 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the
issues concerning sources of our culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and
existing is also a primary concern.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for
historical materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an
avenue for them to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or
unearthed and once owned by a cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).
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  Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the
issues concerning sources of our culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and
existing is also a primary concern.

Key Points

 Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by society or group and passed
on from generation to generation.
 Tangible heritage is a physical artefact or objects significant in the archaeology, architecture,
science or technology of a particular culture. It includes buildings and historic places, monuments,
artifacts, etc.
 Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture. It includes oral traditions, social
practices, performing arts, rituals, festive events, etc.
 Authenticity is the truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage.
 Preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and existing should be on the top list of
the government.

CHAPTER 3:Human Biocultural Social Evolution

Lesson 1: Macroevolution and the Formation of New Species
Biological Evolution of Man
The current biological makeup of humans has had long and complex origins. Biological evolution of
man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human species from primates. It is not an overnight
phenomenon. Millions of years have been involved in the process of reaching the biological traits of
humanity that are occurring at present. In this lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved in this
evolutionary process will be discussed.

The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution

Evolution is the process of developing the physical and biological change in a species over a period of
time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment while some faced extinction
for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to the genus Homo, are seen as
byproducts of events and processes that occurred in the past.

Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear process. Scientists argued that human evolution
developed much like the branches of a tree wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific
stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one evolutionary profile—the current human being—
was able to adapt and further develop.

The Transition from Early to Modern Humans

The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological makeup took
millions of years to complete. Despite this, scientists, through the help of archaeological pieces of evidence
and modern technology, were able to identify and distinguish distinct transitional stages of human
evolution. These stages are described below.

The Significance of Artefactual Evidences in Understanding Evolution

Artefactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the
developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution. Early human species were
discovered through fossils which are remains hardened in rock. Scientists study the structure, shape, and
development of skeletal properties including head shape and teeth to determine biological differences
across early to modern species.

Artefactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or symbolic writing
found in caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the Homo erectus, though scientists are still
hoping to find further evolutionary data on other species. Below are some authentic examples of
artefactual evidences that greatly contributed in understanding human evolution:

 An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served as
evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet among early stone-tool making humans,
the Oldowan hominin.

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  A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made archaeologists
believe that cooking food was already practiced among early humans.

Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. Nowadays, technological
advances has made delving into the past more accessible. Interactive and national museums, for example,
make a great venue for learning more about the prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that the
human species has been through is complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to
understand and appreciate these advances.

Tips

 Human evolution is always forward. It is not likely that humans will regress in terms of physical and
biological makeup in the coming centuries.
 Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first emerged. They are
the earlier part of human evolutionary transition.

Key Points

 Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of
time.
 Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as branches wherein each branch
extends into smaller, more specific stems.
 The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo erectus, andHomo
sapiens from the genus Homo.
 Fossils are artefactual remains that hardened in rock.

Lesson 2: Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

Sociopolitical evolution of man:Neolitihic revolution

Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, it represents technological advancements
due to the constant changes in the key features of smartphones and tablets.

This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through time. From the
early writings of the cuneiform up to the present features of the different units of smartphones and tablets,
we can say that the way of life of the people constantly changes and this concept is called cultural
evolution.

What is Cultural Evolution?

Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, languages, etc.
of the humans over time. It believes that as humans transform themselves, their culture becomes
progressively complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.

The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced to the beginning of Stone Age when they started
creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the earliest known period of human culture which started
roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE (Before the Common Era). This period is
also known as the pre-historic period because writing was not yet invented during this time. It is divided into
three separate periods:

 Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

 Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
 New Stone Age (Neolithic).

Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use of crude stone
tools which is the most primitive among the three periods. The word "paleolithic" is derived from the Greek
words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) meaning "old stone age."

The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that changed their
diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of the early humans during the
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Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on nature and developed their own language
based on sounds and hand signals.

Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the transition period between
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek wordsmesos (middle)
and lithos (stone) meaning "middle stone age."

Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also started to form their
own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the primary activities of the
early humans. They also started to use "microliths" or smaller and more delicate stone tools.

Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" is derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) meaning "new
stone age."

Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern humans started to
exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers and introduced the concept of farming.
They also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted
better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their
food containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started to have
their own tribes and villages.

Key Points

 Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills,
attitudes, languages, etc. constantly change.
 Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when it started the use of
weapons and tools made out of stones.
 Paleolithic period is the first stage of the Stone Age and it started the use of fire and stone tools of
the early humans. Hunting, fishing, and other practices such as religious rituals based on nature and
language based on sounds and hand signals also emerged during this period.
 Mesolithic period is the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It witnessed
the gradual transformation of human culture such as domestication of plants and animals, formation
of settlements and communities, and food gathering.
 Neolithic period was the last stage of stone age when modern humans started to exist. Modern
humans introduced farming, started herding animals, and formed their permanent homes and
settlements.

Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life also occurred at the
importance of the natural environment. In this lesson, a significant era of sociopolitical evolution will be
tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.

The Neolithic Revolution

Paleolithic period involved humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They are nomadic people who can easily
transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This had
been the practice until around 12,000 B.C. E. (Before Common Era) where humans started to domesticate
animals and crops. This era of a newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.

From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers through domestication, the process of
increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful
for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants implied that humans stay in a particular
area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized for domestication
include wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.

One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the country
of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China, the Americas, and
Africa.

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Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the Evolutionary Process
The Neolithic revolution has facilitated an economic and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in early human lifestyle. As such, advances in different aspects of human life started during
this era.

Below are the implications of the Neolithic Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human development.

A. Sociopolitical
 The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent
settlements dictated by reliable food supply.
 Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex society and the
possibility for urbanization.
 With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the
economy and a hierarchical society with public leaders and castes.
 A form of social stratification was developed – created idea of inequality and ideas of social power
and influence.

B. Economic
 Because of the domestication of crops and animals, an abundant supply of food and resources
were maintained.
 An introduction to a selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow for the
development of new species.

C. Biological
 Increase in lifespan and human population across civilizations.
 People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priests,
leader).

Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution

Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.

Here are some of the actual shreds of evidence found to support the existence of this era.

 Morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size and mandible, simply dietary
changes from solely eating plants to consumption of meat.
 A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to be built during the Neolithic revolution
and served as a communal storage facility.
 Palaeolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but in the Neolithic, there is an increased caries rate.
Neolithic teeth are also more worn down and pitted owing to hard inclusions from poorly ground-up
flour.
 Molleson (1n9b94) has proved that there are changes in the bones of women that are task-related
and associated with cereal grinding.

Tips

 The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic revolution occurred gradually. It took
thousands of years for this change to happen.
 If you looked at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you would notice that all
civilizations are near a body of water. This is strategically done by early humans because bodies of
water may also function as a source of food and other resources.

Key Points

 The Neolithic Revolution is a period where agriculture and farming became prominent through plant
and animal domestication.
 Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate
certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
 One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the
country of Iraq.
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  The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human implications to evolutionary
process.
 A form of social stratification was developed – created idea of inequality and ideas of social power
and influence.
 Many artefactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development. A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to
be built during the Neolithic revolution and served as a communal storage facility.

Lesson 3:
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN: EARLY CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RIGHTS OF THE STATES
From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in terms socio-economic
factors of early human life. Despite this already drastic movement, human lifestyle continued to develop
into more organized socio-economic and political systems.
 What factors contributed to these changes?
 How did these developments influence future socio-political movements and policies?

The Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved the way for the
beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the development and implications of these
civilizations will be discussed and explained.

The Rise of Civilizations

Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period where the early humans learned to settle in just
one area to domesticate plants and animals for survival. The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia,
particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the
ancient Middle East that is believed to be ―cradle of civilization‖ and the birthplace of agriculture,
urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of water,
the river Tigris and the Euphrates, which also became valuable resources for the early civilizations.

During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both genders equally as the
first labor only involved farming, domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be the case, social roles
began to emerge with some members of the community becoming priests or priestesses, laborers, and
farmers.

The Development of States

In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4, 000 BCE, two significant developments took place that
influenced the flow of the socio-political process of the early civilizations.

These are:

 the rise of states, and

 the invention of writing.

Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades between different regions. The
early civilizations would have had some form of writing to document or record traces of their products and
deals.

During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with prosperity leading to the
development of cities and changes in socio-political positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to
replace priestly rule to be able to foresee the flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This era
gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of
stone tools to copper tools.

In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced with bronze tools. Along
with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for economic and
political stability. As a result, more empires, civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.

Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States

The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political power, and material
development. These changes allowed both positive and negative implications that directly affected future
developments in the sociopolitical evolution of men.
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Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states:

 Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them. Soon, professional
armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.
 Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of civilizations and
states. During this time, people began to discover various raw materials, such as iron, copper, and
bronze for making tools and weapons.
 Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, the leadership among city-states
began to be more organized and developed. With the kingship system replacing the priestly
leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized decisions and communications with
other states.

Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States

Artefactual evidence prove the existence and occurrences of early civilizations and states.

Here are some of the actual evidence found to support the existence of this era.

 In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-wheeled wagons that
dated back to the time of Mesopotamian.
 Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during 10, 000 BCE.

Tips

 Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to ―between two rivers‖. This translation refers to the river Tigris
and the Euphrates that surrounds the land.
 The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before Egyptian civilizations. After the Middle Eastern
civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed along the Nile River.

Key Points

 The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be ―cradle of civilization‖
and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land
area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4, 000 BCE, two important developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations. These are the rise of
states and the invention of writing.
 The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare, developments inmetalwork,
and changes in political systems.

Lesson 4: SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN: DEMOCRATIZATION

The early civilizations created new environments, called city-states, which introduced new developments in
various aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these continuous progress and ventures?

The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new developments during the
Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted the following periods and developments.

Democracy and Democratization

Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.

Democracy means rule by the people. The term comes from the Greek words demos, which means
"people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced to the Greeks, particularly the
Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive democracy is said to must have existed
during the hunting and gathering period in independent tribes.

The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct democracy, where citizens
participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the evolved form of democracy or
the representative democracy that became widespread in nation-states is where officials are elected to
represent a group of people.
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Historical Path to a Democratic City-State
Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece and
Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even
following the latter’s socio-political structure of kingship. Eventually, they were able to engage in trade as
their resources highly develop and impacted socio-economic growth.

Greece
 Societal status and groups began to develop:
o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
o the aristocracies and noblemen, then
o the farmers.
 Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social classes.
 Greek kings have growing ambitions to transform themselves into palace-laden rulers just like their
predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the period was iron, a
relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king seeks greater power, he cannot easily do
so easily as the weaponry and machinery, primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and can be
afforded by practically anyone within the city-state.

In 750 BC, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the kings, the noblemen collectively acted on
ousting them, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.

The Beginnings of Democratization

The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of democratization in
societies.

Oligarchy

 Greek Kings were thrown off by the noblemen.

 City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy, where rulers were made up of
aristocracies.
 Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-states, even
ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against drastic changes.
 The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary people also
used their collective power against an abusive government.

Tyranny

 Since there are a few noble people in the government, city-states ,in effect, were now ruled by a
tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means ―boss.‖
 Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
 For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
 In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong and abusive
decisions that lead to another revolution ousting the tyrant rule.

Birth of Democracy

 Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed that power
must account for the common people.
 This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the city-states
into a democratic setting.
 In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of
democracy in Greece.

It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially the poorer, more
backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece has also soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling
thereafter.

Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time is limited to
males and therefore, not the total population.
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Significance and Implications of Democratization
The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by reducing
inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization in Greece laid out a
foundation for modern-day democracy.

Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications that
eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any other ancient civilization. Below are some
artefactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of democratization:

 Greek literature began to arise as poet Homer created his epics, Iliad and Odyssey.
 Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek structures
upon the rise of democratization.

Key Points

 In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the King bearing the highest position in
all Greek city-states, followed by the aristocracies and noblemen then the farmers.
 In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the Kings, the noblemen collectively
acted on ousting him, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.
 It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise
of democracy in Greece.
 The establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications.
 Wars and tension across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary influences in the
rise of democracy.

Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Processes

Artifacts
Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidence even dating back to the beginnings of
human evolution. As a result, present-day social and biological scientists were able to open a window to
what life was in the past. In this lesson, the significance and value of artifacts in several aspects will be
described and discussed.

Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time through
archaeological endeavor or by chance. Apart from serving as windows to the past, artifacts are also
deemed significant because they are tangible, authentic proof that a certain period in history actually
occurred.

The Significance of Artifacts

Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural, political, and economic processes that
occurred in the past. Their existence proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of
artifacts and the understanding of various processes has provided a stable foundation for the socio-
economic, political, and cultural growth that humans have come to recognize today.

Importance of Artifact Preservation

There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved and taken care of. Some of which are the
following:

 *Artifacts are irreplaceable. * Artifacts, being made hundreds, even thousands of years ago, are
very delicate objects that cannot be replaced by any available material in the present time.
 Artifacts are key to understanding the past. Practices that occurred in the past would not have been
known if not for the discovery of artifacts.
 *Artifacts give people a sense of identity. *Artifacts greatly describe culture and society. It provides
people with an opportunity to further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some
collective qualities that their culture may have.
 The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great successes archaeologists have
significantly made in recent years, there is still more to discover about history. Treating artifacts like
pieces of puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.

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Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future
Many advances have already been made and discovered within this century. It is logical to treat these
discoveries as significant elements that can help shape the future. As such, the technologies and
developments that the world has today must also be well-preserved. These must be treated with certainty
that one day, these ―artifacts‖ will be discovered and put to understanding by the future generations.

Tips

 Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was originally part of the distant past but recently
discovered. They may include bones, fossils, tools, and a lot more.
 Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts. Anthropologists study an area’s culture.
Together, they work to create a holistic picture and identity of a certain group.

Key Points

 Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time
through archaeological endeavor or by chance.
 Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social, cultural, economic, and political
processes.
 It is important to preserve artifacts because they are irreplaceable, help understand the past, and
give people a sense of identity.
 Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts for the future generation.

Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Source: Quipper

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