The Geological

Interpretation of
Well Logs
Malcolm Rider
1st Edition
 。

Contents

I Introduction 1123
1.1 Well logs a definition
1.2 Well logs the necmity
1.3 Well logs the making
1.4 Log runs
1.5 Log presentations
1.6 The logging companie>
1.7 Well自log interpretation and us"
1.8 This book aims anrl content

2 The logging environment

88114
2.1 Introduction
2 2 The premll"e en viront訕，ents of borehole logging 缸且d invasion
l11
2.3 Temperatnre environment of borehole Jogging
2 4 Logging tool 間pabiliti囚
2.5 Conclusion

3 Caliper logs
6671
1ll2
3.1 恥1echanical c明Ji per the tc ols
3.2 Log pre忘entations
3 3 Interpretation and uses
3.4 Three-dimensional calipers

4 Temperature logging

nnmA且
4.1 Geotemperatures
4 2 Borehole temp叫ature me,,urement
4.3 True formation temperatures

M
4 4 Significance of geoternpe> atures interpretation

5 Self·” potential or SP logs

22223
78992
5 1 Generalities
5.2 Principles of measurement
5.3 Log characteristics
5.4 Quantitative us閏
5.5 Qualitative uses

6 Resistivity and conductivity logs

57033

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6.1 Generalities
6.2 Theoretbl considerntions
6.3 Zones of invasion and resistivity
6.4 Resistivity tools
TA

6 5 Induction tools
斗凡WF

6.6 Log characteristics

6.7 Quantitative uses of the r田istivity logs
叩

6.8 Qualitatiie us自

7 The gamma ray and spectral gamma ray logs

55566
78912
7 1 Generalities
7.2 Natural gamma radiation
7.3 Tools
7.4 Log characteristrcs
7.5 Geochemical behaviour of potassium, thorium and uranium and natural radioactivity
7.6 Radioactivity of shales and clays
7.7 Quantitative use of the simple gamma ray log
7.8 Quantitati>e use of the spectral gamma ray log
7.9 Qualitative use of the simple gamma ray log
7.10 Quah 個tive use of the spectral gamma ray log

8 Sonic or acoustic logs

77788
77802
8.1 Generalities
8.2 Principles of measurement.
8.3 Tools
8.4 Log characteristics
8.5 Quant山t附明白
 viii CONTENTS

8.6 Qualitative us目 84

8.7 日eismic appli凹tions of the sonic log 90

9 The density log

9.1 Generalities
34667
999999
9.2 Principl的 of me"8urement
9.3 1ools
9.4 Log c治aracteristics
9.5 Quantita仙 e us~.~
9.6 Qualitati" uses

10 The neutron log

10. \ Generalities 106
10.2 Principl師 of measurement 107
10.3 Tools. 1日 8
10.4 Iρg characteristics 110
10.5 Quantitative us自 110
10.6 Qualitati1e us臼 I 13
10.7 Neutron density combination: lithology id凹tification 118
11 Lithology reconstruction from logs
11.1 Introduction 123
11.2 Lithology from drill data the mud log 123
11.3 Lithology from cores direct physical sampling 125
11.4 Lithology interprctation fro血 wireline logs manual method 128
11.5 Computer aids to lithology interp問恤ti on 131
11.6 Multi-log quantification oflithology 135
12 Facies and depositional environm凹的 from logs
i 117

A
句 A且
12 1 Introduction
--
12.2 Faα已可

TA且
12.3 The sequential analysis of logs a tool for sedimentological interpretation

T
13 Stratigraphy and logs
13.1 Introduction 154
13.2 Lithostratigraphy 154
13.3 Some aspects of con-elation 154
13.4 Stratigraphic breaks and stratigraphic sequences 160
13 5 Conclusions 164

14 Concluding remarks
14.1 The geologist's problem 165
14.2 The lithology problem 165
14.3 The dipmeter problem 166
14.4 Not a conclusion an approach 166

References 168
Index 172

I\
 •

1 Introduction

1.1 Well logs-·a definition res1sl!vity log is a continuous plot of a formation's

resistivity from the bottom of the well to the top and
The continuous r 巳cording of a geophysical parameter may repr田間t over 4 krlometres (2! mrles ）。f readings
along a borehole produces a geophysical well log The The most appropria臼 name for this continuous
value of the me品urement is plotted continuously depth『related record is a wirelinc geophysical well log,
against depth in the well (Fi且ure 1.1). For example, the conveniently shortened to well log or log. It has often
value ’
been called an ‘elecl!ical log because histoncally the
first logs were elec廿ical m問suremen臼 of electrical
130 。
5 10 15
.
ohm m2im properties. However, the measurements are no longer
simply electrical, and modern methods of data trans-
140 mission do not necessarily need a wire !me so the name
above is recommended. This book therefore concerns
wireline geophysical well logs.
150 In France, where well loggmg was first invented
by Schlumberger and Doll, the original name w品
160 已Carottage 且lectriq間，（electrical coring) as opposed to
mechanical coring. Today the name dza_qraphies dif-
170 f<!rees (literally,‘deferred diagrams’) is applied to
ε
＝。言 EZva旬

distmguish wireline geophysical well logs, which are

made after drilling, from the drill logs (diagraphies
180
irnrnediates, i e immediate diagrams ) made during the
drillinιIn English no such distinction is made the
190 word ‘lo耳，的 universally used
o

200 1.2 Well logs the necessity

Many dif』erent
modern wireline geophysical well logs
210
exi泣， They are records of sophisticated geophysical
measurements along a borehole. These may be
220 measurements of spontaneous phenomena, such as
natural radioactivity (the gamma ray log), which re-
230 quires a tool consisting simply of a very sensitive
radiation detector, or they may be induced, as with the
240 formation velocity log (sonic log), m which a tool emits
sound into the formation and measures the time taken
for the sound to.reach a I目eiver at a set distance along
the tool (Table 1.1).
Figure I.I A"ell log. Representation of the first 'log' made at Pee ,.J
bronn,Al帥間， France, in 1927 by H Doll (From Allaud and Martin, Wireline geophysical well logging is necessary be-
1976). cause geological sampling during drilling (‘cuttings
Table 1.1 Classification of wll"eline geophysical well measurements (in 'open hole').
Log type Formation parameter measured
Mechanicnl Cnliper Hole diameler
measurements
Spontaneous Temperature Borehole temperatur℃
1neasure1nents SP (self-potential) Spontaneous electncol currents
G刷nma ray Natural radioactivity
Induced Resistivity Resistance to electrical current
位1easure1nents Induction Conductivity of electrical current
Sonic Velocity of sound propagation
Density Reaction to gamma-ray bombardment
Neutron Reaction to neu訂on bombardment
~－一一一一＝＝一~~干

'

2 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

sampling') leaves a very imprecise record of the for-

mations encountered. Entire formation sample' can be 區
brought to the surface by mechanical coring, but this is
both slow and expensive The results of corin臣， of
course, are unequivocal Logging is precis巴， but
equivocal, in that it needs in 屆rpretation to bring a log
to the level of geological or petrophysical experience.
However, logs fill the gap between ‘cuttings ’ and
‘cores', and with experience, calibration and com-
pute凹， they c正m almost replace cores, as they ce1tainly
contatn enough infonnatron to put outcrop reality into
the subsurface

1.3 Well logs the making

Wireline geophysical well logs are recorded when the

dnlling tools are no longer in the hole ‘ Open』hole’
logs弋 the subject of this book, are recorded im
mediately after drilling.
Logs are made using highly specialized equipment
entirely separate from that used for drilling. Onshore, a
motorized logging truck is used which brings its array
of surface recorders, computers and a logging drum
and cable to the drill site (Fig.ure 1.2). Offshore, the
same equipment is installed in a small cabin left
permanently on the rig (Figure 1.2). Both truck and
cabin use a variety of interchangeable logging tools, /
which are lowered into the well on the logging cable
(Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 日chematic diagram of a modem logging set-up. The
Most modern logs a閃閃corded digitally. The sampl- surface computer and electronic equipment are housed in a logging
ingrate will normally be about once every 15 cm (6 in), truck (on land) orc,bin (offshore). The logging tool is winche<l up the
although for some logs it will be as low as 3 cm (1.2 i的 hole by the logging cable which also transmits the tool i巴endings. The
transmittal is digital and recorded on magnetic tape. Th巳 surface
An average well of say 2000 m will therefore be sampled computer allows instant d1Splay.
over 12 000 times for each individual log, and for a suite
of 8 or so typical logs, it will be sampled over 100 000 i.e. 0. 3 to 1. 8 km/h, depending on the tool used. As the
times This huge amount of data 1s stored in the cable is pulled in, so the depth of the working tool is
computer of the surface umt. There is generally an checked. Logging cables have magnetic markers set at
mstantaneous display for quality control and a full regular intervals (e.ι100 or 50 m) along their length
prmt-out immediately the log rs finished, but the raw and depths are checked mechanically, but apparent
data are stored on magnetic tape for future processing depths mURt be corrected for cable tension and
and editing. elasticity.
To nm logs, the hole is cleaned and stab1hzed and Because rig tune is expensive and holes must be
the drilling equipment extracted. The first loggi月 tool logged immediately, modern logging tools are multi >

is then attached to the logging cable (wireline) and function (Figure 1.4）ιThey may be up to 18111 (60ft) in
lowered into the hole to its maximum drilled depth.
Most logs are run while pulling the tool up from the
bottom of the hole. The cable attached to the tool ac旭 conducting cables
both as a support for the tool and as a canal for data
transmission. The outside consists of galvanized steel,
while the electrical conductors are msulated in the
interior (Figure 1.3). The cable is wound around a
motorized drum on to which it is guided manually matrix
during logging. The drum will pull the cable at sr咒eds ＇＂＇凶lat I 。n
of between 300 m/h (1000 ft月1) and 1800 m/h (6000 ft/h),
''"' ＇＇＂＇＇°「t
卓 Open-hole indicnl目 that the formation forms the wall of a we\' as Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram or a logging α1ble. (Modified from
opposeo to ‘cased-hole’, in which a tube of 111etalca,ing line' the well. Moran and Attali, 197\.)
 "
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1174.)

length, but still have an overall diameter of only 3 4 in.
The Schlur巾erger !SF sonic tool, for example, of 31\ in
diameter, is 55.5 ft (16.9 m) long and gives a simul
taneous measurement of gamma ray 01 caliper, SP,
deep resistivity (conductivity), shallow resistivity and
sonrc velocity The complexity of such tools requires
the use of the surface computer, not only to record but
also to memorize and to depth-match the varrous
readings. The gamma-ray sensor, for example, is not at
the same depth as the resistrvity sensors (Frgure 1 4), so
at any one instant, different formations are being
sampled along the tool The surface computer the聞自
fore memorizes the readings, compensates for depth or
!lme lag and giv目 a depth-matched output
Despite the use of the combined tools, the recording
of a full set of logs still reqmres several different tool
descen臼 While a quick, shallow logging job may only
take 3--4 hou凹， a deep也ole, full set may take 2 3 days,
each tool taking perhaps 4-5 hours to complete
1.4 Log runs
When a log is made it is said to be 'run'. A log run is
typically made at the end of each drilling phase, i.e. at
the end of the drilling and before casing is put in the
hole (Figure 1.5 ）。 Each specific log run is numbered,
bemg counted from the first time that tbe particular log
> is recorded. Run 2 of the ISF Sonic, for example, may
cover the same depth interval as a Formation Density
Log Run 1. In thrs case rt means that over the first
interval of the !SF Sonic, (i e. Run 1), there was no
Formation Density log recorded (Figure 1.5).
Typrcally, through any well, more logs are run ove1
intervals containing reservoirs or with shows, than
over apparently uninteresting zones The choice of!ogs
depends on what it is hoped to find. Logging costing 5-
10% of total well costs is expensive, so that in cheap,
onshore wells, m known terrain, a minrmum set is run.
Offshore, where everything rs expensive, full sets of logs
are generally run, even if hydrocarbons are not found,
as each well represen臼 hard-gained information.
CuUi/lg down on well logs is probably a false economy,
but rt can be forgrven when prices a臼 considered
1.5 Log presentations
A standard AP! (American Petroleum Institute) log
format exists (Figure 1.6). The overall log width is 8.25
in (21 cm), with three tracks of 2.5 in (6.4cm), tracks 1
and 2 being separated by a column of 0.75 in (1.9 cm) in
 ,,

4 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRE'I A1 ION OF WELL LOGS

LOGGING RECORD DRILLING CURVE

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Figure 15 Logging record, Log rum are indicated on a typical oflshore drilling curve Horizontal Jin°' indicate no drilling, when logs are run,
Casing follows logging。 Note log run numbers, (Tool symbols Schlumbe<ger),
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are variable (see text),
 t

lN1RODUιcT!ON 5

which the depths ar、e pnnted There are various
combinations of grid Track 1 is always linear, with ten
standard divisions of 0.25 in (0.64cm). Tracks 2 and 3
may have a 4 cycle loganthm1c scale, a linear scale of
20 standard divisions, or a hybrid of logarithmic scale
in track 2 and linear scale in track 3 (Figure 1.6).
These are the classic presentat10ns which, in the past,
=20 m) and 1 :5000 (1 cm= 50 m). In fact any con-
vcnient scale can now be produced easily by the
computer, whereas in the past scale changes could only
be made by unsatisfactory photographic methods.
。

usually prevailed. With the advent of digitized logs,

non-standard formats are becoming more common,
especially on computer playbacks
On the old analog loggmg systems, the choice of
vertical or depth scales was limited to two of 1: 1000,
1 :500, 1 :200, 1: 100, 1 :40 and 1 :20. From these, the

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available scales were 1 :1200, 1:600,1 :240 and 1 :48.
From these the commonly-chosen scales were 1 :600
(1 in= lOOfeet) for resum已 and correlation logs, (lnd
1 :240 (5 in= lOOfeet) for detail. '
m
These scales sttll dominate industrial documents, 0
logg;og 'P••d = 10m!mm,
but as a result of modern compute1 storage other scales ; e. 600m!h (1970 ＇！的

are becoming more common Especially useful to the Figm·e 1.7 Dashed log margin represenhng minute intervals. The
geologist are the reduced scales of 1 :2000 (1 cm logging speed can be checked from these dashes.

Table I 2 Principal us臼 of open-hole wireline logs

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7 Gamma ray + + +

7 Spectral GR + 十 ”+ -•

8 Sonic 十 + + + *
• *

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9 Density 十 + + *

10 Neutron + 半

(Essentially) qualitative use

+Semi quantitati" uses
•Strictly quantitative
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One final aspect of the log grid to note is the 正lashed
outside border on field log, (Figure 1. 7). Each dash
represents one minute, regardless of log scale The
presentation allows a drrect control of loggmg speed
and, indirectly, log quality.
Every log grid is preceded by a comprehensive log
heading. It covers all aspects which allow the proper
interpretation of the log and, in addition, identification
of the well, ri臣， logger and logging unit. The log heading
illustrated (Figure 1. 的 is but one example, each cnm-
pany having rts own format.
On the log tail is found a repetition of some of the
log head data，但mply for convenience Calibration
data is also added to the log tail,' s are short, doubled
up or repeat sections which act as samples for empirical
quality control.
1.6 The logging companies
The well-loggrng world is dominated by one, extreme > he can instantly identify on the logs, even to the nearest
ly successful, giant international company
Schlumberger. In America a number of other compan-
ics exist but in many par ts of the world Schlumberger
has a quasi-monopoly The reasons for this dommation
are partly historical it was Frercs Schlumbcrger who
created the original SPE (Societ6 de Prospection
Electnque) in 1926, the precursor or the modem
Schlumberger. The brothers, along with H. G. Doll,
were the creators of the well-loggmg technique.
The mternatronal forum is becoming slightly more
competitive, and in America smaller companies are
active However, three names stand out rn the general
logging field apart from Schlumberger: Gearhart,
Dresser Atlas, and Welex.
1.7 Well間log interpre 阻tio n and uses
The accepted user of the well log is the petrophysi目前
Hrs mterest is strictly quantitative From the logs, a
petrophysicist will calculate porosity, water satu-
ration, moveable hydrocarbons, hydrocarbon density
and so on, all the factors related to quantifying the
INTRODUCTION 7
amount of hydrocar hons in a reservoir for estimates of
1 eserves. The Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts (SPWLA), the principal society of log in-
terprele凹， is mamly composed of petrophysicists.
Reservoir rocks, however, c01npr的c perhaps only
15% of a typical well, and of this 15% only a small
percentage actually contams hydrocarbons The petro-
physicist is therefore not interested in 85% or more of
the well logs recorded. The exploration geologist, in
contn阻t, should be interested in 100% of well logs，制
the amount of geological information they contain is
enormous
The geophysical measurements made during logging
are sensitive, accurate and characteristic of the for』
mation logged However, to those familiar with the
aspect of rocks t阻 seen at outcrop, the geophysical
signatures of thrs selfsame rock in the subsurface are
impossible to imagine. To an experienced geological
analyst of well logs, the revcrse is true. A forlI\ation that
metre, l凹的 hard put to find, even tentatively, at
outcrop.
In the following pages it is intended to relate the
outcrop more closely to the wireh帥， geophysical well
log. Logs can and should be interpreted in terms
meanmgful at outcrop. They contain as much infor 自
mation as does an outcrop, but can be studied
conveniently at the desk.
1.8 Thrs book--;iims and content
Table 1.2 shows the logs considered in this book, and
their。 principal applications, which have been divided
into qualitative, semi-quantitative and strictly quanti
tative, although there is an increasing tendency to treat
modern logs as simply repr esentmg a set of analytical
values. A sample set of over 100 000 values for a well of
2000 m represents an enormous quantr個tive database.
Semi-statistical, quantitative or quasi-quantitative me
thods applied to this database can bring precision to
interpretatio且， as applied to geological problems.
 ,,

2 The logging environment

2.1 Introduction 自由ted by the column of fluid is dependent simply on

the height of the fluid column and the density of the
Treated simply as an instmment of measurement, a fluid. The pressure in kg in a column of water can be
logging tool is required to do two things to give a true, calculated thus:
repeatable readmιand to make the reading of a
hei~ht of wa臼r column (m)× density (g/cm3)
representati惘， undisturbed sample of the subsurface
format10n For the following reasons, neither of these 10 ( 1)
~ pressure (kg) per sq. cm
ideals can be realized
The first is that the undisturbed formation environ- For a column of pure water of 2500 m (den回ty of pure
ment is irrevocably disturbed by drilling a well. The water = 1.00 g/cm3)
new drill c1 eated conditions are those in which the
>

loggmg tools work. A tool can only ‘guess’ at the
original states ’ This chapter examines what is involved
in this guess, in terms of drilling pressure, drilling
temperature and mvasion
The second reason 1s that the ideal conditions for a
perfect geophysical measurement cannot be met in
borehole logging methods. Ideal conditions would
require a logging tool to be motionless for each
individual measurement, and to have a sensor of zero
dimensions measurmg a pomt sample Sensors have
dimensions and tools move. Tool design acknowledges
this, and a compromise is made between a practical
and practicable measurement and one that is perfect.
This chapter will also examine, in general terms, the
effects of the logging method on the measurements
made. The notions of depths of investigation, mini』
mum bed resolution and bed『boundary definition will
be discussed.
2.2 The pressure envirnnments of borehole logging and
1nvas1on
女句“。× 1 月
(2)
10 '
In oilfield terms, the pressure of a column of fluid may
be expressed by l臼 pressure gradient Thus pure water
has a gradient of 1 00 g/cm3. That is, a column of pure
wa阻r will show a pressure mcrcase of 1 kg/cm2 per
10 m of column (or 1 g/cm2 per cm of column)
(Figure 2.1). The term ‘column of water’的 used as
applicable to wells: ‘depth’ is equally applicable and
more understandable when talking about water
masses, such as the oceans
As water becomes more saline, its density increases
(Figure 2.2). Water which has a salinity of 140 000 ppm
(parts per million) of solids (mainly NaCl), has a
density of 1.09 g/cm3 (at 15.5。C). A column of water of
this salinity will have a gradient of 1.09 g/cm3 and at
。
ZT ＠早已 EZ

The pr的sure environment durmg dnlling and, in > 123

evitably, during loggi峙， is made up of an interplay
between two elemen缸， formation pressure and
dnllmg-mud column pressure
。ο

The format10n pre阻 ure is the pressure under

豆豆己

which the subsurface formation fluids and gases are

confined. The pressure of the drilling mud is hy-
Ev－FZH

drostatic and depends only on the depth of a well, that

is the height of the mud column, and the mud density.
Maintaining the pressure exerted by the column of
＠a

most oilfield brines

苟

drilling mud at just a little above the pressure of the

subsurface formations encountered is one of the nec咱
自sities for equilibrium drilling it is a delicate balance
The two pressure envnonments are examined below.
200 400 600 800
Hydrostatic pressure pressure, kg/cm 2
Figure 2.1 Fluid pres叫ire gradient' relateo to depth, or height of
Fluids transmit pressure peifectly so that the pressure fluid cclumu.
 "
THE LOGGING ENVIRONMENT 9

。
。 1.15
。K> ν／
"' / 1 _,
"'' 1.10 ν／

。
、
E >/
"',, 1.05
/

的
/ 2
c
ω // E
~
可0 1 0

zva
50 100 150 200 250 x 103
。

。hu
salinity (total solids, ppm NaCl) 3

Figure 2.2 Gra~h showing the incre<" in water density with

inere叫C in sahmty (NaCl). (From Pirson, 1963.)
typical well profile
2500m will exert a pressure of 4

2500 x 1.09 吋
- = 272. 5 kg/cm' (3)
10
Figure 2.1 shows the various gradients for fuids of 0h

different densities and the increases with depth. All
gradients are shown as linear.
Fοrmatiοn pre咽urι、
In most geological basins the pressure at which pore
fluids are found mcreases from the ‘normal’ to mo
derately overpressured. Normal pressure is defined as
hydrostatic pressure: it is due only to the weight of the
flmd column above the formation To calculate normal
pressure it is sufficient to know only the depth of the
formation and the density of the fluids in the formation.
If a formation water has the same salinity as sea water,
then the pressure at 1000 min a formation with normal
pressure is the same as the pre回ure at the sea floor
below 1000 rn of sea water. The graph (Figure 2.1)
therefore shows normal pressure gradients for vanous
salinities
0 500 1000
pressure, kg/cm2
Figmc 2 3 Formation fluid presrnre increases with depth in a typical
oilfield well. The p自由 ure varies between the hydrostatic (fluid) and
the lithostatic (rock) gradients.
rest, the brake fluid is at normal pressure. Puttmg the
foot on the brake puts the fluid underoverpressure: 1t is
being squeezed by the extra pressure of the foot
Generally, most wells drilled show a typical subsur-
face pressure development‘ Shallow formations show
’
'normal or hydrostatic formation pressures there is
no rock squeezing, no overpressure. Deeper into the
subsurface slight overpressures are encountered so
there is slight squee叩ng. As the depths increase, so the
overpressme incre扭曲 and the formation fluids sup『
port more and more of the rock overburden pressure
(Figu自 2.3).

Overptessure is simply defined 阻 any pressure
above the hydrostatic (or normal) for a particular
depth. Thus, if the formation fluids are salty with a
density of 1.09 g/cm3 and the measured formation
pressure is 350 kg/cm2 at 2500 血， there is an over-
pressure, calculated as follows.
Normal pressure at 2500 m, fluid density 1.09 g/cm3,
from (3)
2500 × 1.09 司
= 272.5 kg/cm'
10
Measured pressure at 2500 m = 350 kg/cm 2
Overpressure= 350 272.5 = 77.5 kg/cm2
Overpressure exts臼 for a number of reasons, but in
all cases it means that the formation fluids are being
squeezed by the surrounding rocks. It is similar to the
pressu閃閃g1me in car brakes When the brakes are at
Ovet pressures can increase up to an empirical
maximum called the lithostatic gradient. This gradient,
also called the geostatic or overburden gradient, is
taken as a convenient gradient representing the pro-
bable maximum pressure like_ly to be encountered in a
well at any depth. The average gradient f阻quently used
comes from the Gulf Coast of North America, and in
American oilfield units is a gradient of 1 psi/ft (i.e. in
metric 2 3g/cm3) and cone沼ponds to an average rock
den月ty of 2.3 g/cm3 (Figure 2.3) (cf. Levors凹， 1967).
The true lithostatic gradient will in fact vary from well
to well, and will depend on the densities of the
fqrmations encountered In the example given
(Figure 2.4), which is from a well in Germany, the
average formation density ts 2.4 g/cm3 (Meyer-Giirr,
1976).
The average well, therefore, encounters formation
pressures somewhere between the normal hydrostatic
 。

l 仇U
THE GEOL且GICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

rock density, g/cm3

2 00 2.40 2.80 depth ~in~si ＇.：＇.＇.＿一
一一
。
肘＋恥

tr
ae
汀

Q uT tr
nt
VJ

Aa－－1illω 的鬧。」OE】
y

抽
Hm
t ac

咱刮
vr
a9eaEi sg
o4 G3

e
rdJ HZ

叫
/

2
Cretaceous
1 EXRZHaohu

rate of rnvasr 。n
Jurassic 一－一 一一
／／立山叫：旦旦旦s＝.＿一一一一
Triassic
10
100 1000 10 000
2 time { min after penetration)
Figure 2.6 Graphic 阻pre,entation (schematic ）。！ invasion and mud『
rake build-up as a porous formation is penetrat吋（modified from
Dewan, 1983).
Permian
formation, mud will be forced into it (Figure 2.5). The
0 500 1000
lithostatic pressure, kg/cm~ porous rock will then begin to act as a filter, separating
the mud into i臼 liquid and solid constituents. The mud
Flgu<e 2.4 True rock density profile and average lithostatic gradient
from a North German well. ﹛R吋 rawn from Meyer GUrr, 1976.) filtrate (the water used to mix the mud) will flow into
the format10n, while the sohds (the mud) will form a
gradient and the lithostatic gradient (Figure 2.3). In deposit around the borehole wall once the bit has
absolute terms this will give usual logging pressures of passed. In the hole just drilled, the solid deposit around
between about 150 kg/cm2 and 1000 kg/cm2 (2000 psi- the borehole wall, the mud cake, will gradually build
15 000 psi). Most oil自己ld logging tools are designed to up to form a skm over the porous interval
withstand pressures up to a maximum of 1050 Imtially, as the bit enters the porous format10n there
1750kg/cm2 (15000-20000psi), signr日cantly above is complete disequilibrium and dynamic filtration
the highest pressure usually encountered. takes place (Figure 2.6). That is, below and around the
bit there is a continuous flow of filtrate into the
Inva,ion drilling pressures formation, provided of course that the mud pressure is
sufficient. Gradually, as the mud cake builds up, it
Under rdeal conditions, the pressure exerted by the creates a barrier and the movement of fluids dimin-
column of dnlling mud wrll be such that when a porous ish間， until finally the mud cake becomes impermeable
fot mat10n 1s encountered, as the dnll enters the and filtration practically ceases (Figure 2.6). A cross-
section through the borehole at this stage would show

INVADED ZONE
dcllllog med
"'''"''
formatlo 內 fluids filtrate
mud cake
med

and
p。r。 us med
permeable cake
f。 rmallon

mc'd llltcoto ＇＂＂＇＇。n

一
dopth of '"'""°"
←－－－一一－－一一－一一
diameter of Invasion
Figure 2.5 Schematic repre,entalion of dy11amic fillration as a bit Figure 2.7 Invasion: snnple 間pre,entation of the effe叫 of drilHng on
enters a porous formation. Note the progre'Sive mud －間ke build-up. fluids in a porous and permm1ble fonn,tion.
 "
THE I且GG!NG ENVIRONMEN’r 11

Table 2.J Depth of invasion (distanιe from borehole wall) v. P" 2.3 Temperature environment of borehole logging
rosity (approximate) from Mi,,ch and Albrigl哎， 1967).
Hole Formation temperature"
size (in) J 17! 12* st
Normal sedimentary basins show a more or less
Ratio
Porosity Depth of mvasion m 閥割 on diameter
regular mcrease in temperature with depth
% hole diametec (Figure 2. 8). The increase is not linear as frequently
depicted ; it varies according to lithology dep巳nding
1 8 I 200.0cm · 140。Ocm 97 Ocm I 10
principally on the latter's thermal conductivtty (see
自 2日 I 90.0cm 620.c血的 Ocm I 5 Figu阻 4.1). However, despite the irregularities there is

20 JO I 22 5cm 15.5cm 11.0cm I 2 an overall, persistent increase in temperature with

30 卜 I "J.Ocm 竺 2.0cm 竺 17cml
mud in the hole, mud cake on the borehole wall and
then the porous formation now filled almost entirely by
mud filtrate. The original formation fluids have been
pushed away from the hole (Figure 2.7). This is usually
the situation when the open-hole well logs are run.
The phenomenon of the replacement of formation
fluids by drilling mud filtrnte is called invasion.
lnvas10n a叮eels porons and permeable formattons m
the immediate vicinity of a borehole. It is described by
‘depth’。r ‘diameter’ of invas10n, that ts the distance
reached by the invading filtrate with r巳spect to the
borehole (Figure 2.7). In general, mvaston is small m
very porous and permeable formations, the mud cake
building up rapidly to block dynamic filtration
(Table 2.1). The contrary is the case in poorly perme-
able zones, vuggy carbonates or fractured formations,
where mud cake formation is slow and invasion may be
very deep, up to several metres
Since excessive invaston is the worst situation for
logging and takes the real formation fluids too far away
from the borehole to be detected, chemicals are added
to the drilling mud to reduce water loss creating a
protective mud cake as quickly as possible. Products
such as lignosulphonates and starch are used.
。
depth (Figure 2. 8). This inc間ase is often expressed as a
(2 gradient, the geothermal gradtcnt (the increa田 m
temperature with depth). The metric values are usually
"C per 100 m or 'C per km.
Typical gradients for scdim凹tary basins are be-
tween 2 日 °C per km and 35。C per km (see Chapter 4
and Table 4.2).
Temperatures in borehnles
Just as the geopressure 間gime is disturbed by drilling,
so is the subsurface temperature. A well drilled into a
subsmface formation introduces relatively cold mud
and mud filtrate into a hot formation. While drilling
continues and mud is ctrculatir袍， the formation is
cooled slightly and the mud heated. Howev•凹， the mud
remains undisturbed in the borehole when circulatton
ceases and 1t gradually heats up to reach, or at least
approach, the temperature of the surrounding for
mation. The two, however, are rarely in equilibnum.
Loggmg temperatures taken m the mud are usually
measured after only 5 10 hours of mud immobility:
equilibrium is probably approached only after 5 10
days! (Temperature is considered at greater length in
Chapter 4.)
Typical borehole tools are generally designed to
withstand 但mperatur 目 up to around 200。c (400。F):
this gives a guide to maxima expected during drilling.
2.4 Logging tool capabilities

It was suggested 且rlier that loggi月 tools should be

able to sense the undisturbed formalton and to make
2S a true measurement of it As indicated, the undisturbed
Et £

formation environment is forced away from the bore-

－

hole by drillin臣， to be replaced by the invaded zone.

aω－

Logging tools are therefore designed either to ‘by-pass’

u

the invaded zone to reach the undisturbed formation,

or to deliberately measure just the invaded zone i扭巳If.
4 That is, they are designed with various capabilities of
penetration, called the 'depth of investigation’(see
below). Inevitably, such demands on tool design create
100 200 300 400 secondary effec祖. Logging is comparable to photo-
tompocatoco, 'c graphy with its close-up lenses and long-distance
Figure 2 8 Graph of geothermal gmdients, The zcne of typical lenses. Close-up logging tools give gieat resolution but
oilfield gradients is indicated. little depth of investigation long-distance logging
 •

]2 !HE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

dist a 凡 ce from borehole Table 2 2 Deplh of inve.sti

4 6 g副ion of !he neutrnn tool (mo
’，計
8
。 2
100% <lilied frnm Ser凹， 1979, after
Schlumberger).
Lμ
＠E
c。－

。一切M－

Depth' of
v22t

Porosity Investigation
50% (%) (cm)
－ h

徊
W。但。但
丘vOU

0 60.0
10 34.0
20 23.0
。% JO 16.5
呵C% of !he signal
SHALLOW INVESTIGATION bombarding signal (Table 1.1), the depth of investi月
gation of the tool depends on the separat10n distance
between the emitter and receiver. For example, with
the resistivity tools (Chapter 6), when the emitting and
receiving electrodes are very close, the depth of m固
＼叮

vestigation is very small (Figure 2.9). The Micro-

nu %\/
Joo Inverse Resistivity Tool, with ele氾trodes 2.54cm (1 in)
apart, has such a shallow depth of investigation that it
• reads only the 阻sistivity of the mud cake (when
present). Conversely, the Induction Conductivity Tool,
with emitter and receiver 1 m (40in) apart, has a depth
of investigation which may reach about 5 m The
Induction Tool is considered to be the most likely to
100% give the resistivity (in fact, conductivity) of the un-
”,
一
ωca－ω －ω徊。但。但

touched formation (Ri).

已。－

The emitter receiver separation is not the only

f“sa

50% factor affecting depth of investi耳目的n Necessarily 1t

－U
』 VCOO

varies with the character bemg measured. Thus for the

0 2 4 6
distance from borehole
Figure 2.9 Illustration of the notion of depth of investigation. Two
tools are shown schematically, along with a gm phic representation of
formation contribution to their overall signal.
E, enutteo·, R, receiver
tools give great depth of investigation but blurred
resolution
Three inter』related phenomena of logging and log-
ging tools are examined below, depth of imestigation,
minimum bed resolution and bed boundary definition.
Depth of investigation
Most geophysical logs have an extremely shallow
depth of investigation By ‘depth of investigatton’ we
mean the distance away from the borehole to which the
formation 1s having an effect on a tool reading. So-
called ‘deep’ investigation is only a mattet of 2-5 m
away from the borehole and into the formation、 The
environment of logging tools is therefore from the
borehole ttself (shallow investigation) to a distance of
5 m from the borehole wall (deep invest培訓的n).
In general, with tools that subiect the formation to a
sonic tools which measure the speed of sound waves in
the formation, the waves take the quickest path from
。% emitter to receiver this is generally along the borehole
8
wall (Chapter 8) For nuclear tools, the emitter•
receiver separation is fixed as a function of the average
penetration of gamma rays, neutrons, e峙， the field
bemg more or less spherical around the emitter These
characteristics will be considered when each tool is
described.
Finally, depth of investigation also depends on the
formation, whether it is suscep!ible to penetration or
not. In the case of the neutron tools, for example, a non-
porous bed is ‘seen’ to a far greater depth than a porous
bed, due to variations in the absorbance of the signal
(Table 2.2).
In reality, depth of investigation is a very difficult
term to fully understand. It is not precise ; a bed is not
investigated to a particular point and no further. It is a
progress1v.e character, like the radiant heat from a fir活－
We feel the heat near to the fire, but not at some
distance away. Can we say exactly at what distance the
fire has no more effect?
With loggi月 tools, the depth of investigation is
more realistically defined as the zone from which x% of
the tool reading is derived (Figure 2 9) For instance,
the neutron tool figures given above (Table 2.月 are
defined on 90% of the tool signal. This is called the
 fHE LOGGING ENVIRONMEN1 13

＠
I
-

一一／
一／
@ @

hFl
t…叩刊刊刊

︱
l1
SI

！
jpltr
(:

J
4

fJM
刊刊刊HIHHHIH
一一一一→ true resistivity short spacing value long spacing value
(theoretical) (i.e. microlaterol 。 g) {i e. induction log)
。一一」 emitter-receiver distance S, sh 。rt spacing tool L, long spacing t0ol
F;gure 210 The elTect o[ minimum bed rernlution on logging-tool 、 alues in various scales of interbedding. (1) Fine interbe曲，（司 coars巳
interbedding; (3) single bed boundary (schematic).

Table 2 3 Minimum bed rernlution of some cnmmon tnols under (40 in) can resolve beds to give true tool resistiv1t1個
best conditions (modified from Hartmann, 1975) only down to 1.2 m, and then only under ideal
conditions
Emitter-to-rece;ver Mm1mum Table 2.3 shows some common tools, thei1 emitter 自
spacing bed to-receiver spacings and mmimum bed resolut10n for
resolution for
ιtrue' values* true valu田 under the best conditions.
AHV )
A bed which is much thinner than a tool’s emitter-to
Tool n {cm) (cm) 1eceiver distance may still be identifiable. Howev凹， the
Microlog 1-2 2.5 5.0 15.0 value indicated on the log for this bed will only be a
Microlaterolog - OOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOO5550
2005068111
13666667779
5556000000 percentage of the real reading it should give. The tool
proximity 224489222
111211333 333644888 takes a global measurement of the format10n between
SFL
Laterolog 3 the emitter and the receiver, the thin bed forming only a
Laterolog 8 small percentage of this (Figure 2.10). The value on the
Sonic log will depend on the percentage contribution that
Density
SNP CNL this thin bed makes to the global measurement An
Laterolog 7 induction log opposite a thin, resistive, limestone bed
Laterolog S in a shale sequence will show a subdued ‘bli中， On a
Laterolog D
GR microlog this becomes a fnlly developed peak
Induction M (Figure 2.10). In reality, where lithologies vary rapidly
Induction D 40 IOO.O 120.0 and individual beds are thin, it is only averaged values
*For ‘true' log rnading that appear on the log, especially the logs derived from
long spacmg tools The averaged value will tend to
approach that of the dominant lithology
geometric factor, and the principle is true for all tools.
(Figure 2.10).When the mixture is 50／絨 logs will even
give a constant value, but it will be somewhere between
Minimum bed res叫ution
the two ‘real’ values (see Hartmann, 1975).
Minimum bed resolution and depth of investigation
are intimately related. A tool is only capable of making Bed boundary definit的n
a true measurement of a bed if the bed is thicker than
the emitter receiver distance of the tool (Figure 2.10). A bed, in geology, can be roughly defined as a planar
Thus, a tool with an emitter recetver distance of unit with a homogeneous composition, structure and
2.54cm (1 in) can resolve beds down to about lOcrn, texture, limited by significant differences of these
providing some idea of theff true resistivity. An characters. The limits tend to be abrupt. Well logs are
induct10n log with an emitter receiver dtstance of 1 m incapable of showing these features because, firstly, a
 。

14 THE GE >LOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

0 GR 0 GR 。

E
Om

四
。－
F』m
HO
－vm
＠』－祖飢
門oaATIl
23

E
‘五α
－l－IIII－肉

呂
NMM
」。啊O
WN
’。m

。MOW
4

－”
{A} MOVEMENT EFFECT (8) DETECTOR EFFECT
5

Figure 2.11 Logging effects oo the gamma ray bed delioition. (A)
Sensor or zero length but a long time-comtant. Distortion is due to
movement through the time-car st制1t. (B) Finite size sensor, long Frgure 2.12 The effect of blocking on log data. Nole Jhe reallocation
time-constant and normal logging speed. Distortion is due to of ‘trans1tJOn' valu°'
detector size and mo>ement through the time constant. (Modified
from Ser間， 1979.)
sent reality, but tt Is a good guide and is consistent
pomt sample is not bemg analysed, and secondly, the In an effort to deal scientifi品lly with the bed-
logging tool is moving boundary problem, logs may be squared ot blocked by
The problem is well illustrated by the effect of computer That is, the computer is programmed to
logging speed and sensor size on the shape of the eliminate the averaging that occurs on the logs between
gamma ray curve opposite a sharply defined bed beds of different values. Log curves are resolved into
(Figure 2.11). The gamma ray log illustrates these zones of constant value, separated by horizontal
effects well because the tool counts discrete events ‘boundaries': they become more ‘bed-like’ in ap
(Chapter 7). pearance (Figure 2.12). The usual method requir目 the
The first case illustrates essentially the effect of squared log to be a true reflection of the raw log, but
movement on log values, the sensor is F開n zero with transition zone' or ramps elimmated The exercise
dimensions (Figure 2.1 lA). The distortion is due to the is one of reassignment of the transition zone values to
averagmg effect of tool movement. A gamma ray tool pre』designated blocks of real, non-transition values
moving at 50cm/s (too fast) with a sampling count rate (Griffiths, 1982) (Figure 2.12). The algorithm applied
of once every 2 seconds will travel 1 m dunng one assumes that the original log values are adequate. The
sampling period. The count will therefore be the method can be applied to several logs simultaneously
average from 1 m of formation Over bed boundaries, so that they all become perfectly comparable (Serra
half the count will be from bed A and half from bed B. and Abott, 1980) and the problems of comparing logs
The average value obtained has no real formation of differing depths of investigation and bed-resolving
equivalent (Figure 2.llA). capabilities are elimmated.
The averaging effects of a tool readmg are com自 A more complex method (Kerzner and Frost, 1984)
pounded by the fact that sensots have cettain sensiti- does not assume that the raw log values are adequate,
v1t1es and are ofa certam size The sample is not a point and tries to compensate for assumed tool deficiencies
and the sensor has its own volume. For example, the For instance, it is well known that the SP will only
gamma ray sens凹， which may have a window 3 cm reach its full value and real deflection in 、 ery thick beds
long in the direction of the tool axis, will receive (Chapter 5). The more complex blocking method tries
radiations from a fotmation volume wtth a radius of to approach this full value from the raw log values
about 30 cm around the sensor (see Chapter 7). At bed using the known tool limitations.
boundari白， radiations will be coming from both beds The squaring of logs certainly gives a nearer ap-
simultaneously (Figure 2 llB). The actual values re > proach to real formation values and formation aspects
corded will again have no t巴eal fotmation value equiva > and can .be a great aid to geologi開l interpretation.
lent. For the gamma ray tool, averaging effects are kept However, the methods by which the squaring is done
reasonable 1f the tool moves no more than 30 cm have yet to become standard and accepted. This is in no
during the sampling period (see Chapter 7) and the way a criticism.
sensor 1s shtelded.
When in terpreti月 logs manual旬， and dividing them 2.5 Concl岫ion
into beds, the general tendency is to assume bed
boundaiies to be at the point of maximum change of It is suggested in this chapter that, for a proper
value or maximum slope This may not always repre- interpretation, a logging tool is required to make a

true, repeatable geophysical measurement of a for-
mation. This was shown in fact to be impossible
because of drill-created disturbances (invasion), and
because of the logging method itself. However, with a
knowledge of typical formation behaviour, typical tool
capabilities and log characteristics, 1t is possible, using
the right methodology, to reconstruct the specific
formation characteristics being shown on the log
A projection of this approach will be used in the
THE LOG 口 ING ENVIRONMENT 15
following chapters. Each type of individual open-hole
log, will be considered and de.<cnbed in terms of the
corresponding logging tool’s capabilities, log charac-
terist1cs, their significance in terms of the real fo >-
mation and interpretation in common geological
terms- in short, the geological interpretation of the
individual well logs. Finally, all the logs will be
considered collectively and the1t colle也tive interpre
tation described.
 。

3 Caliper logs

Caliper tools measure hole size and shape The sim
ple mechanical caliper measures a verllcal profile of
hole diameter (Figure 3.1). The more sophisticated
Borehole Televiewer or Volumetric Scan gives a 360。
two or three-dimensional representation of the bore
hole walls
3.1 Mechanical calipers the tools
The mechamcal caliper measur閏 variations in bore-
hole diameter with depth. The measuremen臼 are
made by two articulated arms pushed against the
borehole wall. The arms 盯c linked to the cursor of a
variable r自istance (Figure 3.2). Lateral movement of
the arms is translated into movements of the cursor
along the resistance, and hence variat10ns m electrical
output. The variations in output are translated into
diameter variations after a simple calibration.
> Frequently logging tools are automatically equipped
with a calip凹， such as the micrologs (Chapter 6) and
the density neutron tools (Chapters 9, 10) where the
caliper arm is used to apply the measurmg head of the
tool to the borehole wall. Sophisticated, dual-caliper
tools, such t旭 the Borehole Geometry Tool of
Schlumberger, also exist specifically for measuring hole
size and volume. This tool contains two mdependent
calipers, that 阻， four arms all at right angles. When the
two calipers are compared it is possible to form a good
idea of hole shape (see below). A gyroscope and
compass included in this tool allow hole azimuth and
dev1at10n to be measured.
3.2 Log presentations
The caliper log is printed out simply as a continuous
value of hole diameter with depth (Figure 3.3). The

H。 LE DIAMETER
恃 bit 『 Soale loohe• -
I size I 5 7 9 11 13 15

bit ,.,.., caliper

SHALE cave}; size I
’ caved hole'

HARD LIMESTONE
BED
）← 4。n 叫e

PERMEABLE mud cake thickness

特 SANDSTONE = callper/2

IMPERMEABLE
•SANDSTONE

’bad hole' or
'tight spot ’
SHALE

Figm·c 3.1 T'e caliper log showing hole diameter: some lypical re., pons目＇ Limestone, dolom巾， etc. equally applicable.
 CALIPER LOGS J7

oallpe< to叫 varia~le reslsta~c。

mu th of the deviation An mtegrated hole volume may
AB
be added as horizontal ticks on the depth column
giving a continuous record of hole volume as an aid to
C阻ing cementing (not on the example).

3 3 Interpretation and us回

The simple caliper log records the mechanical response

、＼＼刊
Figure 3.2 Schcmati叩開liper tool showing the conversion of a
mechanical movement to an el凹的問l signal using a variable
r的istan自. (Adapted from Ser間， 1979.)
curve is traditionally a dashed line and usually plotted
in track L The horizontal scale may be mches of
diameter or, in the differential caliper, expressed as
increase or decrease in hole diameter about a zero
defined by the bit size (Figure 3.3). The ordinary caliper
log is accompanied by a reference line indicating bit
size.
The dual-caliper tools are presented m various
formats, only one of which is shown (Figure 3.4). The
two hole diameters measured by the two calipers
indicated are with the directional elements of tool
orientation (pad 1 azimuth), hole deviation and az卜
of formations to dnlling. Where the hole 1s 'on-gauge’,
that 間， has the same size as the bit which drilled 址， the
formation is coherent and usually quite hard ‘ On
gauge’ holes are frequent in massive limestones and
calcareous shales or older, dense formations
(Figure 3.1).
Holes with a much larger diameter than the bit size
’
are 'caved or ‘washed out'. That 阻， during deepemng of
the hole, the borehole walls cave 凹， are broken by the
山ming drill pipe, or are eroded away by the circulating
borehole mud. This is typical of shales esp自ially when
young and nnconsolidated (Fi伊re 3.1 ). When two
calipers are present as in the dual-caltper tools, the
shape of the hole can be interpreted If one caliper reads
much larger tha11 the other, caving is more extensive in
one particular direction and the hole is oval
(Figure 3.4). Oval holes are considered to be typical of
iointed formations However, the oval shape from
Jointing 1s not the same as that from ordinary caving
and hole wear. Caving gives a general oval shape with
no particular orientation The two calipers may show
different diameters but a similar shape, or the diameter
changes may be gradual: these are simply washouts ‘ ’
Jointing or fracturing will give an oval shape with
abrupt limits and a distinct orientation (Fi直ure 3.5):

BS (in) DIFFERENTIAL

15 一 25 CALIPER
CALI (in} - N - - -””...”...........””...
2 (In} 8
一－－－－－一－一－一－
15 25

。
。 。
、/
、 ‘
’
’
10
/ 、 10
、

,’
認 (f志m
2om 20m

行afrn、
‘ 、、
、 、、
ATet

t s1eI2 \hole size hu t s z一

e \hole size
b

Z7
d a met =,
軒

dlameter=19 個 diameter diameter = +1 去"'

(at arrowhead) O =reference (at arrowhead)

Figure 3.3 Presentation of the caliper log: (1), in ordinary Imm叫，（2), in differnntial format
 f多

1日 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OP WELL LOGS

- o- - T- RFY- - o-

O一

G一
-OH HTJ E GELT

R一

M 一
E7G Ft

BS
IL
- these are called ‘b阻akouts’（Cox, 1983). It is e'en

？叫

』－
E一
DEL
suggested that the orientation of the ‘br開 kout' m句 be
10.00
。。- _lj. A_Zlj_DS§ ）一一
relative to the cncntatmn of the m1mmum principal
-40 360 stre閱（Cox, 1983).
－－－－巳l_A_?_(Q~屯）一一一」－ ~t:!里也）一一 Calipers may also show a hole size smalle1 than the
一40 360110 000 0 bit 回ze. If the log has a smooth profile, a mud』cake
C1 (in }
24.0 4.0 build-up is indicated (Figure 3.6R). This is an ex
tremely useful mdicator of permeability. Only permc-
able beds allow mud-cake b叫Id-up. The limits of the
mud-cake show the limits of the potential 間serv01r
Mud-cake thickne,g can be estimated from the caliper
by dividing the decrease in hole size by two (the caliper
5
g1vmg hole diameter), i且

hole bit size Jdiam.) caliper reading (diam.)

azimuth
2
10
~mud-cake tluckne>S
caliper PAD 1 It should be remembered that this thickness may vary
azimuth
{reference) between tools. A caliper on the density tool is applied
E 15 f
harder to the formallon than the caliper of a micro回log:
-
主三
0.
©
'O
the former probably causes a groove in the cake and
gives a thmner, log-denvcd mud-cake thickness.
20 Holes smaller than the bit size, but rugose, are
probably sloughed (Figure 3.6A). The zones of small
'、 hole will be the ‘tight spots’ during drillin耳， trips or
25 ’
』
logging. That i吭 it will be at these points that tools stick
or the bit gets stuck while being pulled out of the hole.
A frequent cause of tight spots is abundant smectite in
the clay mmeral mixture. Smectite is a swelling clay
30 which takes water from the drilling mud, expands,
Figure 3 4 Borehole geometry log pr的en tall on (see text for breaks from the formation and sloughs into the hole
explanation).
1. BREAKOUTS 2. WASHOUTS
Hole diameter Hole diam副研 Hole dlamete『
275 mm 1SOI 275 Ff: 150 275 mm 150
︱』

︱日
J ’

、, I

、J豆 ’ 、

'
、
、
’
./)

~ 、』，Y、’
,,:'.
h’
恥、－
‘、、、

Figure 3.5 Hole size enlargement seen on the four-arm dual caliper. (1 ），‘Breakout• ’， orienterl 明 ell-defined diffe•ences in calipers, due to fraclure';
(2), washouts, c'hpcrs show diffiαent diameter but similar shape (left）。r gradual diameterchang閱（right) due to general h'le d前凹的ration. Hole
diameler inc.-ease• right Io left. (From Cox, 1983).
 ~ 8
DIFF. CALIPER CALIPER
inches 6 inches 16 LITHOLOGY
2 8 2 ,QQm
。 I
LITHOLOGY

--•- l、‘
bit size ., 自
『「～色
色
乞~ caliper
/

，例
bit- ~caliper

900 ~) / 」
size
I 可辱 8 1 I ;2
卜＼＼
I.” ,、
-= 悟，
司 一－－
、、、 1電 －~ι
『 ︱＼ /

,-
:－也『．’ 「、
/
. -
.~ －、－』’- .
<
...『」﹒
一
’, mud
‘,- 卡／ cake
l/
ω＠ZOHmR

阿三
- 『 /
－『一
『’．
也uωt

三＇；－ /
Vv "
/
。－OM＠W

L-----' v
E 』＠a

fl ~ /
~ \ I
仁／
旬Z旬切

~
電＇＂＂＇ ‘
\
(
2。』。已

'
2 525m \
~：：.一‘‘＇：.：.萬句 '- -

950
\ 、
可J
主F- ~ ...
可

有L
i <
- ------ "'""
口〉戶】旬開肉

Figure 3.6 Hole-size d血inution seen on the simple caliper. (A) Tight spots 阻 a shale s巳quence from sloughing hole due to swelling clays.
(B) Mud cake build-up opposite porous and permeable sandstones.
FC白ω

、ζ〉
 令J
0
J
自由口問。門口EH

CALIPER DENSITY LOG DENSITY L。G s。NIC LOG

CORRECT ！。 N
口〉們 MZH

me hes g/cm3 µ!ft

15 21 0.1 0 01 2.21160 90
間M甸

650m

/
W 回尚可司

、 HOLE CREATED
Ill
4〉

TROUGH
E（

「
cave 一
ZCMwd
〈開鬥

IITil－i
'

－
FFbE ∞

:、

jpphEh
:
--

立科《值。旬
、
叫

i
f，一2 ‘ HOLE CREATED
TROUGHS

uhLLE
、
，屯
d時

十
> 、c--
.f

川
, NOT REAL

P
ii7

－
d一 FORMATION

－E
700m - -'' VALUES
馬z、

，
.,

。＝一〉咽。
－E
'已>

33 戶，一…
－~
, <_,’

已T
串r戶
－
1
mud dens前 y 1 35 g/cm3

2
Figure 3 7 Poar hnle conditions and caving er且t聞耳目nes of poor data quality where log readings do nat repment real formation values. The
auto血缸ic density correction derived
-
from the calip叮 is 血suff101阻t to compensate far the large caves at around 700 m. The density and sonic logs
sugg 臼t a formation change at 690 曲， but the interval is homog血叩us from top ta bottom, be田g poorly consolidated cl叮／晶晶es ~

The Gulf Coastιgumbo’， which often causes hole
problems, is smectite-rich
Finally, an extremely important use for the caliper is
in the quality control of logs When caving is serious,
the quality of all the logs Is impaired In some tools,
such as the formation-density or the neutron-poros1旬，
the caliper reading is used for an automatic hole-size
correction or compensat10n Caving will demand m『
ordinately large corrections and the log values will be
of httle use. It 1s essential to venfy the cahpe1 befo1 e
consulting the other logs (Figure 3.7).
3.4 Three-dimen叫onal calipers
Two- and thr田－dimensional representations of the
borehole wall are possible with very specialized tools.
The original tool was called the Borehole Telev1ewer.
Modifications of this tool now exist, but the basic
principles of measurement remam the same
The televiewer tool uses a rotating acoustic trans-
ducer to produce an acoustic image of the borehole
wall. The transducer is pulsed 480 times per revolution
and is rotated 36 tim臼 per 30 cm (1 ft) of depth. Its
speed of rotation is 3 revolutions per second, i.e a
logging speed of 5 ft/min (Brodin宜， 1982). For each
pulse, both the amplitude of the returning signal and
the travel time a間 detected and recorded The original
telev1ewer tool used the amplitude variat10ns of the
reflected signal to modulate the mtensity of a horizon-
tal oscilloscope sweep A polaroid photograph was
produced of the successive depth sweeps, each photo ”
graph covering 1.5 3 m of borehole. Under ideal
conditions th臼e photographs give a good image of the
borehole wall (Taylor, 1983). However, a continuous
image may be produced by digitizing the borehole
signals (Hinz and Schepers, 1983; Pasternack and
'
CALIPER LOGS 2J
Goodwill, 1983). Digitizing also allows the image to be
processed and improved. A new improvement of the
televiewer is the Volumetric Scan Well log (Brodin臣，
1982). Instead of just one data point, at each scanning
point round the borehole, the new method now
analyses a whole series. The number of data points is
vastly increased~the Volumetric Scan tool takes 512
samples per scan point and 512 scans per 360°
revolution. It makes 36 rotations per 30 cm (1 ft). There
are thus 9.4 × 106 data samples per foot's opposed to
the 1.7 x 104 data samples in the televiewer tool
(Broding, 1982).
The Volumetric Scan tool is now able to present a
continuous record of data using a fibre-optics cathode』
ray tube. A simultaneous record is made of both the
amplitude and the transit time of the returned pulses,
and logs of each can be presented simultaneously The
grey scale of the caliper (1 e. transit time) repr剖開ts
distance: near is whi阻， far is black. The grey scale of the
reflectance repeats signal magnitude white is high, low
is black With modern recordmg and storing tech-
niques, the images from the Volumetric Scanning tool
can be enhanced and then displayed in a series of
orientations from the horizontal slice (Plate 1) to
tilted at vanous degrees to the vertical The
results are impressive.
The appheat10ns of the sp間 alized televiewer or 3
dimensional calipers are restricted and they should
only be used over selected mtervals. They are ideal for
casing inspeetion for reasons of data quality (Brodin皂，
1984). However, under reasonable hole conditions it is
found that they are extremely useful tools fo1 mappmg
and identifying fractures in open holes (see Keys,
1979; Taylor 1983). There is even the possibility of
seeing dip and other maior structural features under
the right conditions. For some reason the tool haR not
been taken up by the larger logging companies, but it
should be used more widely.
 '

4 Temperature logging

A knowledge of borehole temperatures is becoming T•ble 4.1 Ranges or thermal ccnductivity ,.Jue' for some typical
increasingly important. It has always been a prere lithclogi" (frnm Serra, 1979, and G且 rhart, 1981).
quisite for accurate log calculation but, with the Rock type Thennal conductiv拙的
development of more precise geochemistry, a know- (CGS × 103)
ledge of temperature is becoming necessary for source Coal, lignite 0.33 I
rock and matunty studies. Shale
Chalk
24
23 & "'
4.1 Geotemperalure清
Porous limestcne 2.4 5
Compact
limestcne 58
The temperature of the earth usually increases with Sand 3 12.2 g
depth, and, as a result, we can conclude that thermal Salt 3 15(14.3)
energy flows from the earth’s interior to the surface. A
Basall 47
well drilled into the earth, therefore, shows a persistent Granilc 5 8.4
rise in temperature with depth This persistent rise is
usually expressed in terms of a temperature gradrnnt,
that is in °C increase per kilometre of depth (°F/100 的
as has heen previously discussed (Chapter 2 and keep us warm at night while a blanket of salt would
Figure 2.8).
not! Thus, the real temperature gradient 111 a well is not
a straight line but a series of gradients related to the
Geothermal gradient, G ＝旦旦旦ti旦二旦且豆
Depth thermal conductivities of the vanous strata, the gra』
dient varying mversely to the ther.mal conductivity
T~mm＞山on = format10n temperature (Figure 4.1).
T~＂＂＂＂ = average, mean, surface (or sea bottom) In oilfields, temperature gradients vary from the
temperature (i.e. 5°C permafr。此， extremes of 0.05°C/km (0.3°F/100 的 to 鈞。C/km
+5。C cold zones ﹔ 15。C temperate zones, (4.7"F/100 的 although typical figures are 20°
25 。C tropical zon臼） 35。C/km (Table 4.2, Figure 4.2).

Thus, for a well in a temperate zone (T, = 15°C) which
gives a maximum bottom hole temperature (BHT) of
鉤。c at 3000 m, the geothermal gradient is
80 15
G ＝→了一＝ 216。 C/km (or 216"C/100m)
This is an average gradient and assumes a linear
increase in temperature with depth This is true 111 a
homogeneous medmm However, in detail, the geo-
thermal gradient depends on a formation's thermal
conductivity (the efficiency with which that formation
transmits heat 凹， in the case of the earth, permits heat
loss). Shale, like a blanket, is inefficient ; it keeps heat in
and has a low thermal conductivity. Salt, conversely is
very efficient, lets heat escape rapidly and therefore has
a high thermal conductivity. Table 4.1 gives some
ranges of thermal conductiv山的 for typical lithologies.
When a rock with high thermal conductivity is
encountered, it will show a low thermal gradient. That
is, the rate of temperature increase (or rather decrease
upwards if we think in terms of cooling) will be low. In
shales, where the passage of heat is slow, the gradient
will be higher. In other words a blanket of shale would
Variations in thermal gradient are not just a result of
different thermal conduct1v1t1es, they are also a result of
differences in heat flow, or the amount of heat that
enters the strata from the earth’s interior and flows out
again Thermal gradient, because of variations in
thermal conductivity, varies independently of h帥t
flow. The actual temperature 111 a well, therefore,
depends not only on lithology but also on the heat-flow
value for the an間
Notions of temperature variations with depth and
with position in a basin may be expressed in map form,
using contours of equal geothermal gradients
σ1gure 4.2). The temperature differenc臼 m a basin
may also be expressed by isotherms (lines of constant
temperature) plotted for a constant depth or, con-
versely, ,lines of depth for a constant temperature
Isotherms may also be used on geological sections
(Figure 4.3),
4.2 Borehole temperature me滴surement
Every individual logging run should be accompamed
by a reading of the maximum temperature in the
 '

TEMPERATURE LOGGING 23

C 口 U NTRY N 口 RHI SE 自 LRT 57 日 SIM N.

7/3 C 口們 P 向 N Y-R 鬥 oco LONG 一 02 ﹝﹞ 45 們 E

「卜
PU

門
TE 鬥 P ER 向 T URE CONDUCTIVITY HE 內 T FLOW LITHOLOGY

L
I DEG. C l

一「
IM 0’。EG K I

" t ‘。
10 60 80 IOO 0123•56
'"
‘‘
500 ‘ 、
、
、
、
、 Cl 肉Y U TEIUllHIY
1000 、
、
、

ISOO ’、、 \27 8 OEO.C ”

IK a
、 F肉 LEOCUH
B”“"
工←n山
白的山F

＇＂肉，， U. CRET.
區
L口
凶」

.. L. CRET,
E】L

5HRlf ／們肉 RL
2500·
L

’。。。

3500 HALITE F自NHY 口 RI Tf U. PE 鴨” 1 自H

4000 '
'•‘ ＇＂自 LEISIL 151 .1551, l· PHHI I 副H
4500
..
Figure 4.1 Temperature g悶client, thermal conductivity and heat flow compared in North Sea" ell 7/3 -1 Lithology and age a時間di胡t吋（ From
Evans, 1977.)

Table 4.2 Some t) pica! geothermal gradients in sedimentary also, using two separate thermistors, a temperature
b門sins
differential Such IS the case, for mstance, in the
Gradient Temperature Survey of Dresser (Figure 4.4).

。C/km °F/I 日 0 ft 4.3 True formation 缸mperatur甜

Rhine Valley
Red Se吼
Central Ruhr basin
Madagasc"
Western Canada, Albe.-ta'
M間1阻ippi (typical)'
Louisiana (typical)'
Eastern Canada'
'typicnl oil region'
b01它hole One, or several, p1essure-resistant thermo
meters are strapped to a tool before logging and the
maximum (or presumed) bottom hole temperature
(BHT) is recorded This is by far the commonest source
of subsurface temperature readings
When more detail 1s needed, a special thermometer
tool may be used to give contmuous temperature
readings. The tool us臼 a thermistor, or metal whose
resistance 的時間1ttve to temperature chang間， fitted
into the circuit of a Wheatstone bridge, Typically the
tool wtll give not just the absolute temperature but
65218632
32221111
66
45 The temperature measured m boreholes is not the
40 formation temperature, it is the tempeiatu田 of the
38
31.8 mud in the borehole. Bo凹hole mud is cooler than the
29 formations being drilled (apart from the immediate
24 smface strata) Thus, the invasion of mud filtrate mto a
22
formation will cool it down immediately by con-
vection. As a result of the infmite mass around the
borehole, the true formatt0n temperature will be that
at the eventual equilibrium: the mud and filtrate will
be heated up to formation temperature This process
can.begin only when mud circulation stops Moreover,
the process occurs through conduction and is very
slow. Exam111ation of several temperatur巴c logg111g runs
made at increasing time intervals after drillmg shows
that equilibrium may be established only after months
(Figure 4.5). Temperatures taken in boreholes during
drilling (as is usually the case) are therefore consistently
well below the real formatt0n temperature.
To correct BHT values, several methods have been
 '

24 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

60°N

56°N

54 。N

Great
Britain

52 。N

2°w
。。 2°E 4°E 6。E B0E I0°E
Figure 4 2 Present-day North Sea geothermal gradients. (After Cornelius 1975; Carntens and Finstad向 1981; Harper, 1971) Taken from
Cornfor吐（ 1984).

devised. The most frequently-used method is that of the

SALT DOME Horner Plot (Fertl and Timko, 1972). This plot relies
on the concept of a straight-line relationship between
BHT and the log of D.t/ D.t + t, where D.t = time in hours
clays {Tertiary) since circulation stopped, and t = ttme of ctrculat1on at
TD before logging (Figure 4.6). M then represents the
time available for an equilibrium temperature to be
salt (Permian} reached, while t represents the ttme that the formation

. 主手豆
~~~~~~ is exposed to cooling mud. In practice it is best to take t
as the time. n田ded to drill the last metre of hole plus the
.
.. . .. elastics
(Carboniferous}
circulating time at TD (Ser間， 1979). Since a BHT is
taken on each tool descent, several temperature read ”
. . . .. . mgs are available at different times after circulation
stopped (M). The true formation temperature is on the
ISOTHERMS: interval 20°c line through these points where tt crosses the abcissa at
1 (Figure 4.6). This form of corr· ction has a significant
F•gurc 4.3 The theoretical distribution of isotherms around a salt
dome indicated on a geological section: change in gradient is shown eff凹t on measured temperatures and appears to make
by isotherm spacing. (Redrawn from Evans, 1977.J them more meaningful (Figure 4. 7).
 TEMPERATURE LOGGING 25

TEMPERATURE SURVEY Time after circulation

、， (1) 8.5h
(2) 37.5h
temperature 。F (3) 2 mocth'

101 (4} 4 months

。
9400rn
210 224 230

1000

differential
tempemtoce E
(rnte of checge }
-g
~

可。

2000

950om

300l1
70 100 150 200 250
ab,ol"1e temperntoce
tempernl"'e 。c
Figure 4.4 Presentation of the detailed borehole temperature sur-
vey. A temperature g凹dient of absolute values is recorded alongside Figure 4.5 Change in borehole temperature witli time. Equtlibrium
temperature changes or di{forential tempe<ature, The log should be is only being 間－ established 4 months afte•· circ叫ation (i e. drilling)
recorded goi叫耳 into the hole. stopped. (Redrawn from Benoit et 叫， 1980.)

125

120

I“STA~Jr。。師
”。
《

115
0 ν
。

已〉
＠
haRVEωaE

1 ，。

105
2 心有
VCN tog-COL
。tOs

t/
too
M。S但。n

IEL

95

90
O.t 02 0.3 04 。6 06 07 08 09 ’。

Atl(t+8的

Figure 4 6 Bottom hole temperature corr。ction example. i'.t, time

since circulation stopped (hours), t, cir叫 lation time (6 hours).

Temperature
Log r血。吋ed M/(t + 1't)
"" 711655 z
η ＋＋

Mm
M川1AO，

。υ1AQEA
3
iIMKM八

100°c
一

!EL 7 -- = 67
月呵

-
76
AUAυ
66

CN-CDL 11.5 105。c

5
108。 C
2
AL 19.5

(From Fettl and Wichmann, 1977).

 '

26 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRl"I ATION OF VνELL LOGS

tempArat抽。G
。
50 10C 150
20
。 。’。 Om

← S曲 w＂＂＇”。
200°F (9o0c)
由pth ,m 2so•F ( 121 。G)
10 000 ooo°F (149•c)
oso°F <m0c}
£
4oo°F <204°c)
1000 ~ 20 oco

30 000
, 0 00

吶
。
43
35 ooo18 8
22 25 29 33
2000 gcodloot 'Glkm
Figure 4 8 An ca句 pro pc 'Ill for the tempera趴ire control on oil and
gas distnbution (surface tempernture ~ 24。C, 75 。F). (Redrawn from
Lande.s, 1967 )

3000

>
山區2←〈信ω且主山←oz〈工←＆凶。

4000 ,\

Figure 4.7 Effect of correcting recorded temperatures by the Horner

•\ \
plot methcd. The correction is negative at surface but requires up to
J0°C increase at 3000 m. The Drill Stem Test (DST) temperature at ';
3200 凹的 considered to be a gocd measure offormatton temperature.
(From stabilized b山ild-up). ~

4.4 Signi自cance of geotemperatu間s interpretation

The initial use of subsurface temperatures is to calib且
rate the logs, especially those concerned with re-
sistivity fluid resistIV1t1es decrease with temperature
(Chapter 6). A second use is for identifying potential
hydrocarbon types. Landes (1967) proposed that there
was a fairly strict relationship between thermal gra
dient, depth and hydrocarbon type. The modern view
rs to interpret this relat10nship in terms of hydrocarbon
generahon and maturity (see below). It is certain that
plotting temperature against depth or (more usefully)
pressure, allows typical expected hydrocarbons to be
defined (Figure 4.8). However, these plots define an
effect rather than a cause: the fields so defined are often,
but not always, accurate. The third use for BHT
measuremen臼 is in helping define organic-matte1
maturity (Wapl間， 1980). The degree of maturity of
organic matter, that is the degree of conversion mto
hyd1 ocarbons, is regulated by tune, tempe1 ature and
pressure Temperature is considered the most impot ”
tant element of the three (e.g. Cooper et al., 1975).
..../
./
./
./
Greenschlst Facies
31s'c
Figure 4.9 Sour℃e rcck maturity and hydrocarbon generation in
relationship to depth and temperature (schematic)-cf. Figure 4. 且
(Modified from Milner, 1982.)
Organic matter is shown to mcrease in maturity with
depth of bun剖， and schematic diagrams exist to show
this (Tissot, 1973). However, since temperature in-
creases with depth, temperature effects can be added to
these diagrams (Figure 4.月 Oil generation is thought
to begin between 50。C and 115°C, while dry gas will
form at between 150。C and 175 。C (Tissot and Welte,
1978). This evolution is almost certainly behind
Lande’s observations on the correlat10n between tern-
perature, pressure and hydrocarbon type shown above.
For detailed discussions on organic-matter maturity
and the uses of BHTs in maturity predictions,
specialist pap的rs and books should be consulted.
 "

5 Self-potential or SP logs

5.1 Generalities ‘spontaneous potentials’, by Conrad Schlumberger

The log
The SP log is a measnrement of the natural potential
d1 {Ierences or self-potentials between an electrode in
the borehole and a reference electrode at the smface
and H.G. Doll who discovered them.) They originate
from the electrical disequilibrium created by connect自
ing formations vertically (in the electrical sense) when
in nature they are isolated.

〉。。
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
no ai叫icial currents a1℃ applied (Figure 5.1). (The

4。 z←－
cunen臼 were actually called ‘potent1els spontanes’, or

J
S. P. circuit S.P. log

millivolts
Permeable be~
－肉＋
。
R…- salt
R~ － fresh
ωZSE ＆ E

25m
100
Permeable bed
R一－ fresh
R品f一個It
200
2』 gE 』皂

Impermeable
300 bed
叩m
互相且＠且

400 Shaly sand

Rw <R m冒
,
Clean sand
M' mσ＇＇＂＇ eJectmde
M' e"th•d elect<。de
75m

Figure 5.1 Illustration of the pdnc1ple of the SP log. A natural Figure 5.2 The SP log: some typbl responses The SP log shows
potential is measured beJween an electrode in the well and an earth at variations 111 natural potentials R., formation-water res1St1V<ly, R,,.1
the surface. ~ mud filtrale m 的tivily.

Table 5.1 The principal use> of the SP log

Dtscipline Used for Knowing

Quantitative Petrophysics Format10n- Mud filt叫e
water resistivity and
resistivity formation temperature

Shale ” SSP and shale

volume ltne

Qualitative Petrophysics To indicate Shale line

permeability

Geology Facies Clay/Grain size

(shaliness) relationships
Correlation
 。

28 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Principal t的叫 FORMATION HOLE ls.P. LOG

millivol包
The principal use of the SP log is to calculate
formation-water res1st!Vlty and to indicate permea- -••+ 10

bility. It can also be used to estimate shale volume, to

ω－
indicate facies and, in some cases, for correlation

mwZω
(Table 5.1, Figure 5.2).

5.2 Principle頃。f measurement

Three factors are necessary to provoke an SP current. a

＠已。制的啞
conductive fluid m the borehole, a porous and perme-
able bed surrounded by an impermeable formation ;
and a difference m salimty (or pressure) between the
borehole fluid and the formation water.

ω巴個
SP currents origmate principally through the elec-
trochemical c叮ects of salinity differences between the
borehole fluid (in fact mud filtrate) and the formation fluids MUD
water. These differences create spontaneous currents,
highe『 salinity !lower salinity
either when the fluids themselves come into contact
through a porous medium (the diffi悶的n po缸nt叫，
F>gure 5.4 日P currents in the borehole The effects of the shale
Figure 5 3, 1) or else when they come into contact potential and the diffusion potential act together at bed boundaries
through a shale which acts as a semi-permeable causing an SP log deflection.
membrane (the shαle potential, Figure 5.3, 2). The two
effec缸， for the same solut10ns, create exactly opposite descnbed above Consider a porous and permeable
polarities sandstone penetrated by a borehole; the mud filtrate
The actual spontaneous potential currents which are (for the example) is less saline than the formation
measured in the borehole are, for the most part, a result waters (Figure 5.4). Opposite the sandstone bed (per-
of the combination of the two electrochemical effects meable membrane) the less saline solut10n, the mud
filtrate, will become negatively charged as a result of
the diffusion potential (cf. Figure 5.3, 1). But above the
sand, opposi阻 the shale (semi-permeable membrane),
because of the shale potential, the less saline solution,
the mud filtrate, will become positively charged (cf.
1. DIFFUSION Membrane Figure 5 3, 2) The excess charge is therefore negative
POTENTIAL Cl cl一 of porous•
(17% of SP) permeable opposite the sand and positive opposite the shale.
sand This couple works in a complementary sense aud
Cl c1-
creates a spontaneous current flowing between the
borehole (mud filtrate), the porous formation and the
c。 NC Na Cl DILUTE S吼盯叫 contiguous shale (Figure 5.4). The flow of current is
focused at the bed junction. It is only here that there is a
change in potential. This is important since SP
measure1nen 臼 are made not of absolute values, but of
changes in value. It is only at the bed junctions, then,
that changes take place and 、v1ll be recorded.
2 SHALE Membr~ne
PITTENTIAL Na+ Na+ of semi- If a bed is not permeable, ions will not be able to
(B3%olSPJ pe,meable move, there will be no current flow and thus no
shale
Na' Na• potential chan且e: that means no SP. However, even the
slightest ‘permeability will permit current flow and an
SP change will be recorded.

︱區~＂ The SP tool

The SP tool approaches the simplicity of the circuit

Figure 5.3 Schematic illustration of the ma111 electrochemical SP des也ribed (Figure 5.1). A 1.5 volt battery is included in
e叮ect>. (1) Diffusion potential acro昭 a porous and permeable
membrane; (2) shale potential across a membrane of semi-permeable the circuit to give a bucking current to bring the SP to
shale. (Modifi吋 from D" brand目， 1968.) the required scale The tool ’S recordmg galvanometer
 。

SELF』POTEN1IAL OR SP LOGS 29

SPONTANEOUS • POTENTIAL
司,間工 RESISTIVITY
millivolts ω ohms-mγm

1/500
－冉＋

一一「

←一
,_ SP.
~

~ ↓一一）

• •-

tlgurc 5.5 SP log prc"ntation. The SP is in track 1. There is no abrnlutc scale, only relati>e deflccuon negative or positi,c. I cli,is10n equals IO
millivolts.

1巴ecords only changes in potential: 1t gives no absolute 5.3 Log characteristici句

values. The surface electrode of the SP must be an
effective earth (Wallace, 1968). Bed 甜甜 lution

Log presentation. units and scales SP bed I的olution is generally poor The sharpness of
a boundary will depend on the shape and extent of the
SPcurren臼 are measured in millivolts (1 x 10 3 volts) SP current patterns. Generally when there is consider-
and the scale is in 十 or millivolts, negative able difference between 江md and formation resistivity,
deflections to the left, positive to the right (Fignre 5.5). curren臼 will be spread widely and the SP will defle心t
The log is usually run in track 1 with a gamma ray 01 slowly: definition will be poor .(Dewan, 1983). The
caliper log (Figure 5.5). contrary also applies When resistivitws are similar,
boundaries are sharper In general, bonndaries should
SPONTANEOUS not be drawn using the SP. If the log has to be used, the
POTENTIAL
boundary should be placed at the point of maximum
curve slope (i e maximum rate of change of the SP
Figure 5.6).

5.4 Quantitative us由

SHALE
Methodology
SANDSTONE
Quantitatively, the SP log is used mainly for the
ORGANIC SHALE
evaluation of format10n-water resistivities but it 目n
also be used for shale-volume calculation. The quanti-
tative use of the SP reqmres a special methodology
which is described briefly below.

~吾j SP value.v for calculation shale baseline and static SP

COAL
With no absolute values, the SP is treated quanti-
tatively and qualitatively in terms of deflection, that is,
COAL the amount the curve moves to the left or the right of a
defined zero. The definition of the SP zero is made on
thick shale intervals where the SP does not move: it is
SHALE called the shale base line (Figure 5. 7). All values are
related to this line.
M叫
四叫EB
的問盯

6T 剛

m叫

un5kh dddM- : bm The theoretical maximum deflection of the SP

間中叫

ULmh gu
師

ga£ ebSon
間w

zs
givl ol sm
us yuIo
w句

sn
K
p

R
間

l opposite permeable beds is called the static SP or SSP.

川

It represents the SP value that would be observed man

 。

30 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

.
1900m

clean sand

,;It

Well data
0.44 且 40
Rn、 5°C
主 0.68 且 25。c
Rmt
Rn可C 2 .18 且 25。c
sand
主法
：~~~ Borehole temp. 80°C
Rw ::; 0.27 且 25。c
c。刮

1950m Silt

~~~d
Lithology
主〉 i::'.\'J 區函 SAND
仁立 SI叮

哥 iio;;,"
體靈自 SHALE

2ooom
@
clean
""'

剖It
.Produced hydrocarbons
OIL
帶 GAS

1
1~~；；m"昂首y

thin sand
」
le

Figure 5.7 Example of the shale baseline and the SSP definerl on an SP log. The shale baseline is the maximum po.•itive deflection (in this
example) and cccurs opposite sh刮目 The SSP is a maximum negative deflection and occurs opposite clean, porous and p前meable water回bearing
S"ndstone沼

ideal case with the permeable bed isolated electrically. deep, there are adverse lithological effects (junctton
It is the maximum possible SP oppostte a permeable, beds with high resistivity）。r hydrocarbons are present
water ” bearing formation with no shale (Figure 5.7). It (Figure 5.8) (Pied et al., 1966). These conditions must
is only the log derived SSP that can be used for the
> be considered when taking SP values for calculation
quantitative evaluation of Rw (the formatton-water
resistivity).
Water resistivity (Rw), quiclc look and calculations
Frequently the SP does not show its full d巳flee tion,
for a number of reasons: the bed is not thick enough,
there is shale in the formation, the invasion is vet y Qualitative旬， the greater the SP deflection, the greater
 。

SELF-POTENTIAL OR SP LOGS 31

S.S.R 仁
「力
ω－z
】也翎a
個 ω－
Loα1
S.SR
Log1
mwtω
(;oi醋。n﹜ Log 2

1 THIN BED 2.INVASION 3. SHALY SAND

「VL
已1
mao:rnive
limeston 。
•oil
S.S.P. S.S.P.
Ell WATER

4. LITHOLOGY 5. HYDROCARBONS
Figure 5.8 Some cond泌的ns causing aberraot SP values when the SSP is not attained.

the salinity contrast between the mud filtrate and the
formation water A rapid look at the SP over a certain
series of beds in a sand-shale sequence will show
water salinity changes. Deflections to postt1ve values
> generally observed that salinities of both mud filtrates
are very characteristic of fresh formation waters, or at
least of those fresher than the mud filtrate (Figure 5.9).
Quantitatively, the SP is used to calculate
formation-water l'esistivity using the relationship be-
tween resistivity and ionic activity. Ionic activity is the
m呵。r contributing factor to the electrochem1cal SP, as
explamed previously. There is a direct relat10nsh1p
between ionic activity and the resist!Vlty of a solut10n,
at least for the most frequently-encountered values in
logging (Gondouin et al., 1957) (Figure 5.10).
This relationship allows a mathematical expression
of the amplitude of the SP deflection to be expressed in
The preceding method allows an approximation of
the resistivity offormat10n water However, 1t is based
on the ionic activity of NaCl solutions, although it is
and of formation waters are due to 10nic mixtures and
that calcium and magnesium as well as sodium ions are
present The effects of calcium and magnesium are
especially important at high resistivities in ‘fresh’
waters. Corrections must be made to the formulae
shown above.
Shale rolume from SP (Pseudo-static SP)
It is considered that the volume of shale V.h in a water-
wet, shaly sandstone can be simply calculated using the
SP as follows:
/’,
＼、IEPF ／
QM －n、
均

PI DA
terms of formation-water resistivity m the followmg vui 1 -- × I AUAU
一一

EE
--\ 03 DA
明ay.
O

(R jρ ( 1)
(S)SP = - Klog －且L PSP =pseudo-static spontaneous potential= the SP
。 （Rw)e read in the water-bearing shaly sand zone.
S(SP) =SP value: this should be the SSP(static SP) SSP =static spontaneous potential= maximum SP
value in a clean sand zone
(Rmrle =equivalent mud filtrate resistivity (for the SSP
This simply assumes that the SP deflection between
equation) closely related to Rmr
the shale base line (100% shale) and the static SP in a
(Rw)e =equivalent fonnat10n wa臼r resistivity (for the clean sand (0% shale）的 proportional to the shale
SSP equation) closely related to Rw. volume (Figure 5.11). This relationship is certainly true
K = temperatm e-dependent coefficient, as an average, qualitatively, but quantitatively there is no theoretical
71 at 鈞。c (65 + 0.24 × T。q (cf. Desbrandes, 1982). basis. The SP-derived V.h is probably over回estimated.
 。

32 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

S.P.LOG
－內＋

:i"
吉

::::::1 EIJ 屆3
1600m a::'E ~
@

....
官ZEJULl ＠tz。宜。』 OC
L 占主
cri ~ ~

？一1i~－－－－－~
1700m .
@
曲NhohEO
』
2 個
MEAEs
」
FF
EZSH
』F

@
〉〉

E
恥HZ
桐E
』
SZOE 恥
－－的

ii)
－
g
EH 旬章 Ehtg
－ E．
K的 EVE

KFEE
可 BOOm
由

F;gu" 5 9 Behav;our of the SP in a sand shale sequence w;th varying formation-water salinity. A zone of fresh formation water oc叩 rs between
about 1680m ar吋 1775 m. Mud filtrate resistivity is coitstant.

5.5 Qualitative uses permeable bed (other values being equal).

Permeability recognition
If the間的 even a slight deflection on the SP胃 the bed
opposite the deflection is permeable. All deflections
(with some rare except10ns）。n the SP indicate, a pr叩門，
a permeable bed. The amount of deflection, however,
does not indicate the amount of permeability: a very
slightly permeable bed will give the same value as a
Naturally, the reverse is not true ; not all permeable
beds give an SP det1ect1on, although these cases are
rare (Figure 5.9).
M inernl identification
The rare exceptions when the SP will deflect and the
formation is not permeable are due to mmeralizat10ns.
Pyrite is an example (Figure 5.12). It is also possible
 。

SELF回 POTENTIAL OR SP LOGS 33

S.P. LOG
’。
& <-H ~~ LITHOLOGY

SHALE
’。
LIGNITE
BLACK SHALE

量H~重 。， SAND WITH

間 SSEMINATED PYRITE

~
SHALE

l ，＿、、什呵r叫：~＂o"'h
：，，！：：＇
；岫 RHYOLITE
DIABASE
。4
制1 岫

'°
IONIC ACTIVITY lg-ion/I] !Na' total) Figure 5 12 Ide叫ifi°'tion of some minerals and lithologies u.sing t出
SP curve. The log is ide旭Ii血d (Redrawn from Pi凹on, 1963.)
Figure 5 10 Graph of the relationship between waw re,istivity and
SP deflection (ionic activity) for salt solutions. This is the basis for
using the SP to calculate format岫n •ater resistivity, Rw (From
Gondouin et al.’ 1957.)

〉
OQ 。←Z山EGUω

且伺〉』C。
屆 qoE 」
SPONTANEOUS

F司
POTENTIAL

“。包G。
~且＋

SYMBOLS
aB 三三三司 sha 悔 ·m11d~I。oe
。、島的

silt
、－

”% vi f1 sandstone
me
""
laminations
m1crox laminae
cross bP.ds
叭pp Ies

ν’、 t disturbed beds

泊。% U I boHows
>0% 酬，、＂
SAND""LINE B/\SE L刷E
Oj他 VSh .% 四9也

F1gu" 5.11 Graph of the clay volume SP relationship. The shale

basehne repments 100% shale and the SSP 0% shale. The relatii e
deflection then depends on the clay volume as shown by the graph.
that the SP reacts to excessively reduced and ex
cess1vely oxidized beds (shales or sandstones) which are
not in subsurface electrical equilibrium (Hallenburg,
1978). However, coals, which are extremely reduced,
give a large negative SP deflection (Figure 5.12) or no
deflection at all, although the reasons ate obscure. The
SP should be used with caution for mmeral or redox
identification-other logs are much more diagnos!tc.
Facies
When it was first introduced the SP was to become one
of the first logs to permit correlation in sand shale
Figure 5.13 Facies 自 dentific叫 ion using the SP log. A typical fining-
upwards, channel sandstone giving a bell-shap 巳 d SP curve From the
Carboniferous, UK. (After Hawk 岫s, 1972.)
seq可ences, principally because certain intervals had
typical log shapes This shape, in sand--;;hale sequenc間，
is related to shale abundance, the full SP occurring
over clean intervals, a d1m1mshed SP ove1 shaly zones.
The relationship is considered linear as discussed. In so
far as shalmeRS is related to gram size, the SP is a good
facies indicator. The example (Fi喀則e 5.1月 shows a
well-marked channel sand, the coarse-grained base is
clean ·while the finer『grained top is shaly. The SP 間，
34 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

1←型Ill_~←哩q斗 ~Qlll.斗
卅＋卅＋糾＋ -H

一卜一－－ .1 ε：；~？？多~

22~Lli:w~~；2三；~~r
50 50

100 100
×凶」
ωc。feoo

150 150
aE。uozd
』苟Z〉。ZLeHR〉S泣ωEHF
唱的 目 zzd

20 0 • 200
I
叫ZU

(:

250 • 250

300 300
met『＂＇ 時，et res

Figu.. 5.14 Correlation using the SP log Changes in water salinity indi心cate which sand bodies can be correlated.Drilling-mud filtrate is similar
in all wells.

therefore, following grain-size change (see also correlat10n but, for the reasons given above, has now
Chapter 12). been replaced esp自ially by the gamma ray log. The SP
The SP has now been largely replaced by the gamma is still useful for correlation, however, in areas of varied
ray log for facies identification· the gamma ray log has wa但I salinities. If wells are quite close (and drilling
more character and is more repeatable. mud fluids are similar), correlation should only be
made between sands with similar salinity values
Correlation (Figure 5.!4). For this the SP is the only log that can be
used as a guide.
Previous旬， the SP log was one of those used for
 。

6 Resistivity and conductivity logs

6.1 Generalities their enclosed fluids are conductors. Hy<irocarbons are

The log
Of all the logging tools, those that measure resistivity
are archetypal. It was with resistivity measurements
that Conrad Schlumberger started his company in
1919.
The resistivity log is a measurement of a formation’s
re.,istiv旬， that is its resistance to the passage of an
electric current Conductivity logs measure a
formation’s conductivity or its ability to conduct an
electric current but this value is generally converted
directly to resistivity
Most rock materials are essentially insulators, while
the exception to flmd conductivity, and on the con-
tr盯y, they are infinitely resistive. When a formation is
porous and contains salty water the ov巳rail resistivity
will be low. When this same formation contains
hydrocarbons, i個 resistivity will be very high It Is this
character that is exploited by the resistivity logs: high
resistivity values may indicate a porous, hydrocarbon-
bearing formation (Figure 6.1).
Principal uses
The resistivity logs were developed to find hydro car-
bons. This is still their principal quantitative use:
resistivity logs furnish the bastc numbers for petro-

RESISTIVITY LOGS
--- deep
－一一一一 shallow
scalo' ohms/m2/m({l)
10 100 ’。 00 10 000

SHALE

POROUS
特 SANDSTONE

POROUS
特 SANDSTONE

POROUS
•SANDSTONE

TIGHT SANDSTONE
錯， QUARTZITE ’

FINING UP
看 SANDSTONE,
POROUS,
SALT WATER

Figure 6.1 The r臼istivity log: some typical re<ponses. The resistivity log shows the effect of the formation and its contained lluids on the pa閱age
of an electric current. 'Lim目tone, dolomit吼叫c., equally appli阻ble.
 '
36 THE GbOLOG!CAL INlRRPRETATION OF 、！，＇ ELL I且GS

Table 6.1 The principal use> of the resistivity logs

Discipline Used for Knowi11g

Quantitative Petrophysie> Fluid 關tura- Formatio11 water

tions: resistivity （几）
Formation (S.) Mud『filtra扭
Invaded zone (S,,,) r臨的tivity (Rmr)
i. c. dct血t Poro"tY （φ）
hydrocarbons Temperntm-c (7;'")

Semi-quantitati,e Geology Texture> Calibration with

and laboratory 組m糾es

Qualitative Lithology 扎1ineral

rcs1st1v1t1es

Ccrrelatio11

Srdime11tology Facies, Gro8'

Bedding litholog es
charactens刮目

Reservoir Compaction, Normal pressure

geology ov旺pr囚 suce and t ends
shale
pornsity

Geochemistry Source rock Sonic and density

identificotion log values.
Formation temperature

mat 『，，
DEEP INDUCT ！。N (ILD} non conductive
CONDUCTIVITγ 訓llmhas/m

10 000 ’4翩翩。”間 1。。 ’。《＂

個位。L

HE』
ω 』習。m－
臨時間H oOm m"m
』EO－－

。1 。5 1.0 1。 100 （。”〉

2400m
、
o－』側。。－“
o－』啊。＠－＠

l、
}- 戶 ’
A

<

一“一
lif F咱ure 6 3 Formation conductivity schematic The electrical cur
rent is re>tricted to the formation flmds (formatton water): t出 matrix
IS 11011-eonductive
」

p
_1-
卡F’
」－
『
I:>
I <• Table 6,2 Some typical formation”、Nater salinities
C二 Origin Total Type R.'
s'1imty ohmm'/m
< ’, (ppm)
2450m
的M叫 lvlty
'
mmho/m = 10。。＂＂＂＇＂＂＂＂ ohm m ＇岫
Sea water 35 000 0.19
Lagu11illas,
Ve11ezuela 7 5481 Fresh 。.77
Figure 6.2 Correspondence between ccnrluctivity and resistivity Woodbme,
and a typical co11ductivity (induction) log. E. Texas 68 9641 S叫me 0.10
Burga11,
Kuwait 154388 Saline 0.053
physical calculations. However, a formation ’s re-
Simpson sd.,
sistivity is one of i臼 typical geophysical characteristics Oklahoma 298497' Very (0,04）牌

and as such can contribute information on lithology, salme

textu時， facies, overpressure and source rock
'From Levorse11 (196叮
characteristics ' Approx』mate R. (formation wa個r r闊的tivity) at 24°C(75 中）
The log is used frequently for correlation (Table 6.1). 料 Near the s叫uration limit.

!!
s0.、•＇＇學、、o＜、
0.05 ~：、
古E
0 10 位的~
•>•
}V~1!
∞
。 100 000 200 oao 300 ooc
。
CONCENTRATI。N NaCl ppm
Figure 6 4 Rel叫ionship between conductivity (r闊的tivity) and con
centration in a salt 仆laCI) solntion, at 24。c (75。F). (modified from
旦前悶， 1979.)
6.2 Theoretical considerations
Earth resistivity and conductivity
The laws which govern electrical re,istance m a wired
circuit apply also to currents flowing in the earth.
Resistance (in ohms) is the electrical term, while re』
S阻tivity is the logger's term Resistivity 1s m umts of
ohms m2 /m, being the resistance with normalized
dimensions.
Two tests can be applied under subsurface con-
d1110ns to measure resistivity. The first test Is a d!fect
measurement A current is passed betw間n two elec-
trodes on a logging tool and the potential drop
between them provides the resistivity. The second te叫
is indirect in that it measures conductivity. A current is
induced in the formation around the borehole and the
capacity to carry the current is observed. This carrying
capacity is the conductivity. The resistivity is simply
the reciprocal of the conductivity. Thus in oilfield
units (Figure 6.2):
l × 1000
r目1stivity (ohms m2/m) ~一一一一一一一（milliohms/m)
conductivity
As previously stated, rock materials are essenl!ally
msulators (like all generalities this is a half-truth, and
will be modified late1 ). Howev凹， normal rocks consist
not just ofrock materials, but also voids or pores. The
pore spaces are principally filled with water, in subsur-
face terms, formation wa阻r (pores, of cour間， may also
be filled with oil and natural gas). Conductivity is
essenl!ally restricted to formation waters (Figure 6 3)
They vary from fresh to very saline: usually they are
saline, and the salinity mcreases with depth (e.g.
金
RESISTIVITV AND CONDUCT!Vll Y LOGS 37
100
5C
~
•
‘。K
~
>
•>
•'\"\
•
自
~
10
內
...
z
0
戶
,
<
5
" .、
︱＼
~
"
5 10 50 100
PORO SIγY%φ
Figure 6 5 Typical relationship 1etween formation resistivity factor
（的 and porosity: Devonian Limeston閱（ From Bu回 ian, 1982.)
Dickey, 1969). For oilfield purposes, salinity is usually
quoted in NaCl equivalent salinity, although
formation-water brines have a variety of dissolved
solids Sea water has an average salinity of 35 000 ppm
(parts per million of dissolved solids) while a typical
formation brine may have a salinity of 200 000 ppm
(Table 6.2). Other factors remaining constant, the more
saline a solution the greater the conductivity, the
electric current being catried by dissociated ions, e.g
Na 弋 Cl - in a salt solut10n. The same formation
containing fresh water shows a far lower conductivity
(higher resistivity) than if it contained salt water
(Figure 6.4).
It is often necessary to consider the resistivtty of a
format10n water per se, that is its res1st!vtty as a
solution. The symbol used is Rw (resistivity of water)
(Table 6.2).
Rock resistivit) ~formation resistivity factor 'F'
If, as suggested above, it is only the formation waters
that are conductive, the conductivity of the rock in
general should be that of the solution it contains. But it
is not. Although the rock plays no active part, it plays
an important passive one (Figure 6.3). This passive role
is bastcally dependent on rock texture or more speci日－
cally on the geometry of the pores and pore con-
nectigns, A good analogy is that of a companson
between conventional roads and motorways. Vehicles
will Uavel far more quickly and m greater volume
between two towns along a wtde straight motorway
than along a narrow twisting conventional road
Thus, in rocks, the easier the path through the pores the
more current that passes. The expression of this passive
behaviour of a rock is called the Formation Resistivity
Factor, usually abbreviated to F. Fis a function of both
 '

3日 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRE'IATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 6,3 Clay mineral prope<ties (from
Dewar, 1983),
Clay mineral CEC(meq/g) Av, CFC
0200
D544
1000
Smecllte 0,8 L5
Illite 日1 0,4
Chlo rite 0,0 -OJ
Kaolinite 0,03 0,06
the volume of the pores in a rock (its porosity) and the
way in which the pores are connected (tortuosity)
The relationship of F to porosity only 恤， however,
frequently consistent m any one rock formation
(Figure 6,5), But because F is dependent also on a
geometrical factor, the form of this relationship vanes
from one rock to another. For petrophysical purposes’
。mpirical general relationships have been derived, but
‘
they give only a good estimate (see Basic equations of
petrophysi四’， S也tion 6,7 below),
Fis usually between 5 and 500, the higher numbers
indicating a greater effect due to the formation, Good
porous sandstones will have an F value around 10,
while a poorly porous limestone may have a value
around 300 400, F is dimensionless,
1000
Fis an independent element in the expression of rock
resistivity, The F value of a particular rock reserv01r
will remain constant no matter what the resistivity of
used in all the calculations involving the resistivity
measured by well logs,
Resistivity (conductivity） 。•f clays
Discussion thus far suggests that rock resistivity (or
conductivity) is only a function of the 叫1ve part
played by a conductive formation wa阻r (resistivity
Rw) and the apparently passive part played by the rock
skeleton (F), However, the part played by the rock
skeleton is not always passive, When shale is present it
plays an active role in conductivity and Fis no longer
constant (Figure 6,6),
Clays conduct electricity in two ways, through pore
water and through the clay itself, The porosity in clay,
like that in other rocks，。ncloses conductive formation
wa阻r This may be up to 80% in newly-deposited clays
but diminishes rapidly through compaction (see
‘Compaction, over-pressure and shale porosity’,
section 6,8 below), Conductivity in the clay mass itself
is more complex,
Clay consists of stacked silicate layers which, m the
presence of water, become negatively charged, Clay
may m fact be cons1de10d to act like a salt, dissociatmg

-~~
the fluid filling the pores, In other words, F will not clean sand 1 F-55 ﹛ l 口 W" P°'O'lty}
vary with changes in formation-water salinity which cl 自 an sand 2 F"' 25 (high申『＇＇＂＇＂＇﹞
entail overall rock resistivity changes (Figure 6.6), The
：芝2乎＠、、令、也
F value is therefore constant between the reservoir
L卜ηα、、、c巴~＇~·‘.，.
containing oil and the same reservoir containing water, ~
This behaviour can be expressed mathematically:
1.
0 01 。1 1 0 10 日

R。 ~Fx Rw FORMATI。N 、NATER RESISTIVITY

In words, overall rock I 臼istiv1ty (R。） = formation Figure 6 6 The effect of change,• in fo1mation-water i官倒stivity on F
(formation resistivity factor), Fwill not change with d ＇叮ernnl water
r臼istivity factor （的× resistivity of the fluid in the saliniti" in a clean formation, In a shaly formation Fwill constantly
formation (Rw), This is the basic 1elationship which is change (schematic),

WATER
HYD同ATION water
8。dlllm 怕們 IN•)
ADSORBED

()

+ p。slllve ion
- negative Ion
Figure 6, 7 Models of the conduclivity cap"°ity of clay minerals, (Modified from Wyllie, 1963; detail Clavier er al,, 1977,)
 會

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LOGS 39

mto an immobtle, negatively-charged framework and
positive, current-conducting iom (Wyllie, 1963),
However, tt is only at the surface of clay-mineral layers
that the diswciation occurs and a current is able to be
carried (Figure 6.7). Clay is like an inverted electric
cable ; the mside is non-conductive while the outside
conducts el巳ctricity The outside conducting layer is
complex, adsorbed water clings to the immediate clay
layer and the positive ions (Na+ in a salt solution)
surrounded by hydration water form a further, outer
layer (Clavier et al., 1977) (Figur℃ 6. 7). The external
water, called ‘bound water', is chemically free but
physically bound.
The capacity of clays to conduct electricity varies
between clay species and seems to depend on the
surface area available in the clay. An independent
expression, but one related to the surface area (which is
diffic叫t to measure), is the cation exchange capacity or
CBC (Patchett, 1975). This is simply the ability of the
clay to exchange cat10ns expressed per umt weight of
clay, and 1s measured chemically. The surface area
CBC relation sugges 臼 that the number of
the quanti日cation of the behaviour of shale
conductivity in shaly sands rs part of a continuing
debate which has only limited geological significance
and will not be discussed further (for a discussion of
shaly sands see Dewan, 1983).
Conclusion" earth re.,fativity
The conduct1V1ty of a rock is due to interstitial pore
waters (formation waters) which contain d田ociated,
current-carrymg salts The rock skeleton is a non-
conductor but plays an inh1b1ting role expressed
mathematically by R。＝ F x Rw. In mixtures of clay
and non-conducting materials, conductivity is afforded
by the formation water but also by the clay itself.
( 1)

exchangeable 10ns per unit surface remains constant

whatever the type of clay (Patchett, op. cit.). This
means, as indicated, that differences between the
conductivity of clay spe囚es should be related to surface
area Geologically this is of interest, smce montmoril-
"''°°' FLUID MIXING
lonite has a far greater specific surface area than the fluid reslstlvltles
other clays and is therefore more conductive "•·"mi
(Table 6.3). 。
(3)
The conductivity behaviour of clays in clay--;;and
mixtur目前haly sands) 1s complex and, because of the RESISTIVITY PR。 FILE
R ("hom.i他﹜
existence of bound water, is to some extent salt formatlor water
independent of the solutions with which the mixtures Tool R.
m""""d
t ’ R巴 R
'°'''"'"'"
,R
··1· xo· me
are associated. Thus clays conduct electricity even in o,
oil zones ; res1stivities in oil-saturated shaly sands may dlsta11ce from borehole
be qmte low. This is the reason for petrophysicists' Figure 6.8 (1) Zone< of invasion about a borehole; (2) equivalenl
interest in shaly sands. It can be simply stated here that schematic representations of fluid mixing, (3) re<istivity profit~

Table 6.4 Resistivity notation

Fluid r°'istivity
Formation res1shv1ty (laboratocy measurerl and/ Fluid
Zone (tool measured) or log calculated) saturation
Hole R,. (m ~mud) Rm

Mud cake Rm, (me~ mud cake) R 岫

Flushed Rmr (ml~ S,0 (Saturation

zone R,o mud filtrate) in mud filtrate)
Invaded
zone R •
(transition) 用（i ~ invad吋）
' (Rm, + Rw mixerl)

Unimaded 'R, (t 目 true) R" (w ~ S" (saturation in

zone R., (o ~ ongmal) formauon water) formation water)
'R, ~True, uni1mded forma必ion re> 的tivity of "ock which may contain
hydroc•rbons 的。l measured.
R, ~Origin刻， uninvaded formation mistivity of reek with 100% formation wate>· satmation. Ca mat be toal mca 划”，e I It
is an ideal figure for calculations. In clean 10日% water-satw ated zaaes R, ~ 凡（or is very close).
 。

40 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET A'! ION OF WELL LOGS

6 3 Zones of invasion and resistivity logging is that of the true resistivity of the format10n

出一
(R.') and, especially, its saturation in hydrocarbons. To
The not10n of invasion has already been described this effect, it is necessary to consider the invasion of
(Chapter 2) and it is all-important to the understanding mud filtrate (with a certain salinity and hence
of borehole resistivity The esscntial target of resistivity resistivity, Rmrl into a format10n containing either
formation water (r臼istivity Rw）。r hydrocarbons
LOG RESPONSES RESISTIVITY PROFILES For convenience, the invasion of a porous and
_R_d_o旦p ＿＜~， L permeable bed by mud filtrate is divided into zones
R且a血且JB.;,>
(Figure 肘， 1 ). In reality the zones grade one into the
。冉旦旦旦b
m一 other. Closest to the borehole, behind the mud cake, is
"m1«Rw I
' '•.) the flushed zone where the mud filtrate has replaced all
R,.«R, I f : but a small volume of the original fluids in place.
1oml I \ Gradually, further and further away from the hole, the
volume of invading mud filtrate becomes less and less
。川 m m2fm
until only original formation fluids are found
Om 「~一一一一一”，
可

(Figure 6.8, 2). This is the transition or invaded zone

lil
川「所作川

I 、之
－仆u

R
ml = R
which gives way to the uninvaded, virgin format10n
ω口2章

w I 、、
R""R 15
'°
川mm

I 川 R
XO
The regular change in fluids away from the borehole
10m 川
gives rise to a parallel change in the resistivity of the
format10n as a function of the distance away from the
」「」

borehole. The reS1stiv1ty variations can be

conveniently depicted by a graph of resistivity against
ω〈

distance from the borehole at a constant depth

(Figure 6.8, 3). The vanations are due entirely to
changes in fluid content, It being tbe same rock
formation (thus Fis constant). The various characters
of invasion and resistivity each have an accepted
ωODE

R ;:: R
ml w
R 宇， R notation (Tahle 6.4) and these will be used in the text
'° t
henceforth
。 ho m ＇何一 I NORMAL 。N-LAND CASE I
om r-i'-ι一~一一切，
Z的山巴比

.0 I R凹的 tivity pro）句 le variations

"rn' ~1'
Rml »Rw Il、i ,' 、、/ o~• ~
4門＿／/ - ''
R,,l,j Since the vanations in resistivity about a borehole are
R,. »Rt I ' I
1om I ' I ~ ' 一 一一－一一－－＂＇ due to the mixing of two flmds, mud filtrate and
All cases clean formation 100% water filled formalion fluid, it is as well to know their average
Figure 6.9 Schemallc log response and resislivity pro且les for water - characteristi間， Formation-water charactenstics have
bearing re"rvoir considering various c"'es of mud re,istivity and already been described (Chapter 2). Essentially, three
formation-waler resistivily. For symbuls see Table 6.4 (see also types of mnd are used, saltwater mud, freshwater mud
Table 6.5).
and, in certain cases, oil-based mud. The different
resistivity regimes caused by the combinations of muds
and formation waters are shown in Table 6 5 and
’。。%
Figure 6.9. When interpreting the resistivity logs, care
should be taken to note the fluids used in the borehole

irreduclble
w•t ＂一，F'-=c_c＿－~三cc_-_c二f去：.，.－＿－＿－＿＿， Table 6.5 Varia1ions in filtrate and forma!ion-water resistivity
J-: FORMAT ！。N WATER ﹛ .all ）王
一一一一－一一一一
vatoes, as read by resistivity tools (see also Figure 6.9)
。
Formation w叫er s叫 mity
“」。主叫宜。的

Fresh Formation Saline

forma!Lon water sahmty ~ formatwn
water filtrale salinity water
- salt 、1Jater
- filtrate Saltwater mud
- resid oil
、

RR RR
PKF
M叫

一 叫
(usual offshore] R",,< R. R .，，， ~Rw WW

Fmhwater mud R,0, i' R.

。11 based
Figur< 6 10 Theoretic•! fluid mixing graph and resistivity profile in mud Oil filtralc contaminatio且
an oil zone showing the low廿•sistivity annnlus. 凡＂ ~annulus Only R, induction is usable
(spe 巳 ial case&)
resistivity.
 ,,

RESISTI VI 1、Y AND C DNDUCTIVITY LOGS 41

(A) lNVASI。N PHASE

R
I

U內invaded zone-.
""

UJOzugoω
o;

RV、
(B) EQUILIBRIUM PHASE

、
的t

γ慰。 已已函 位主已

。但
RX

Hgure 6 13 Schematic drawing of focu阻d and non-focused clectri-

uninvaded zone..__._ "1 current distribution about a logging tool. The old Electrical
Survey tools were not focmed: modern Laterologs are focused.
DI

F•gure 6.11 Re.•istiviy profile development through time in an oil resistivity variations being due to mud filtrate and
zone. (A) Invasion phase: 1, bcfme mud-cake build up, 2, im formation water mixin臣， a two phase system. When
mediately aft et maximum cake build up. (B) Equtlibrium phase: 2, as hydrocarbons are present, the system becomes three
for (A), 3, during remigra(ion of fluids and 4, after ci sing. R, ~
resistivity of the uninvaded zone，丸。~ re<istivit~ of the flushed phase and more complex. The mud filtrate will replace
zone, R,1 ~問芯tst叫 ty of the mvaded zone at eqmhbnum (ie 011 the oil or gas immediately around the borehole but,
satura<ed with irreducible filtrat吋， RQ ~tool-read re溢的tiv1旬， D﹛ because of immiscibili旬， a residual hydrocarbon
~distance from b'fehole. (After Threadgold, 1971.)
volume will remain unmoved This produces a
and their charactenstics They appear on the lo且 hydrocarbon saturation in the flushed zone
heading " (Figure 6.10).
Theoretically, a differential rate of flushing of the
Oil zone resist叩ity pro files formation water 阻id oil by the mud filtrate may cause a
zone where there is a high volume of formation water
All previous examples have assumed 100% water and only restdual hydrocarbons. This creates a low-
saturation in the porous and permeable bed, the resistivity annulus around the edges of the invaded
RESlSτIVITY
MICA 。 SPHERICALLY F。CUSED LOG (MSFL)

LATEROLOG SHALLOW {LLS }

LAτEROLOO DEEP [ltD)

。 hm m21m

’。
10 100 1000

已
~二三s
冒了言亡－－
Om

－－、
s-
/ /
T于可L一一于一
>
『〉
o

押。－ uttuf
－ ut

"' ~－
－e

〉？～「f R d間P
mt
白布

「一-r一一一一 10m

＼戶了 R 叫ow
－

…- , ..ι －－

于六
、 P

,!· 3
h

20m

f一
r’”
J
td
(f
站

30m

Figure 6 12 Strong separation of resistivity logs inn gns zone. Porosity is around 15%。
 •
42 rHE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

完one (I平1gurc 6.10). Howev凹， doubt exists regal din且
the reality of this phenomenon 01 its persistence
(Thrcadgold, 1971). Essentially the problem is to know
what happens in the llushed and mvaded zones over
lime. Ahead of the bit and before mud-cake build自up,
自己 hydrocarbons will be almost llushed by the mud
filtrate (Figure 6.llA). Further invasion during mud-
cake build-up may create a low-resistivity annulus
(Figure 6.llA, 2). When invasion ceases, a re
equilibrium occurs behind the mud cake
Hydrocarbons 、vill re-invade the llushed zone to
1educe the filtrate saturation to Its !lreduc1ble
minimum. Formation water and filtrate will tend to
either mix or be redistributed horizontally depending
on density (Figure 6.11B) (Threadgold, 1971).
Probably case 3 (Figure 6.11) is applicable to well logs
and case 4 to cased回hole production logs.
Although the re-migration of 011 is not easy to
document in well loggin臣， the re-migration of gas is
Gas is more mobile than oil and begins to rn-mvade the
flushed zone very quickly. The result is that the
s巳paration of the several resistivity logs in gas zones is
extremely marked (Figure 6.12).
Whatever the details of these changes, it is certain
that the disequilibrium created by invasion during
drilling gradually disappears with time.

、恥 、
、關
、 ~-
、『『－ ,, ‘
、K
＋二組，，
、

'\
'’ ,¥ - ’,I ',, ·，峰較喜i ,, －，一一一－曬關，，
會
/
/
ap

LATEROLOG 3 LATER。 L.OG 7 DLIAL LATFROLOG8 SPHE 間 CALLY

FOCU S 巨D TO 。 L
'"'"'" S=61'"'
S=305crn 們 2'! S =81 3 om (32 ”)
S=61 om (24“} om (24"1 $=76.2 (3 。“》

國 electrotie 口 insulation 口 emitted current sheet S 叩＂＇呵 0 =zero potential

F;gm"e 6.14 Schematic electrode disposition in several focused 1esis<ivity tools from Schlumbeo·ger. A~ electrode, M ~monitoring electrode.
σrom Schlumberg帆 redrawn.)

~ 巳再立
MICROLATEROLOG
MLL

A1

Ao

control
mo川tori 阿
electrode current
electro 曲
巴 lectrodes
PAD ELECTRODES (schematic)

Figure 6 15 Schematic dmwiugs or electrode disposi<ious on pad-type 閃sis<ivity tools. One tool (MSFL) is shown in the hole. SFL ~ spheri臼lly
focused log. A，叫， electrodes. (Modi 日erl from Schlumbco·ger don1men«.)
 。

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LOGS 43

A. RESISTIVITY PROFILE R,o

"1

"•
dls1anco (n。 scale ﹜

U們 invaded zone imraded zone

1曰圳一
E
日 E

回
叮

自莖D

distance
B. PRINCIPAL RESISTIVITY INDICATED (schemafo}

一－，c;; －→～～ l
l
『
~
- ︱＼
、、
一凡

d
\~
「

\~
\~
1

。
。l
C. GEOMETRIC HCTOR (entirely schematic)

Flgure 6 16 The type of 阻， istivitymeasured by the various tools (after Schlumberger). IL~ induction log, deep-shallow, LL~ laterologs, deep
shallow; SFL ~spherically focused log; MSFL ~micro-spheric叫ly focused log; PL~ proximity log; MLL ~ microlaterolog; ML~ microlog.

6.4 Resistivity tools
Resistivity tools have a basic circuitry of emitting and
measuring electrodes across which a potential drop is
measured to give rock resistivity. Modern tools con-
tam an array of electrodes principally because the
enutted curren個 are ‘focused’ by contiguous guard
currents (Figures 6.13, 6.14). Focused currents are less
prone to unwanted borehole effects.
The tools exist with diverse capab1httes as a result of
the need to measure rock resishvity from anywhere
between the immediate vicinity of the borehole wall to
the distant, uninvaded formation (Figure 6.16). The
deeper-looking devices are generally hole-centred
(Figure 6.14) while the shallow investigating tools, like
the micrologs, are mounted on a pad pressed against the
borehole wall (Table 6.6, Figure 6.1 月 The focused
laterologs are the most likely to be able to detect the
uninvaded formation and are considered to measur泡
R,. Other focused tools give the invaded zone re-
S1Stiv1ty R,0 and the m1cro-res1stivity tools give the
resistivity of the immediate vicinity of the borehole
wall The vanous tools are indicated in the table
(Table 6.6). Their capabilities and geometrical factors
are shown graphically in Figure 6.16.
6.5 Induction tools
An induction tool consISts of a transmittmg coil
oriented along the logging tool axis, and a receiving
coil (Figure 6.17). The transmitting coil induces
currents co-axial with the tool and borehole (Foucault
currents) in the surrounding formation, where they are
detected by their e叮ects on the tool's receiving coil. The
currents so induced depend on the conductivity of the
formation In practice, several transmitting and several
receiving coils are used in an effort to ‘focus’ the
induced current The vanous combinations of coils
create tools with various depths of mvesll且ation. In
general, however, the induction tool’s signals come
from deeper in the formation than those of any other
tool {Table 6.6, Figure 6.16). For example, for the
Schlumberger 6FF40 with a distance between the
principal coils of lm (40in), it is considered that the
induced current comes from the formation between lm
 。

44 THE GEOLOGICAL INTFRPRET ATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 6.6 Resistivity (conductivity) measuring tools (see also and Sm away from the borehole (Schlumberger
Figur它s 6.14, 6.15, and symbols in Table 6.4)
1972).
Tool Symbol Resistivity
Pad normal ML2" 6.6 Log characteristics
tool 1Micro-log 見恥 ＋ R,,,,
inverse ML! "×!"
Micro laterolog MLL Bed resolution
丸。（十 R.,,)
Proximity log PL R寫。
'Micro spherically The micro resistivity tools are capable of very fine bed
focnseo log MSFL R'"
resolution, the finest of all the logging tools. It is this
Hole 'Spherically capability which is used in dipmeter tools. On the
centred focused log SFL R, opposite scale, induction tools give only a very much
shallow LLs R, smoothed picture of individual beds, and bed
Latero!og
deep LLct R, boundaries are poorly defined. Bed resolution is
Induction medium lLm R, - R,
log deep !Ld R, intimately related to the depth of investigation of the
various tools.
1Minilog Dresser For petrophysical calculations it 間 important to
* Schlumberger know the mmimum bed resolution for true formation
re目前1vity measurements. The subject has already been
mentioned in Chapter 2 (see Table 2月 Table 6.7 gives
the approximate bed resolutions for petrophysical
purposes. For beds thinner than the mimmum
resolutt凹， correction charts must be used to find real
values (consult logging-company bed-corrcctton
induced F 叫caLJlt char 個）
currents
For geological purposes, the resistlVlty logs should
be used knowing their resolution capabilities. The
micro-tool logs give too fine a resolution for practical,
usable, geological bed resolutions The logs are best
transmitter coll used for defining bedding characteristics (Figure 6.18:
see also Chapter 12). The laterologs resolve beds at the
right scale for bed boundary indications (Figure 6.18),
but they should be used in conjunction with the other
logs The induction logs give very poor bed-boundary
Figure 617 The principle of the induction tool schematic. (After resolution but, at the same time, they average all the
Schlumberger). bed effects in such a way as to make lithology trends

Table 6.7 Minimum bed resolution of the I由istivity tools (from Hartmann, 1975).
Bed Resistivity
tluckne..s Logging tool Estimated bed res。lution measured
Ty伊 Spacing Ratio of edge bed to zone
(in) 5:1 1:5 20:1 1:20 !CO :1 l :lC 0
055 OOO l ooo OOO
OOO OOO
AυAυAυ

1iAυAV
。υAOAV

Less than Micro log 1&2 0.5 --

30cm Micro-la阻rolog 0.3 R濁。
(1 虹） Proximity 0.3
OOO
--quz ooo 222
OOO O33
OOO 322
055 ooo
o44
R
n
吼叫h

30cm一l m SFL
冉冉

(lft-3 的 Laternlog 3 12
？弓，何

L'terolog 8 14
22200
33344 33344
Im 3m Laterolog 7
(3 自 10 缸） Laterolog S

-
Laterolog D
Induction M
Induction D
Greater 64in Normal
466
6ll amm
qL
than 18lt Laternl
3m SN 16
(10 的

BEDDING
CHARACTERISTICS
、肉。。一 。 互 相 ＝
、戶。。
MICRO-SPHERICALLY
FOCUSE 口 LOG
resistivity ohm m2/m
EV－
－－
1.0 10.0
。
三
Figu間 6 18 Contrasting 1ed rcrnlution characteristic., of the
stand out, and should be used for this
(Figure 6.18).
Depth of investigation
The depth of investigation of the resistivity tools has
been discussed prev10usly as related to tool
performance, the capabilities being created for
petrophysical needs (Figure 6.16). Depth of
investigation also has geological s1gmfican回
The logs from deep reading devi血仇 especially the
> Resistivity logs a凹 plotted on a logarithmic scale,
induction logs, are best used for gross formation
characteristics in which individual beds are
ummportant Such 阻 the case with shale porosity
trends and correlation. The deep』reading logs should
not be used for absolute bed values or characteristics
which have rapid vertical changes (vertical anisotropy).
Texture-related changes are best seen on the logs from
tools mainly influenced by the invaded zone. There is a
mixmg of format10n water and mud filtrate in the
invaded zone and the way in which it takes place is very
dependent on formation textu間 Such changes cannot,
in general, be seen on the logs from shallow自reading
devices Rapid vertical amsotropy 1s best seen on the
micro-logs. The identification of thin source beds, for
example, is possible only with the logs from the micro』
tools This sort of rapid vanation is generally
associated with the structure of a formation
。
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LOGS 45
~ B
SPHERICALLY FOCUSED DEEP INDUCT! 。N LOG
LOG
resistivity ohm m2/m resistivity ohm m2/m
1.0 10 0 10 10.0
于1
re,isti 叭ty tools and their geological application (see text).
purpos巳 The use of the resistivity logs for geological
interpretation should thus make use of the general
indications as follows· grog, charactenstics-deep
logs; texture 咽termedrnte logs, structure-micro個
logs.
Log format and scales
The unit of resistivity logs is ohms m2 /m ; it is called the
ohm metre for short
either in track 2 alone, or in tracks 2 and 3
(Figure 6.19). The values are usually 0.20-20.0 ohm
m2/m for one track, or 0.20-2000ohmm2/m when
tracks 2 and 3 are used together.
Deep and shallow tool readings are plotted side by
side on the same track to allow direct comparison. The
actual logs plotted depend on the logging tool
combination. The example (Figure 6.19) shows a dual
laterolog from Schlumt、自·ger with the logs plotted
from" the deep and shallow laterologs and the micr。”
spherically focused device, and also an ISF log with
curves from the deep induction tool (converted to
resistivity) and the sphoi ically-focused device
The induction log, as the above example shows
(Figure 6.19), can be plotted directly in resistivity
units alongside the resistivity logs (see also Figure
6.2) However, the original conductivity values, in
 •
46 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

laterolog shallow cable tens ’。 n,

back-up scale pounds
laterolog deep
( 1) DUAL LATEROLOG back －司 up scale scale ohm m2/m
' \ Ll R OHMM) micro
2rfC. 200000 spherically
bit size LLD (OH”們） I TENS { LB)

（E）的ZHa
focused log
一一一一一一一一一一一←一一一一－
caliper 2 。”。o 200000 III 000 1000.
些旦旦」血型凹 laterolog
inches 0 2000 2000. shallow
LLS (OHMM)

℃ω
。國 2000 200 。” laterol 。g
deep

主三－ tensi 。n

1 min
{ l e. log speed
1800 110m/mln}

log scale tor

(2) ISF 可 SONIC resistiv 忱y cable tensi 。n
T一一一一可面stLB)

們 2coo.
l 一一一 CI_L_D _ II叫叭”一＿＿ C_j
.
一一一"1Cpounds)

2coc l conductivity
deep induction
m 此情 _o ：~ I 且也哩
（
EV的主且ω旬

(other logs) →主 4-0.-0 ～一一 一一一一一一－… 4(-,-00'{ sonic logs,

草草
OT ﹛ Us/F) 、--.__J long space and
240.0 4' . co I short space
一一一一一－ I_'oD_ Jc o_t11<M_)_ ＿一一 一＼ I 雨同志而 01
。 2000 2([(. l
4 、， I expressed as
SFLU {0州州 \I
一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一←一一－，力百百7可 re 剖 stivity
。 2000
可可「、 spherically
ii I I focused
1750 『‘ 前1 世竺！空！些
ILD卡ti, -l-W- induction
log
什： 1 conductivity
7Jtttension
←一一←一－←－－＋一一午一－＋－－←一一←一一←－一←一一
主三 SFL

←一一←一一＋一－ ←－→←一 』斗一--+--1--i

進 I /I : I
←一一－ log scale 一一~一一一－ arithmetic scale 一＿＿＿...，
tor resistivity c 。nd. and sonic

Fign間 6.19 Typical resistivity log formats. (I) Dual laterolog combination; (2) indication, spherically fo 肌1sed log combination. Both from
Schlumberger.

milliohms/m, can also be plotted. The scale is generally
0-2000 mmho. The micro-mverse and m1cro-normal
combination of resistivities is generally plotted on
track 1. The scales are identical for the two logs,
generally 0 10 ohm m2/m.
Unwanted logging effects
The resistivity and conductivity logs are esp血ially
affected by large resistivity contrasts between the
logging environment and the formation. Table 6.8
gives a resume of these effects and their importance
6.7 Quantitative uses of the resistivity logs
The quant1tat1ve use of log resistivity measurements 1s
at the heart of the whole domain of quantitative well”
log interpfetation the domain of petrophysics. Rock
tesistivity was the parameter depicted on the first well
log and it was also the first parameter to be used
quantitatively. The principal use of well logs is to detect
oil: the principal use of the resistivity log is to quantify
oil (and of course, gas). That is, resistivity logs are used
to give the volume of oil in a particular reservo汀， or, in
petrophys1cal terms, to define the water saturation, Sw.
 RESIS1 IVITY AND CONDUι：TIVITY LOGS 47

Table 6 8 Factorn affecting resistivity measurements (apart from invasion and bed thickne8'). Morn common effects are italicized.
SH, shallow; D, deep.
Tool Mud cake Mud Hole sJZe Other
correctmn
Ji Microlog Reads correιt Not Poor reading
p Microlaterolog appHcable in bad hole
句話 Proximity Some 叩何配山n
E面 Micrn-SFL Small influence
叮恤
自切。幻

－
u 山山

Mainly Readfogs
吼叫

ro O P Some comctwn Delaware effect ·and

small inhibited depends on other anomalous
D
－。
UA囚

in re."·"'" resi.,til ily mislivitics

OH

mud cnr.lrasls
Induction Sh Small Poor readings Needs a stand Skin effect in
D 的 ω叫 <cthe off conductiie beds
nud

When Sw is not 100% there are hydrocarbons present: F Rw = R0 when the formation is 100% water
1 Sw = s., (S1, = satnration in hydrocarbons). saturated (see equation 1). Th1間， equation (3) is usually
written
The basic equations of petrophysic.,
s 2 &_ (3a)
Below, the fundamental equations of petrophysics w R,
appear in a specific order, followed by explanation and The water saturation (squared)= the rock r田間tlv1ty
comment on their computation In fact, these with 100% water saturation divided by the rock
equations have apphcat10ns beyond resistivity resistivity with possible hydrocarbons. The equation is
measurements, but the use of these equations is not mo凹 C ommonly written
discussed here. Such informat10n 1s found m logging
company handbooks and specialist publications (see
references).
( 1)
SW 峙。r ff (3b,

R,, = F.Rw
Overall rock resistivity = the format10n res1st!Vlty
factor × I自istivity of the format10n flmd (see ‘Rock
resistivity', p. 3ηRock resistivity consists of two
elemen恤， the pas~ive but constricting formation and
the conductive formation fluids. As Wyllie said in 1956,
‘This 1s perhaps the most important single relationship
in electnc log mterpretation and must be committed to
memory’（Wylli間， 1963).
R.
l = •-'- (2)
R s., = 1 一丸。 The equation gives the saturation in
。
The resistivity index= the res1st1vity of a rock
containing hydrocarbons divided by the resistivity of a
rock with 100% water. The equation introduces the
notion of the ratio, in one particular reservo凹， of the
resistivity when entirely water saturated, as opposed to
the res1stiv1ty in the p1esence of hydrocarbons
τhe Aγchie Equation
F.R
Sw＂＝五六 (3)
where Sw =water saturat1011
n = saturation exponent, usually 2.
This equation, due to G.E. Archie of Shell, makes use
of the ratio of f自istiviti自 from equation (2).
Invaded zone res is twit叫 mo軒的le hydrocarbons
n I R閻（ 100% mud filtr a臼）
(4)
~，， 'I n (with residual h}drocarbons)
Flushed zone saturat10n =the square root of the
flushed zone resistivity in a 100% water zone divided by
the flnshed zone resistivity with possible residual
hydrocarbons. Residual hydrocarbon saturation,
unmoved or residual hydrocarbons of the invaded
zone. This is the same Archie Equation as above, but
here uses the resistivity 1atio in the flushed zone.
Comparisons of Sw and S., m a hydrocarbon zone 1s
considered to give movable hydroca1bons S,0 Sw is
equal to the fraction of movable hydrocar hons in the
form~tion The percentage volume in terms of the
reservoir is given by multiplying the term by the
porosi句， i.e. % volume of reservoir with movable
hydrocarbons= (S., -Sw）×中（whereφ ＝ porosity)
Formation resist 叩ity factor porosity relationships
a
F=-;p;; (5)
 。

48 fHE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 6 9 Construction of the "'crage Archie Formula

Symbol Character Derived from
φ Porosity Sonic log, neutron log, density log
cross plots, etc.

。62 F Calculated using empirical formulae

R (Humble Formula) (e g. Humble Formula) and porosity
" rp'"' as abme
Rw Formation-wale> SP or laboratory measurements of wale自
res<Sto;"rcs samples

R Rock resistivity R，， ~FxRw

" eaturated 1日口% (can only be calculated,
with formation cannot be meamred
water with logs)
R, True format10n Induction logs
resistivity Laterologs
(d田p r目的缸”的阻）

sw Water saturation Sw hydrccorbons R,,

of pores
Sw 100% water R,

where F =formation resistivity factor Practical acera~e Archie Equation

<Ji= porosity
m =so-called cementation factor, dependent on
rock type, and probably more closely re-
lated to pore geometry than to cementation
。＝ a constant.
The equation indicates that the formatton resistivity
factor 1s a function of porosity and rock type (m)-
Archie discovered this relat10nsh1p between F and
porosity (see Figure 6.5) and equation (5) is the result.
Subsequent research and empirical correlations show
that the global relationship varies ; aver age figures used
for the relationship are.
0.81
F ＝ ~p 山 most sandstones
。.62
F=F (b叫 a vcrage for sand st on品）
this is the Humhle Formula
(6)
This ts the general equation for finding the water
saturation, and values f01 the unknowns may be
obtained as shown in Table 6.9.
6.8 Qualitative 聞es
General indications for resistivity log interpretatwn
To interpret the geolog1cal significance of resistivity
logs it is essential to realize that the same porous bed
can have a multitude of resistivity responses, depend』
ing on fluid content (Figure 6.20). In petrophysi間l
(5a) terms, F will remain constant while Rw vari臼（see
Figure 6.6~ No porous bed can be said to have a t.ypical
resistivity this is a general principle for qualitative
(5b) geological work.
General nottons of depth of investtgation and bed
resolutton 恥 previously described (see 'Log character >

ist凹的 must also be c011sidered. The indications for

吋 com川rmat…心 （Sc) interpretation are: gross md1cations deep logs,
texture-mtermediate logs ; structure micro-logs.

F ＝ 品 wh…＝ V叫e (usually I.叫（叫 Textures

The resistivity of a rock is intimately related to texture;

The most frequently-used formula is (5b) which is the quantity F being the mathematical expression of
applicable to sandstones In limestones, the F th間。 The simplest relationship betwe為n resistivity and
porosity relationships are quite variable. textllle is that demonstrated by an increase in re-
 RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCrIVITY LOGS 49

Rw Rw ...
R
~：rl' "" '"'" hydcooa<bco" (g ""}

‘、
、

φ16%

一一一－－－－ medium res』＇＂＇＂＇ "mt '°""""1

－－－『－ deep ＇＂＇』 stlvity
Figure 6.20 Schematic iJlustration of the behaviour ofr甜甜vi<y logs ovec the same re"rvoir bed but with different fluids and, in the last 曲風 no
porosity.

sistivity as porosity decreases, other factors being equal

(Figure 6.21). This is the basis for the porosity 20
resistivity (Hingle or Pickett) cross-plots. Moreover, a
tight limestone or sandstone will have high res1stivities, 15
（

. .
4小）C

and all curves, both deep and shallow, will give the ..日
口 口

. ...
、E 。』OQ

same reading (Figure 6.20). As the porosity increases, 10

口

the resistivity will decrease loganthmically, and the .. 宙間

shallow and deep devices will show separation . Z

，﹒血口
口口
口

5
(Figure 6.20). 回 口

The resistivity texture relationship can in fact dis- .. 回

﹒口口
自
』口
口

口
play considerable subtlety, as the following example 。 ' ~

shows. 10 100 1000

resistivity Rxo/Rmf
、洲回。

RE SISTI 圳 TY SFL ohm m21m bimodal porosity system

Z目

02 1,0 1_0 100

M。

unimodal porosity system

Z

4』峙。m 。

Figure 6.22 Textural patterns indicated on the resistivity log in the

Ro<le,ga Limestone, East Texas. Porosity is density-log derived:
resistivity is from the shallow lateroloι （From Keith and Pittman,
1983.)

The Rodessa limestone of the East Texas Basin

25m
shows different porosity characteristics in different
sub-facies, dependmg on grain type. Ooid limestones
tend to have bimodal porosity, skeletal limestones tend
to have unimodal porosity (Keith and Pittm間， 1983).
The effect of each of these facies on the resistivity log is
qni阻 distinct. Thus, for the same porosity value, the
unimodal porosity facies (skeletal) shows a higher
&Om resistlvity than the bimodal (ooid). This is brought out
by plotting density log poros刮目 against resistivity
from the shallow laterolog corrected for Rmr
30 25 20 15 10 (Figure 6.22). The textural difference between the facies
SA伺DSTONF PQRnSITYφ% is more distinctly shown by their behaviour on
invasion一－plotting cor阻cted mvasion自zone resisti-
Figure 6.21 The close relationship between 凹sistivity and porosity
in a wate恥b°"ring sandstone. Resistivity from spherically focused vities against R, (un-invaded formation) clearly se >

log, SFL: porosity is log derived. parates the facies. The authors found that resist1V1ty,
 。

50 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET AT!ON OF WELL LOGS

especially from the rnvaded zone, was a better discrimi-
nator of facies than porosity.
The example of the Rodessa limestone simply illus-
trates the sensitivity of rock resistivity to texture
Inasmuch as a certain facies produces a certain textu凹，
then iesistiv1ty is sensitive to facies, and F may be
facies回related.
Gross lithology
It is the domination of shale as a subsurface lithology
which enables the resistivity logs to help indicate gross
lithology The only commonly-found conducto1 of
currents, besides formation waters, is shale, and for-
mations with rnodeiate resistivity tend to be shales.
However, there are no charactenstic resistivity limits
〉OO」CZ←－
for shale. The values depend on many variables, such as
compaction, porosity, mineral content, quartz content,
etc. But in any restricted zone, shale characteristics will
tend to be constant, so that the r巳sistivity loιalthough
it do臼 not allow a first indication of lithology, can
subsequcntly confirm it (Figure 6.23).
The same may be said for certain distinct htholog1es
whose resistivity is typical. The most common are salt,
anhydrite, gypsum and coal, all of which have very high
resistivities (Figure 6.24, Table 6.10). High resistivities
will also be associated with tight limestones,
sandstones, or dolomites.
Unusually low resist1vities may also be indicative A
low· resistivity can be associated with electronic (metal-
lie) conductivity as opposed to ionic conductivity. This
is the case for mineral concentrations. An example
comes from the basalts drilled on DSDP leg 26, whcre
low resistivities were attributed to secondary hae-

SFL resistivity matite (Hyndman and Ade·悶：Hall, 1972). As the re

Induction resistivity sistivity decreased in the basalts, so the amount of
一一－ 一τ前 m2im一一 一一－ secondruy haematite was considered to increase
0.2 1.0 10
J

(Figure 6.25). In oil exploration, the most frequent

。 mineralizations are due to pyrite

Suhtle lithological variations

10 Although the resistivity logs do not allow the direct

identification of lithology, they are nonetheless very
sensitive lithology indicators. This is illustrated by a
senes of tests made on a core from recent sediments in
20 the Mississippi Delta (Chmelik et 叫， 1969). It was
found by the authors that physical parameters (such as
vane shear), grain size, chemical content, density and
tl water content all gave expression on the measured
叫
jlj

30 resistivity (Figure 6.26). The authors concluded that

there were subtle differences easily visible on the
( resistivity log which were not initially identified on
E
)
photographs or on X-ray photographs.
40 "1i ω
The sensitivity of the resistivity logs was used with
effect in the exploration of reefs in central Alberta
" (McCrossan, 1961). As reefs are approached, there are
subtle increases m carbonate content and bedding
50 characteristics. These subtle changes can be picked out
by careful average resistivity mapping, higher average
resistivities surrounding the reefs (Figu田 6.27). The
map of resistivity values is effectively an ob1ect1ve facies
60 map. In order to explain the trends, resistivity values
were plotted against laboratory measured values of
carbonate content, porosity and density, and also
against depth. The interrelationships were complex,
70 but the author considered that the most important
influence 011 the resistivity was that of porosity
(McCrossan, op. cit.) (Figure 6.28). This latter, in turn,
was shown to have a stra1ght-lme 阻lat10nship with
BO carbonate content, the ca1 bonate grams probably
1司gure 6 23
Shale mte<"vals shown on the mistivity log.丸 In Jno't directly filli月 up the pore sp恥es. Thus, the increase in
sand shale sequences, shales tend to ha vc a constant, typical value. carbonate content as the reefs are approached is
 ,,

RE'ISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LnGS 5J

RESISTIVITY
Scala' o'm' m2tmWJ
10 100 1000 10 000

SHALE

。 SHALE
SANDY very variable
SHALE SILT

CALCAREOUS
SHALE

TIGHT
日 BO 600 日
LIMESTONE
POROUS
LIMESTONE
[ SALT WATER }

COAL

SALT 。 10 000 一個

ANHYDRITE 。 10000 －~

GYPSUM

SHALE

Figure 6.24 Responses on a deep resistivity log of some minerals and sone typical, distinctive lithologies. To these mineral >alues should be added
the following fluid '3lue" pure, fr.間h water (26.7°C) ~哎， salt saturated water (26.7°C) ~ 0 032!1, methane~ oc

Table 6.10 Some typical (diagnostic) r目的tivity values (mainly from

Ser間， 1972).

Lithology/ Resistivity Resistivity Range

Mineral ohm m叮m

Shale Moderate Extremely variable 1000-l 。

Limestone Generally
(0.50叩 1000.0)

Variable depends on
E
N、
E
。。
。 & .
. ..
high E
porosity and formation

Do lo mi切
water salinity
舌 rnr
伊
'
.‘‘-
>
.
Sandstone Moderate low @
』

胞，。
Salt Very 10 000 mfinity 2co 40C eoo crn;, t•mp 0c
H也h low ..＿一一一一－ "'°"d"'y heemotit< 一－一一妞， h<gh
o no h<iernatite
Anhydrite 10 oo n infinity
• with sec。n do" h"motito
一一－
Gypsum High 1000 ---------- same snmple
Coal High (sar'iable) 10 1 ooooco Figure 6.25 Low resistivity in oceanic basalts due to secondary
haematite. The amount of haemalite can be judged by the Curie
Pyrite Very low 0.0001-0.1 temperatme ; the highet the temperatu阻 the more haematite. (From
Hyndm削 and Ade Hall, 1972.)

52 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS
600
620
官
0
...... 640
£
i@
g 660
680
25 50 75 ，。。
」坦且0旦旦
RESISTIVIτγ
F•gure 6 26 ResistiV>ty log of a R四個t sediment core from East Bay, Mississippi Delta. When compared to subsequent analyses on core material,
the fine detail that the log contains is cvid曲t. (From Chmelik et 吼， 1969)
accompam吋 by a decrease in porostty and hence an
increase m resisttvity. The resisttvity logs show them『
selves to be as sensit1明， if not more so, than laboratory
analys也s of carbonate content
Correlation
The sensitivity of the resistivity Jogs to subtle litholog卜
cal changes ts the basis for their use in correlation
Ideally, logs which correlate well are those which are
more sensitive to vertical changes than to lateral
variat10ns. Within a limited geographical extent, this is
often the case with the resistivity logs, especially in
shale or silt intervals. Distinctive shapes, trends or
p開ks over shale zones are related to snbtle com
positional changes reflecting origmal patterns of sedi-
mentation, and as such can be correlated. The best
log for this purpose is usually the deep induction log
(Figure 6.29).
Despite i阻 frequent (and successful) use for cor-
relation, mamly as a result of tts availability, the
resistivity log has drawbacks for this task. It is
influenced by changes in formation pressure and
interstitial water salinity which are non-stratigraph眩，
post-depositional elements that tend to obliterate the
onginal deposit1011al features.
Facies
From t\1e reef mapping example shown previously, it is
clear that facies and facies changes can be followed on
the i·esistivity logs. Indeed, there is some overlap
between a facies change and a subtle lithological
change.
One of the principal uses of the resistivity log in
facies analysis is its ability to register changes in quartz
(sand)-shale mixtures. Thi凹的目pecially so in the fine-
。
拉圭1
grained rocks, shales and Siits, and more so than m
sandstones themselves. The example (Figure 6.30)
shows small-scale deltaic cycles 15 m 20 m thick, pic-
ked out by resistivity trends The mcrease m resistivity
corresponds to an incre制巴山 the silt (quartz) content.
Even slight, subcyclic events are visible on the logs.
Within sands themselves, it is suggested that in
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, different resistivity values
may be correlated with differences m gram size. A
coarser自grained sand will generally have a low irreduc-
ible 、Nater saturation and hence higher resistivity, the
saturation hydrocarbons being higher (Figure 6.31). A
fine-grained sand with higher irreducible water will
show lower resistivity. A clean, fining-upwards sand-
stone filled with hydrocarbons should show a re-
gular upwards decrease in resistivity
Compaction, shale porosity and oterpressure
The normal compaction of shale seen along a borehole
shows up in a plot of shale resistivity against depth: as
compact10n mcreases so the resistivity increases (in a
homogeneous shale) (Figure 6.32). This t間nd is es
p自ially apparent in conductivities and a plot of shale
conductivity (deep induction）。n a log scale against
depth shows a near-linear distnbution (Macgregor,
1965) corresponding to persistent, normal compaction
The reason for this trend seems to be a relationship
betwee>I conductivity and shale porosity The same
relationship to shale porosity is shown by the sonic log,
which also gives persistent trends with shale com-
paction (Chapter 8).
In some wells a reversal in shale conductivity with
depth is encountered ; in such cases overpressure is
diagnosed. When a zone of overpressure is encoun回
tered, shale conductivity increases abruptly and con-
siderably (Figure 6.33) although possibly taking on a
 '
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LOGS 53

河野

~6mil

Z忽忽 reef 噩噩＞ 20 ohm m 15 戶20 ohm m < 15 ohm m

Hgure 6.27 Are.,istivity map of the middle and lower Ireton. Devonian reef complex, Canada. The 凹efs are surrounded by" 'resistivity gradient".’
(Redrawn from McCrossan, 1961.)

new dimmrshmg trend below. The abrupt increase is
probably related to and caused by an increase in shale
porosity which occurs as the overpressured zone is
entered (Schmidt, 1973). Plotting shale conductivity
with depth therefore brings out normal pressme and
compaction trends; and abnormally pressured zones.
constructed to give quantitative estimates of over-
pressure from resistivity values (Ichara and Avbovbo,
1985).
The use of normal conductivity depth tr巴ends may be
used simply to indicate geological compaction In
rapidly deposited or stratigraphically contiguous
>

Care must be taken with such plots to ensme that the zones, compaction will be persistent and regular When
changes are not due to variations m shale. If enough there is a bre乳k, either in sedimentation or, more
data are available in a particular 問gion, tables can be importantly, an unconformity, compaction trends will
 。

54 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

90 be interrupted and hence so will resistivity trends.

Breaks m resistivity trends can therefore be used to
80 diagnose geological breaks (see Chapters 12, l3).

70 Source rock identificαtinn

Organic matter IS generally highly resistive to electric

60
current and when present in shale can cause an increase
E in the shale resistivity (Figure 6.34). When organic
E 5C
苦 matter matures, free oil is liberated and may be found
趴
古 m the pores and voids of the shale: this ag剖n increases
i 帕 the resistivity The resist1V1ty may mcrease by a factor
,- of ten or mo白（ Meyer and Ned~rlof, 1984). Thus,
30
source rocks in shales are associated with high
resistivities.
20
A source rock cannot be identified on a reS1stivity log
曲

%c alone, because many factors cause high resistivity

咱

oa
values However, analysis of source rocks from around
10 the world shows that resistivity log values, cross-
plotted with either sonic log or dcnsity log values, are
。0 5
sufficiently diagnostic to be used as a source-rock
% pornelly
10 14
identification tool (Meyer and Nederlof 1984). ;
Figu間 6.28 Re•istivity ver加凶 porosity as a funcfon of 聞自 onate Presumably the cross plottmg techmque elimmates
content (by wαght) for the Devonian reef complex shown in the lithological effects and leaves that due to the
Figure 6.27. (Redrawn from McCro5'aI1, 1961.) organic matter (Figure 6.35) For these calculations,

RESISTIVITY { DEEP INDUCTION)

~o
ohm m2/m I hm m2 m ohm m2/m
02 10 怕 .2 1 .0 10 100 1000
。
!
也、，－、
~ . . . h『一＼

:：：﹔.....：﹒：．六：于＇＞•~＼－
…’，…一•. . . .•. . . . .......
司一一一
. .. . '
.-: :- . .. .., :.. ..
一. E且，巴.
’，…一.

﹔二百一一－一一一丸「氓，一一一 ＂ λ ，＂ ·>"c＞＞＂，几 ι ：＂. ＂＂＂小~：－：

~甘？．．．、同～…一一，＼ 弋（｝：：﹔：﹔：﹔：｝｝~弋刁i／：：：﹔：：1：＜：：：：﹔﹔．票J吉乞i三．：．
、 r …. .....…．．恥，一，

25
«一．”－、fγ ．一．．一

’ ‘ . . . . . ... . __..... '

心；：；：：；；；：；i;:> ＂＂－：＂：－：.λ ．．．．ι ＂＞＂ :::: ：~： >2 !
.-

50
三士均之心﹔云：：｝學﹔：／九、
；：－~ ____.,, r- - , - ：.，；.泣品，一－
『‘-_:, 一一一一－

AEVEaomu
L
~

_ {- f <'- ~～～－ ，＿』

~ ~，. 三三一－
.:-'?" ＂＂＇唔，
-·' 4二－－一－－－－－、
c: ~.、
一一一一－ L是，.－
－一一一一－－－－ ：：：：；ι一一一一一一一一一一 -
75 'i.... ．：三~叮叮： ，~ ... .. 一，一一一一一－
一一一‘」v 一一一－
• － τ＞
z ....
""""'
，.－，，戶
、 」－﹒司之＝－－－一－＇－－』
〈士， r 叮叮B ～～～～～～ }
,------ ? L 于』
100
2 ：’~.， _7'
三二~~－＝士一弘一一一刁～～～＝一
茍闕， ’, c 一一一一一－ ＿，－－：＿二一一
DATUM 仁

、~ －：.－－＝；一－一－－－－－－
、－

『－－－』－－＝；；；－－－－一 ,<
且一一

1之三－；－－－
1- 2J 3’，－一－
4
‘
Fig ire 6.29 Correlation using deep induction mistivity Jogs. The intervol is one of deltaic and shallow marine deposition. Very detarled
correlation of the fine-grained intervafa is pos到
 '

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY LOGS 55

SHALE RESISTIVITY
ohm m2im
-- INDUCTION 6FF4 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 3.0
－一一一一一一一一咕” NORMAL 。2
10 ohm m2/m 100
。
CYCLE 4

HUHhpu、
3lh

’‘。－
21
il

r
2
1

【
EUCZH

t、
25
3
:

叭 iu
t1
呂a

’、
‘、、
J 。、
4

、
/

、
、
、

山、、
、

、、
5

50

l;l'
6

Figure 6.32 Shale 阻sistivity trends with depth, The example shows
﹛E】Eao司

normal compaction trends from the Gulf Ccast. 1, Oligocene-

Mioc個叫 2,3, Micce帥， Louisiana. (Redrawn from Magara, 1978,
after Hottman and Johnson, 1965.)

sonic or denstty values For example, for the sonic/resi-

75
/ D ~ 6.906
Figure 6.30 R闊的tivity logs showing small scale deltaic cycles. The
間sistivity varies with changes in the sand shale percentages.
the resistivity values must be standardized to 24。C
(75"F) using the Arps formula. They can then be put
mto formulae derived by the above authors with either
tivity combination
+ 3.186 log10At + 0.487 log10R
a positive D value mdicates source rock (Meyer and
Nederlof, 1984).
Although any type of resistivity log may be used in
these calculations, when source beds are thm the
shallow readmg devices are preferred (even micro-
logs), although care must be taken to ensure that the
latter are not over-affecte 這 by borehole conditions.

morolater。1。g

100
grain size {median} m crons ,
1tiO 10001
叫 I 0
（
EVZw
品a

10

F•gnre 6.31 Grain size-resistivity relationship in an oil zone. The 闊別 stivity variations are relr tcd to grain size changes (see text).
 •

56 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LflGS

I° snoo ~o
I COND山TIVITY RESISTIVITY SFL
2000 4oOO mmho/m
0 ' ' ' ' ' ohm m2/m
10 100

。
甜甜¢＼…＠

!If
5000 25

呻叫e …,, I (

~F"" )·'
[
5 co ]

)
ZHaou ~

苟
-
n
。
50

10 000 i~ ·t.·－－....－旦L source

rock
I '(i/
" }·
.,
:;:.- I: 125

.....
15 000
10 14 20 26 F•gurc 6.34 A source rock interval indicated by an increase in log
SHALE POROSITY % resistivity.

Figure 6 33 Ind•c,t.on of nverp，臼認 me on a cnnduc.,vlly plot

Conductivity changes correlate withchang目 m shale porosity. (Data
source, Schmidt, 1971.)

200
o non-sm1rce r凹k shale
。
. e soLJrce rock shale
。
.. 曰巾。們一 source r。ck 1i11,,stone
O＠ωd﹜

.
• source 『ock limestone

..
A＠E －

A C間，

.......
。。x叩

. .
HZωE

A A
－－－σ
．－．。仁。。

。
fool 0 A A
耐』抖。言。”相

0 A
。

..
h

....
ωh
－。。。’。

.
ool

KWIT

....
屯m
〉

－、 OOK

。
可

hFox
的

O 。 oocm
。

..
.. . .. .
O

。由〉－
。
呵

od

。
90
＼、
、 。
。 .
。

.
mo

80

。﹒
70
。
口
..
60 口 ..
口

50
0 50 1 力。 25 50 7.5 10 0 25 50 75 100 250 500 1000 250Cl 500[1 10 oon
R 75°F(ohm m}

Figmc 6.35 The identification cf source rock intervals on a cro "“plot of 自esistivity against sonic transit time The oblique line is D ~ 0, from
discriminant analysis using points of known snm℃e-rock potential. (From Mcyc•· and Nedcrlof, 1984.)
 '

7 The gamma ray and spectral gamma

ray logs
7 .1 Generalities
The log
The gamma ray log is a record of a formation ’s
rad10activity The radiation emanates from naturally-
occurring uranmm, thorium and po個自ium (see be-
low) The simple gamma ray log gives the radioactivity
of the three elements cornbin臼d, while the spectral
gamma ray log shows the amount of each individual
element contributing to this radioactivity.
The geological significance of radioact1v1ty hes in the
distribution of these three elements. Most rocks a1e
1.ad10active to some degree, igneous and metamorphie
rocks more so than sediments However, amongst the
sediments, shales have by far the strongest radiation. It
is for this reason that the simple gamma ray log has
been called the ‘shale log’, although modern thinking
shows that it is quite insufficient to equate gamma ray
emission with shale oceurrenc~‘ Not all shales are
radioactiv巴， and all that is 1adioactive is not necessarily
shale (Figure 7 1) see section 7 6
Princip α11 uses
The gamma ray log is still prmc1pally used quanti-
tatively to calculate shale volume Qualitatively, m i個

GAMMA RAY LOG

(natural radioactivity)
Scale API units
0 20 40 60 80 100

SHALE

LIMESTONE
ea

ARKOSE ：~：：，；存 --
這已拉山i
心）

UH
---
MICACEOUS
SANDSTONE
i\Ji:>: iii!>:- .
:M:-: :i\i;:: fa

SILT/FINE
---
SAND
RAEL
PCM
Huv』

口』 VS 口

KAOLINITE
MONT-
t M間 A們

MORILLONITE
HQUV

ILLITE

BITUMINOUS
SHALE
COAL

FINING UP
SANDSTONE

SHALE
.: SHALE BASE
ii< LINE

ngurc 7 l The gamma ray log: some typical responses,{ he gamma ray log shows natural radioactivily. f ~feldspar, M ~mica,' ~ glaucomle.
 '

58 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

fable 7.1 （α） Principal uses of the gamma ray log

Disαpline Used for Knowing
Quantitative Petrophysics Shale volume Gamma ray (max).
（峙h) Gamma ray (min~
Qualitative Geology Shale Gamma ray (max).
(shaliness) Gamma ray (min).
Lithology Typical
radioactivity
value<
此1ineral Mineral
identification radioactivity
Sedimentology Facies αay／且rain size
relationships
Stratigraphy Correlation
Unconformity
identification

Table 7.1 （的 Principal us目 of the spectral gamma ray log

Disαpline Used for Knowing

Quantitative Petrophysi也8 Shale volume Th (max), Th (min)
(V,,) fu« purn shak

Radioactive V,, (Th),

miner 叫 K(max), K(min),
volume shale
Semi quantitati" Geology Clay mineral Th, K, U content
and identification of individual clay
qualitative minerals
Det叫al Radioactive content
mineral of deu·ital minerals
id巳ntification

Sedimentology Depositional Th/K content of

envffonment shale depositional
environments
Reservoir Fracture Uranium contnbution
geology identification to radioactivity
Geoche間的try Source rock Uranium cont叩t
evaluation of organic matter

simple form, It can be used to correlate, to suggest
facies, and of course to identify lithology (shaliness). In
l臼 c omplex form, the spectral gamma ray log, it can be
used to calculate radioactive mineral volumes, identify
clays and detntal minerals, indicate depositional en-
v1ronme帥， and suggest fracture zones and source-rock
intervals (Table 7.1鼎的
7.2 Natur叫 gamma radiation
Natural radiation in rocks comes essentially from only
three elemental sources· the radioactive elements of the
thonum family, of the uramum radmm family and of
the radioactive isotope of potassium 4°K (Adams and
Weaver, 1958).
Quantitatively, potassium is by far the most abun-
dant of the th自治 elements (Table 7.2) but its contri-
bu ti on to the overall radioactivity in relation to its
weight is small In reality, the contnbut10n to the
overall radioactivity of the three elements is of the same
order of magnitude, the abundance seemmg to be the
inverse of the contribution 111 energy a small quantity
of uranium has a large effe氾t on the radioactivity, a
large quantity of potassium a small effect
Each of the three sources emits gamma rays spon-
taneously. That is, they etmt photons with no mass and
 '
THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 59

Table 7.2 Abundm1cc and 阻lative radiation activity of the natural 。ense less dense
radioactive elemen個
K Th U

.,. Relati,e abund咽ce

in the earth’s crust 2.59% ~ 12ppm ~ 3ppm source
*Gamma 阻ys per
unit weight 13日。 3600
•sma (1979), Serra et al. (1980)
*Adams and Weaver (1958)
F1gure 7 3 Schematic drawing of the Compton scattering of gamma
rays The effect is more marked in denser mattcr (cf. La,cn血， 19 日5).

no charge but great energy (this being the definition of

a gamma ray). The energy m the case of uramum,
thorium and potassium emissions occurs in the spec-
trum from 0 3 MeV (m1U1on electron volts)
The radiation from 411K is distinct, with a single
energy value of 1.46 』1eV (Figure 7.2). Both thorium
and uranmm emit radiations with a whole range of
energi間， but with certain peak frcquencies These
peaks are especially d1sti11ct at the higher energy levels
of 2.62 MeV for thorium and 1.7 MeV for uranium
(Figure 7.2).
The spectra and the energy levels illustrated are
those at the point of emission One of the charactens-
tics of gamma rays is that when they pass through any
material their energy is progressively absorbed. The
e叮目tis known as Compton scattenng, and is due to the
collision between gamma rays and electrons which
produces a degrading (lowering）。f energy (Figure 7.3).
The higher the common density through which the
gamma-rays pass, the more rapid the degradation or
loss of energy (in reality it depends on the material's
electron densi旬， which is very similar to common
density).
In borehole logging, when radtattons are observed
by the tool, they have already passed through the
formation and probably also the drilling mud, both of
which cause Compton scattermg. Thus, the discrete
energy levels at which gamma rays arc emitted becnme
degraded, and a continuous spectrum of values is
observed (Fi仰自 7.4). When each of the radioactive
minerals ts present, their radiations become mixed and
the resulting spectrum is very complex. However, a
glance at the original spectra (Figure 7.2) will show
that the final complex, mixed spectrum, even after
Compton scattering, wrll still contain dia且nostic peaks
in the 1 3 MeV region. The original distinct peaks of
potassium at 1.46 MeV, uranium at 1.76 MeV and
thonum at 2.62 Me V still exist and can be used to
identify the original source of radiations. This is the
principle used in the spectral gamma ray tool.
7.3 Tools

［~
Gamma ray tools consist essentially of a sensitive
gamma ray detector, generally a scmtillatton counter
POTASSIUM
made with a large sodium iodide crystal. When a
gamma ray penetrates the crystal it produces a flash of
口。』這詣E羽

light, which is then cnnverted to an electric pulse by a

‘
photoelectric cell. The tool hterally 'COunts the gamma’
rays.
。毛但出 acg倒也豆＠芳、

URANIUM-RADIUM SERIES In the spectral gamma ray tool the energy level of the

176 MeV
2 ＝a伺a。ha

τHORIU仲A SERIES
Z
的 Env

2 62 MeV

。 05 10 15 20 25 30
gammo my """' (M•V} 1 2 3

F1g11rc 7.2 The gamma ray emi,8ion spectra of naturally radioactive gamma ray enarg門， MoV

minerals. The prinαpal peaks usen to identify each source are Figure 7.4 Complex spectrum ob<erved from a radioa闡明 sour臼
indicated. (After Tittman et al., 1965, redrawn from Schlumbe g凹， containing potassium, thorium, and uranium, after Compton scat-
1972.) terin色（After Hassa11 et al., 1976)
 '
60 THE GEOLOGICAi INTERPRETATION OF WELL I且GS

Table 7 3 Ratim、 of radioacti\C to non radioactive malerial rn radioactive isotopes m naturally-occurring mixtures
normal elemental mixlur-cs (Serra et 叫， 1980). (Table 7.3).
"K "'Th "'U "'U "'U Typical modern gamma ray tools are listed in
Table 7.4.
0;,; radioactive isotop臼
in r onnal mixtur"es 0.0199 100 19.27 0.72 0.0057 I』·g presentation: scales 由1d units
40K "'U "'U "4U
All The accepted unit for radioactivity logging is the AP!
K ＇＂＇叫 u,.,., u,.,,, u,,,,, (American Petroleum Institute). The API unit is deι
ned ma 1cference well in the grounds of the University
of Houston, Texas. The well contains specially-mixed
Table 7.4 1ypical modern gamma ray tools high” radioactivity concrete surrounded by equal-
Name Symbol Company ly special, low activity concrete. An API unit is 1200
>

of the differnnce between the two radioactivities. If a

Gamma rny log GR
Spectralog
Natural gamma ray NGT
spcctr-ometry
gamma 1ay entering the scintillation counter is iden
tified by the intensity of the flash it produces. This
energy level allows the radioactive source to be iden
tilied as described above The count is therefore
separated into the relallve contributions from the
radioisotopes ofuraniu血， thorium and potassium The
overall amount of each of the three elements is then
calculated from the known ratios of rndioactive to non-
All particular gamma ray loo! 1s tested, the API unit is
Drc5'er Atlas 1/200 of the deflection between the low and high valu目
Schlumberger for that tool. Thus not only does the Houston pit serve
as a standard for the A Pl un此， it also serves to calibrate
a tool Tl11s is also tIUe for the spect1al tool, where the
values for the individual elements arc found empiri-
cally by calibration.
The simple gamma ray log is usually rec01 <led in
traek 1 along with the 開Ii per. Scales are chosen locally,
but 0 100 or 0 -… 150 API are common (Figu自 7 月 The
tool is small and can be combined with practically any
other tool, be it a resistivity or porosity device.
The spectral gamma ray log is run alone (Dr自E
ser) or combined if required with the FDC-CNL

{A) GAMMA RAY LOG

。 t her logs 。 t her logs

E
(SP, caliper etc.) (resistivity, sonic, density neutron etc.)
GAMMA RAY ~
（內 P I) 可。 '
o.o 100. 0
~

「一
' 1400
/ 旨
gamma －「 a y log
t 『 eadmg about •

︱︱︱︱

(B) SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG

CGR (APll POTA (%l
的
ZV

0. 1000
丘。可

。。 100 0
SGR (API)
o.o ·100.0
1650

F•gurc 7.5 Typical gamma my and 'pcclnrl gamma ray log headings.
 THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 61

(Schlumberger). The log format depends on the

Ioggmg company, but generally a combm叫， recon­
GAMMA RAY 1
stituted log is given in track 1, whtle tracks 3 and 4 give GAMMA RAY 2
three logs, potassmm %, uranium ppm and thorium API
。
ppm (Figure 7.5). 。
7 .4 Log characteristics
5
Depth of int estigation

As discussed prcv10usly, gamma rays are subject to

Comptowscattering. Knowing the grcRS energy char『 10
acteristics of natural radiat10n and the usual range of
sedimentary densities, the approximate volume of rock
eontributing radiat10ns measured by a logging tool can
be ealculated. Figure 7.6 shows that 50% of the signal
will come from within a radius of 18cm of the borehole
and 75% will come from within 30cm (Desbrandes,
1968). 20 alioe
These are approximate value芯， smce they 、iVlll vary
according to the density of the formation Two rocks
,•' 穹的 j
with identical quantiti田 of radioactive elements but
“
different densities will show different gamma ray
counts, the less dense will be more radioactive
However, in gener 訓， the principal contribution to the
叩門 E﹜ZMaohu

radioactivity detected by the gamma ray tool will come

from within 30cm of the tool detector, both horizon-
tally and vertically.

毒、

Loggin~ speed
同。 inches 20
CALIPER

Because gamma radiations are discrete events and, as Figure 7.7 Statistical variation in the gamma ray log. Two nm宮，
described, are measured in the gamma ray tools by GR! and GR2, made with the same tool and separnted by about 10
IDJnutes
‘counting’, there are restnctions on loggmg speeds.
Radiations are ℃ounted’ by a tool over a fixed period of
time, say two seconds, called the time-comtant. But as
…醬缸

radiations are to some extent random, the actual count
in one time-constant varies, perhaps between 185 and
u…
220, with an average of 200: this is the statistical
variation The effects of this on a typical log are
illustrated in Figure 7.7. The comparison is from the
same tool making a repeat run over the same section,
the second run bemg made 10 minu但s after the first To
avoid large statistical variations the ‘count’ should be
as large as possible, which means it should be made
over a long period of time. However, since a borehole

tool is constantly movin臣， too long a time-constant will

blur bed boundaries and mix several lithologies
h…

(Figure 2.15). With a rapidly-moving tool, the rock

一
10 20 30 40 50
distance from
borehole 、Nall
cm .. being ‘counted ’ at the beginning of a long tm1e-
constant IS not the same as the rock bemg ‘counted at ’
J

the end of the time constant (for a discussion of this see

Figlll'e 7.6 Tbe depth of in、＂ tigalion of the gamma ray tool. The
graph sho•' lhat the formation at 10 cm from the borehole wall is
contributing 25% of the signal, at 40cm it contribute., 5% or le", etc.
Figure' are approximate. (Redrawn from De,brande.,, 1968.)
‘Bed boundary definition ’, Chapter 2).
In practical terms, the compromise is that the
ordinary gamma ray tool should not travel more than
30 cm in the time-constant. Table 7.5 sets out the
!imitations of time-constants and logging speeds.
A gamma ray tool that is pulled too fast up the hole
 。

62 'JHE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 7.5 Logging spec 』趴 time-constant simple gamma ray tool

GAMMA RAY API
Trme-cnnstant Logging speed Formation logged 100 150
50
心cconds) (m/h) 111 time c01rntant 。
(cm) 」－ －、
’,
- -----
~

1246 0AUO1
3333 －~

。 550
1080 ,-
"'-
550 」

4ι
275
140 - 戶且

---
、『
-.J.
戶一一一＝－
一弓，

’fable 7.6 Spectral tool logging time constants > '\

手三 ＝＝－＝
Laggir g Fm. logged ’,
>

Time constant speed m time-

(seconds) (m/h) constant （•叩1) Company
4 275 J0,5 Schlumberger
6 8 183 ]Qj 40.6 Dresser Atlas I we 2 I
..-- KC mud
:,,-
shows two defec阻， the shape of beds is distorted and ~
>
the full count value is not achieved (see Chapter 2).
」
,
The spectral tool is also sensitive to logging 、
色、
.r
『
speeds, in fact more so The time-constant for the ~
'--'
Schlumberger tool is 4 seconds and the recommended _s;>
‘.-
logging speed 275 rn月1, lh叫帆 30.5 口n is logged in lhe ;:;
time-constant (Serra et al白， 1980). For Dresser Atlas 、、
<
/
tools the logging speed is slightly lower (Fertl, 1979) ?
h、
(Table 7.6). 之t
<

Unwanted borehole e刀ects

The gamma ray log is relatively unaffected by small
scale borehole irregularities, but is markedly affected
by large caves (Table 7.7). The effect is due to the
increased volume of drilling mud between the f帥”
mation and the gamma ray detector which causes
increased Compton scatter mg and a consequent dimi『
nution in the gamma ray log value
A quite different effect is caused by the use of
radioactive mud additives such as KC!. The potassmm
radioactivity of the KCl is detected by the gamma ray
tool and the usual result is a marked increase in
absolute values. However, since the mud volume
through the hole is relattvely constant for any one hole
size, the relative sensitivity of the log values remains the
same: it is the base line that is usually inc1e2sed
(Figure 7.8) although this is not always the case.
Table 7.7 Unwanted environmental c叮巳cts gamma ray log
Factor E何ect on log
Caving Dimmution of value'
related to size of ca"
Mud additi"e In ere阻ed abrnlute valu間，
sensitivity unchanged （ η
'When the effect make,s the log values unn臨 ble, Ratings: frnquent,
common, present, rare
Figure 7.8 The e叮ect on KCI in the drilling mud on gamma ray
values, Well 1, with ordinary mud, well 2 with KCI mud. The
formation valu" should be the same, LI, the difference created by the
KC! contentτ＇he wells are 3 km apart.
7.5 Ge。chemical behaviour of potassium, thorium and
uranmm and natural radioactmty
The old tenet that the gamma ray log is a ‘shale log'
was based on tts use as a black box, not understanding
what Wf' inside In modern in個rpretation an under-
standing of the mineralogy. and gecchernistry leading
to radtat10n 1s used Descnbed below are the natural
occurrences of the radioactive minerals and thei1
geologtcal s1g111ficance
Potassium
Potassium is both chemically active and volumetn-
*Severity cally common m naturally occurnng rocks. Because of
its chemical activity it is generally chemically com-
Common
bined. In the clay minerals, for example, tt (and
Pment invanably its radioactive tsotope）。ccurs in the clay
silicate structure, In evaporites tt occurs chemically as a
salt, and m rock-forming minerals, such a' the feld-
spars, it is agam chemically combtned m the silicate
 '

THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 63

Table 7 8 Pota"ium in clay minerals: chemicol content. F• nm Serra strong 1adioactivity of th目G po ta間ium evapolites is
(197 則， Dre圍er At 出 s (1983) understandable (Table 7.9, Figure 7.19).
Potasmun content•
﹝Jrαruu1n
Mineral % by weight Average% Conslnwtion
Ilhte 3. 日－ 8.31 5.20 K, Al, Silicate
Original uranium is generally associated with acid
Glat cc iitc 3.2n 5』0 4.50 K, Mg, Fe, Al, igneous rocks which contain on average 4 65 ppm of
Silicate
uranium. However, the mineral forms soluble salts,
Kaolinite 0.00 1.49 0 63 Al, Silic,lc esp的ciaHy the uranyl ion (UO,Z 1·) and in this form is
present Ill river and sea water. The salts are unstable
Smectite 0.0~ 一0.60 0.22 c,, Na, Mg, Fe, Al, and pass easily out of solution. From sea or rive1
Silicate
wat凹， uranium can be ‘fixed ’ and pass into sediments
Chlo rite 0 Fe, Al, Silicate
。 已lg, in three geologically important ways (Se1ra, 1979): l,
'Average shale ~ 2.7% potassium chemical precipitation in acid (pH 2.5-4.0）。r
reducing (pH 0 0.4) environments: 2、 adsorption by
organic matter, plants, plankton, shells or by
animal skeletons in certain environments: 3, absorp-
structure. The belia vi our of potassium can therefore be tion of manium by phosphates.
considered in terms of ehemieal composition, as can i個 The extremely acid, reducing conditions required for
eontribution to radioactivity. the direct chemical precipitation of uranium indicated
The potaS<ium eontent of the clay minerals varies above are found in few natural environments. An
considerably. Illites contain by far the greatest amount, environ口ient of stagnant water and a relatively slow
while kaolinite has verγlittle or none (Table 7.8). The rate of deposition (Adams and Weaver, 1958) is rc-
consequence of this 1s that clay mixtures with a high quired to produce black shales and this is geologi』
kaolinite or high smectite content will have lower cally the most important. The high gamma-radiation
potassium radioactivity than clays made up essentially values of the North Sea Jurassic 'hot shales', typical
of illite (mi聞） However, since most clays are mixtures black shales, come mamly from a high uranium
of seve1 al clay minerals, the differe1、ces discussed above content (Figure 7.9, Table 7.10) (Bj骨rlykke et al., 1975).
缸e muted, and natural shale has a relatively con叫ant High organic matter values are ofte11 associated with
pot品sium content of about 2.7% (Table 7.8). high gamma ray values (e g Schmoker and Hester,
Potassmm is present m many rock回forming mmerals 1983) (Figure 7.26). This is due, certainly in part, to the
besides the m1c肘， considered above cs clay mine1 als. uranium ads or bed by the orgamc matter as suggested
The most important of these are the feldspaiδ in _(2) above (Koczy, 1956). However, the exact re-
Microcline contains approximately 16% by weight of Iationship between organic matter and total uranium
potassium, and orthoclase approximately 14% ; such content is not easy to estabhsh, smce high orgamc
percentages render the feldspars highly radioactive in matter content is not always related to high uranium
geological terms (see Table 7.15). Feldspathic sedi- content (Figure 7.10). Nonetheless, the principal pre >

men ts may therefore be det四ted by their radioactivity.
Fmally, potassium occurs 111 some of the less com間
monly occurring evaporites but in sufficient quantities
to have an important effect on the radioact!Vlty
(Table 7.9). In these salts there is between 10% and 50%
potassium by weight. When it is considered that the
average shale contains only 2.7% potassmm, the very
Table 7.9 Pot,gsium content of evap'1·ites
% Potassium
Sped°' Formula by •• ;gh們
sence of organic matter in shale' (Table 7.11) sug耳目ts
that some part at least of all rad10act1v1ty comes from
the uranium contained in this organic matte!.
In general, uranium behaves as an indep巳ndent
constitue肘， it 1s not chemically combmed in the
prmcipal molecules of rocks like potassium, but is
loosely associated with secondary components. For
this reason it has a very heterogeneous, original,
sedimentary disttibution Moreover, its continued
solub1hty even in the subsurface, which is a function of
its loose attachmen阻， makes it susceptible to leaching
乃pi間l
gamma ray and redeposition and its distribution is therefore even
value API' more irregular
Typically, on the lo軒， uranmm is shown by irre-
的叩叩

521
Sylvite KC! 52.5
Carnallite KCl.Mgα2(H20)6 14.1 gular, high peaks corresponding to its uneven distri-
Polyhalite K2S04.MgS04. 12.9 bution. Due to the unusual requirements of 1個 origmal
deposition, these peaks are associated with unusual
*Serra et al, 1980 environments such as are found m condensed se
1Sem孔， 1979. quenc間 or at unconform血的（d Figure 13.1)
 。

64 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

GAMMA RAY (TOT AL } API POTASSIUM%

50 100 12
8 3 4 5 1叫

。
hole size 12.25"
!logging speed! 300m/h
1.5 ” stand of!s

25
ω山」〈工的》
（E）主已。u”

LU〈」的

50

75
Figure 7.9 'Black shale' radioactivity. A spectral gamma ray log over the Upper Jurass <c black shales of the North Sea showing the high uranium
cnntnbutrno

Table 7.10 Black Kimmeridgian shale radioac- Table 7.11 Average weight(':.;,) of organ 比
tivity. Averag個 from well 2/11 1, North S帥， matte 自 in sediments (from Shaw, 1980)
Norway. (From Gj 仙lykke et 叫， 1975).
Sediment A間 rage wcight ~＂
Element Content % of gamma ray
value' Shales 2.90

Uranium 5.27 ppm 61 Ca 自 bonatcs 。29

Thorium 10.46 ppm 33
Potassium 1.34% 6 Sandstoncs 0.05

'Contribution in 九 to the total gamma ray value.

〔訕訕C個

4321
Thorium
。
。月

︱／
組d
」 wocozv。

。 Like uranium, thorium has its origins mainly m the

γ一代／。 。 acid anq intermediate igneous rocks. However, it is

extremely stable and, unlike uranium, will not ge『
eao

nerally pass into solution. For this reason it is fonnd m

』c帽υυιξ羽mu

/ 。 bauxites (residual soils). Thonum and its minerals find

。
/< thetr way mto sediments principally as detrital grains
』O

。 ~ 。
。 。 They are typically heavy minerals such as zircon,
10 m酬m pPm
20 30 thori te, monazi帥， epidote and sphene (Table 7.12).
Figure 7.10 Organic carbon contenl cc mpared to uranium cnnlcnl: They are all very st乳ble.
there i' wide dispcrnion. (Source of data, Adams and 、V叫 ver, 1958.) Thonum mmerals may be found as silt-sized par-
 ,,

THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 65

Table 7.12 Thoriim-bcaring heavy mineral' (Sena et 叫， 1980)

Composition Tho, c叫扭叫峙。 SPECTRAL GAM ~A RAY

。 l:1'0J ＇~~ \iPJ悶：·~，＂~：＂：！＇.~＇ lg＇.：＂，＇~：去
Thorite Th，凹， 04 25--63 。
Monazite Ce, Y, La, P04 4 12
Zircon Zr，鈕， o, L的s than 1 shale
shale value composition
Uranium ppm Thorium ppm 10 ppm Th,
GA:= 75 API 1 ppm U
0 02% K
Zircon 300 3000 100 2500
Sphene 1 日。－ 700 100 600 25
Epidote 20 50 50 500

mEV£a
Apatite 5 150 2口 150

。U
Table 7.13 Thorium abundance in clay miner孔Is (From H1rnsan
d 叫， 1976; D 間.s'°r Atlas. 1983).
50
Thorium ppm
Minerd (approximate average)
Bauxite 8一 132 (42)
山叩？llliv 叫 m

MM
ene

Kaolinite 18 26
帥

nan
必

75
Illite muscovite 6-22
Figure 7.11 A typical shale interval analyserl by a spectral gamma
日mectite 10-24 ray tool. The log shows the individual contributions of thorium,
po ta且ium and uiamum to the ovciall rad10act1V>ty
e
昆
r

Glauconite 2 8
particles m placer concentrations (see ‘sandstone radio
activity’, below) but occur more generally distributed
throughout most shales where the thorium seems to
become fixed by adsorption (Ser凹， 1979). Moreover,
because of its detrital natu間 and consequent transport
by currents, thormm shows an affimty for terrestrial
minerals and, amongst the clay minerals for example is
mineral structure and will have a fairly constant
dtstribution through most shales. As sucb it is a good
‘shale indicator'. However, potassium also occurs in
detrital minerals and in sand shale mixtures may
occur in both the shales and in the sands.
Uranium is shown distributed irregularly because
of its affinity with secondary componen臼 and not the
rock forming minerals. Thus, in the average shale it
may contribute only 10% 20% of the overall radioac >

more abundant in kaolinites (of terrestrial origin) than
in glauconites (of marine origin) (Hassan et al., 1976)
(Table 7. 13).
7,6 Radioactivity of shales and clays
In petroleum borehole loggin臣， the greate't amount of
natm al radioactivity (by volume）的 found in shales A
high gamma ray value frequently means shale A
typical shale analysed by a spectral gamma ray tool
shows that each of the thr間 elements (U, Th and K) is
contributing to shale radioactivity (Figure 7.11). An
analysis of shales in general shows the relative contn-
bution of each to overall shale radtoactivity
(Table 7.14).
A discussion of shale radioactivity is pertinent to the
utilization of the gamma ray t旭 a ‘shale indicator', that
is the gamma ray used to indicate the volume ofshale in
a rock both quantitatively and qualitatively. For the
tivity (Table 7 14) but in certain cases this can increase
dramatically (e. 臣， Table 7.10, Figure 7.9). This distri自
bution is not related to clay volume, and consequently
uranmm is a poor ‘shale indicator'. Indeed, for this
reason, on some spectral gamma ray logs uramum is
subtracted from the total gamma ray contribution to
give a better clay volume 田timate (Figure 7.5).
The behaviour of thonum in shales is not fully
understood Experience, however, shows that despite
1阻 varying content m clay mineral species (Table 7 13),
tt has a constant value in almost all naturally-occurring
shales The average value is about 12 ppm (range 5 to
20 ppm) for a typical shale. This constant value is said
to contribute between 40% to 50% of overall shale
” T＞油le 7.14 Avcrage radioactive m仙叫al contn
bution to shale radioactivity. (From Dypvik and
Eriks叫， 1983.)
Contribut凹的

spectral log this requires an analysis of the relationship to radioactivity

('.',)
of the individual radioactive elements to the clay
matrix. The use of the snnple gamma ray 1s secondary Postass1um 35 45
to this discussion Uranium JO 20
Thorium 40 50
Potassmm, as discussed above, is pat! of the clay
 。

66 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERl'RETATI口N OF WELL LOGS

radioactivity (Table 7.14 and ref.). Considering there· 7.7 Quantitative use of the simple gamma ray log
fore the constant average value and the high contri-
bution to the overall radioactivity, thorium is a very The gamma ray log may aften be used quantitative旬，
good ‘shale indicator'. In mixtures of sand and shale, and although the gamma ray value for shales varies
thorium will o囚ur only in the shale fraction (except m enormously, many one area or well, the value浴 for pure
rare occurrences). shale tend to be constant (Figure 7.12). Th1阻， if one
As a 'shale mdicator’ th凹， thorium may be used in considers the maximum average gamma ray log
most cases, potassium may be used in many cases but value to be pure 100% shale (i.e. shale line, Figure 7.12),
uranium should not be used at all. This obviously also and the lowest value to indicate no shale at all (i e. sand
has implications for the simple gamma ray log: where li凹， Figure 7.12), a scale from 0 100% shale 叫n be
uramum content is variable the log is a poor 已shale constructed. Since this scale will be linear, any value
indicator’ (GR ）。f the gamma ray log will give the volume of shale
from the simple calculat10n
GR value (log）一 GR (min) ( 1)
volume of shale % ~
GR (max) GR (min)
D.CAL GAMMA RAY
(max）~ 100% shale, GR (min）~ 0% shale, i.e.
inc he"
.20 叫O 0--1 c ·' 50 API 100 GR
a ，..＿品已于一」→~ clean formation
bit Generally the value is not very accurate and tends to
size
give an upper limit to the volume of shale u:;h or F 1",). ;
A modificat10n of the simple linear relationship used
above has been p1 oposerl 品 a result of empirical
correlation (Dresser Atlas, 1982) The 1elationship
changes between younger (unconsolida但卻 rocks and
25 older (consolidated) rocks (Figure 7.13):
fm pre Tertiary (consolidated) rocks,

v,h = o.33 (22山 1) (2)

lk

III
,
for Tertiary (unconsolidated) rocks,
fll

V,h = 0.083(237V;h
山Z －

}
1) (3)
50 lt
J

[
E ’, where V.h =shale volume from these formulae (see
口Z〈ω

>
Zvaohu lll$li
Figure 7.13) and

們 一空里二空空！些空L
"' - GR(max）一 GR(min)
、’、tilt

as shown previously 111 (1 ).

一 rafl

75
10
－－4

〔旦皂0

oooo
（＠

且
3戶W

子，
阻1MA戶
別
〉、《

3 / .-'.,
Mw』呻長』

cl'
,<v9:...1J/
842
d但w
ω丘V
εωm恥

'lj' v#f'
、《且

100
ω山〉－ω伊
E 佐＠佐
』“ω
0V
翎一
一】

。 20 40 60 80 100%
。
125 vo um 。 of shale {v,1,l
f;gurc 7.12 Snnd line and shale line definerl on a gamma ray log. F;gnr<• 7 13 Gn1phirnl representation of the relationship between
The>e ‘basehn"' are for the quantitative use of the log, and may be relative gamma ray deflection and shale volume. (From Dresm
re徊。n的ly constant in any one zone Alias, 1982.)
 THE GAMMA RAV AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 67

7 .8 Quantitative 閏c of the spectral gamma ray log Th (max)= thorium value in pure shale (ppm)
V,.(t) =shale volume from thorium values
The spectral gamma ray lo臣， like the simple gamma
ray, is used to calculate shale volume it can also be As with the simple gamma ray, an empirical, expon”
used to calculate the volume of radioactive mmerals 。ntial relationship to clay volume may be used instead
of the simple linear one shown above (Fertl, 1979), i.e.
Shale ialume
v,h = o.33 (2＇凡h帕－ 1.0) for consolidated and
Mesozoic rocks (5)
In the description of shale radioactivity given above, it
was shown that the three elements are not distributed V,1; = 0.83 (23·7 v叫的 1.0) for Tertiary elastics (6)
equally in shales. Some spectral logs are therefore
where ¥,"=shale volume
plotted with a computed potassium + thorium radio-
activity curve as a better shale indicator (Figure 7.5).
However, as mdicated previous旬， potassium Radwactne mineral wlume
can occur in detrital minerals such as micas and
feldspars so that thorium can be considered as the best
Attempts to quantify the presence of radioactive
shale indicator (Fertl, 1979; Schenewerk et al’, 1980).
mmerals such as feldspars or mica are based on two
The shale volume calculated from the spectral gamma
assumpt10ns: ( 1) all thorium 1ad1oaetivity is from shale,
ray log therefore may be based entirely on the thorium
and (2) radioaetive detntal minerals show only pot >

values.
削sium radioaetivity.
The mathematical relationship between thormm
For the quantification, the potassium values are
value (in ppm) and shale volume is taken as line缸， the
normalized for shale volume using the maximum and
same relationship 阻 between the simple gamma ray
minimum method as for thorium. The normalized
and shale volume. The equation becomes
potassium valtJe will give shale volume+ radioactive
Th (log value）一 Th (min) minerals volume. Subtraetmg the shale volumedenved
叫t) ＝一一一←一一一←一一一 (4) from the thorium log will leave the volume of radioac-
' Th (max) Th (min)
tive minerals (Schenewerk et al., 1980).
Th (min) =thonum value in clean formation (ppm)

2. RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
80
1. NON RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
clays
100

detrltal grains 50

'50
+
"#-
~ 0
;f'40 radioactive detrital
的
grains
。
~
。
。
向u

--nu
0.031 0.063 0.125 0.25 0 50 mmnu
盯

SILT V. FINE FINE ME CSE

0 031 0.0630.125 0.25 0.50 1.0 mm

-
median grain size
SILT V FINE FINE
median grain size -’,
ME CSE

Figure 7.14 Radioactive elements in detrital rocks. Typical sand,tonc cmnposition shown against grain size for the Rcn1deer Formation.
Mackenzie Delta. Beaufort Sea. Radioactive elements vary with grain size. It is a deltaic sand of Lower Tertiary age. (Redrawn from Ncntwich
and Yole. 1982.)
 。

68 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 、NELL LOGS

Volume of radioactive minerals 1982). All the proposed methodologies need empirical
and theoretical confirmation (see also ‘Clay mineral
K(log value) K(min) J-;.[(K(max) （凹的﹞
identification', below).
α
(7)
7.9 Qualitative use of the simple gamma ray log
K(mm)= pota間ium % in clean formation
K(max) = potassmm % in pure shale Lithology
a =empirical factor for the formation concerned.
As a first indicator of lithology, the gamma ray log
The quantitative use of the gamma ray sp血trallog is is extremely useful as it suggests where shale may be
in the experimental stage and several methodologres expected (Figure 7 1) Moreover, as shown above, the
exist for shale and radioactive mineral volume calcu- higher the gamma ray value, the higher the percentage
lation besides those detailed above (e.g. Quirein et al., of shale (Figure 7.13). But the )og is only a first

Table 7.15 Pw ，叫1m conte加t or scme common delrit"l minerals (from Ser間， 1179;
Edmundson et al., 1979; Dresser At13', 19~3; Schlumbe,ger, 1985).
%pnt制sium by Average Gamma r叮 value
Mineral species weight % (AP!)

HU切
Glauconite' 3.2 5.8 751 901
•
0
h在uscovile 7.9-9.8 1401 270
:l Biotite 6 2 10.1 M一 901 275
EMU
似的

Mimcline 10.9 16 16 220 2801

U苟日

Orthocl.,e 11.8 14 14 220 2801

且

'Detrital or authigenic
•Fo' 8 in hole, 1.2 且 cm' mud, 3fiin Na! scintillatoc
〉ODJO
﹛ω

>
＠凹的』心〉則）

的巨山且主山主

GAMMA RAY API "'

0
止←山丘

§!
山。〈

。
50 100 1501 •
。
’ 2

quartz 65%
feldspar 4%
。〉
Z山

clay 15%
F

medium sand (350µ)

。一帥的〈

25 ︱訣亭 quartz 50%

ZOOEC巨

玉辜.. ~三亞﹞
D止可山」白白E
（E）主制ω

clay 20%
Mω

pyrite 5%
v. fine sand (100µ)
－
已旬

I
quartz 55%
ntuA 州州川川州州州州州州州州州川山亂叫

E。。』血

feldspar 5%
clay 15%
50 garnet 10%
coarse sand ( 1000µ)
。一凹的E
E山EDJ

CEZS口
〈 DEJ

50 100 150
。
Figure 7.15 Radioactive sand, the 'mica sands’。f the North Sea Jurassic. They am fine-grained shallow marine sandstones with pcrhap., 20%Clay
but 15 30% mica, mainly muscovi 恤， which causes the rad 岫activity.
 TH巨 GAMMA RAY AN口 SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 69

mdicator. The radtoactrvrty of some typical lithologie<

other than shale is now considered This shows that any GAMMA-RAY API
lithology indicated by the simple gamma ray log must 。 50
be confirmed by other logs. 。

（巨 ）
Radwactivity qf sandstones and other arenaceous rocks

ZHa
Quartz, the pnnc1pal component of the coarse『grained

可ω
detntal rocks, shows no radioactivity. Sandstones
consequently usually show low gamma ray values
(Ftgure 7.1). However, associated detrital minerals are 25
radioactive The most common of these are feldspais,
由此帥， heavy mmerals and lithtc 仕agments
(Figure 7.14) The first two groups contain potassium
(Table 7.15), the third thorium (Table 7.12) and the last
contains shale These all cause sandstones with high to
moderate gamma ray values.
There are many examples of radioactive sandstones 50 ho e s ze - -
1

旬，』
4
that may be quoted The fine grained mica sands of the
North Sea (Nyberg et al., 1978) are a typical, well自
Figure 7 16 Glauconite causing radioactivity in a 關mlstone m
tmal Silty sands envelop this marine, glauαcmte-rich sand gi~ing
Table 7 16 Radioactivity in sandstones the sands hi唱her gamma ray log values than the shales. An oil flow
ccnfirms the re"rvoir charncteristics. DST~ Drill Stem Test.
Radioactive *Glauconite.
Species Mineral element
Mi帥 sand Mus 叩 vi個／biotite '"K known example (Figure 7.15). Some marme sands
Glauconitic sand Glauconite "K contain glauconi阻 and, if the concentrations are
Arkose Potru油ic feldsp<rs '°K sufficiently high, render the sands radioactive
Placer silt Heavy minerals Ti
(Figure 7.16) In fact radioactive sandstones are far

GAMMA RAY API

135
。
Z﹝

7300'
OE〈主lZO

transgressive h。rizon
〈山J且主OU

SANDS AND SIL TS tidal channel

(with heavy mineral
placers)
〈山且

tidal flat

／…叫
EO 」」〈

H山」tE。。山 Z－

7500'
cycles
ZmlZO 〈山由

/
E〈主

7600'

γ
radioactive placer deposits
sands 體叫帥的ilt

Figure 7.17 Heavy mineral conceutrntions (placer deposits) causing a spiky gamma ray log. Shale' have lower gamma ray val11回 than the heavy
mineral depoSits (Nigeria). (Renrawn from Serra, 1974.)
 '
70 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 叭！ELL LOGS

more common than reahzed Arkoses are radioactive

by definition (Table 7.16). GAMMA RAY API 間州l叫 ppm

Thonum, as previously described, is present in 0 60 5 10

。
heavy mineral suit田 Placer silts (concentrat10ns of
heavy minerals) are frequently radioactive, producing
2560
a spiky aspect to the gamma ray log (Figure 7.17).

二〉
However, this 1s the only case, and in general detrital
grain radioactivity is caused by ?,ota甜ium (Table 7.16).
For sandstone reservoir studies, identifying clay "' 5
(

ZUFao
opposed to non-clay radioactive elements is important
Neglecting radioactive sandstone intervals as being -
u

shales means mISsing essential reservoir. The fact that

only potassium should be causing detrital mineral
radioactivity in sandstones (e g Table 7 15) is used in 2600
the interpretation of the spectral gamma ray log to
separate shale radioactivity from detrital grain \
radioactivity (see above,‘Quantitative uses'). ＼＼＼、－

Radioαctivity in carbonate.1 .~5·

「\ \
Carbonates in their pure state are not radioacttve and
///
this aids their identification (Figure 7.1). Nonetheless,
Ill certain facies, carbonates contain organic matter 2640
and this is frequently radioactive due to uranium This
ts cettainly the case in the example given (Figure 7.18) 山………ed or
and it 1s proposed (Hassan, 1973) that pure carbonate matte『 a『叫 e 叫y diegeceho pho'Phol6
rad10activity is due only to uranium Shaly carbonates stylolites
will show the presence of potassium and thorium Figure 7.18 Rad1oactivi1y of Ypr"ian (Eoc飢渴） Lim" ton",
Tun 悶悶， related to uranium concentrations The uranmm is as-
Radioactivity in e叩po rites sociated with early diagene活問 organic matter and pho.1phatic
concentrations. [Redrawn from Hass 悶， 1973.)
The most common evapontes, such as salt and anhyd『
ri妞， give extremely and abnormally low values on the

>
ODJOZ

•=
50 GAMMA 100 RAY API 150
。
。
DOLOMITE (a1 gillaceous)

CLAY (sal 時而已7

ANHY口 RITE

POTASSIUM SAL TS
K K 25
﹛s。me halite)
I< K
K I<
（E）的的

字~「＋
＋ ι ＋
HALITE {salt } +++
+ +· +
OCU

+++
+++
日4

+++
+ + +
至

ANHYDRITE
with dolomite bands 50

Figure 7.19 Potae1ium salts giving very high peeks of radioactivity in an evaporite sequence. (The lithology comes from an interpretation of
combined logs and cuttings). Permian, North Sea.
 THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 71

gamma ray log (Figure 7.1). However, the high

rad10activity in some evaporites caused by potassmm
content has already been mentioned (Table 7.月 The
log example shows a typical aspect of this evap"rite
radioactivity. Fr equcntly there arc extreme contrasts
between the potassium and non-potassium自bearing
zon閱（Figure 7.19), and those zones without pot-
assium should be the more volummous.
It is considered that in logging potassium salts the
percentage of K2 0 can be estimated from the gamma
ray response. Thus, for a 6.25-inch, liquid ” filled hole,
25
Edwards et al. (1967) found a correlation of 12.6 AP!
units per 1 仗， K20. Obvious旬， the logs must always be
calibrated before making generalizations of this kind.

Igneous and to lcanic rock rα：dioactivit y

Igneous rocks are not volumetncally important in

petroleum wells, but occur sufficiently frequently to be 50
a necessary element in the lithologic vocabulary. Both
uranmm and thorium originate in the acid白to-in自 E
(

>

termediate igneous rocks, but their d1stribut10n 間 very ZHaohu

irregular smce they are associated with secondary

minerals such as apatite. Potassium is present, es
pecially in the acid igneous rocks, principally in the
alkali (potass1c) feldspars. The net result is that basic 75
igneous roe』 s have low radioactivity, while the in-
termediate and acid types show progressively higher
values (Keys, 1979; Sanyal et al’, 1980) (Table 7.17).
The example shows a typical basalt which may be
confused with sand (Figure 7.20).

Mineral identification 100

Certam minerals can be identified on the gamma ray

log by thelf abnormal contribut10n to the radioac-
ti vi旬， This is certainly the case for the potassium自rich
evaporites described previously (see ‘Radioactivity in
evaporites’) which give high l咒aks. It is often the c＞阻e
for coals, which give excessively low values (Figure 7.1 ). 125
However, these are only general indications.

Table 7.17 Radioaciive elenents in igneous and vobnic rocks

(from 日erra, Baldwin et 叫， 1980；日gur田 approximale). Figure 7 20 Low gamma ray 、 alues Ihrough a ba.,ic sill. II may be
confused with a 8'nds1one interval.
Rock type Th(ppm) U(ppm) K20% Typical
radioactivity
Acid mtrusive 1 25 I 8 4.11-2.0日
High <! nconfm m!ties
Aαd extrusive 9-25 2 7 2.00-6.00
Basic Unusually high gamma ray values often occur 帥
mirusive 05 5 }
。J 2 O.S0-2.20 narrow, isolated peaks. Considering the geochemistry
Low of the radioactive mmerals, these peaks are generally
Basic
exlrus1ve 。.5 10 。.2 4 1.40-2.50 associated with uranium concentrat10ns As discussed
Very (see 'Uramum’ above) uranium concentrations indicate
Ultrnbasic 0.0001 1.60 Low extreme conditions of depos1t10n. Experience has
0.03
shown that these conditions frequently occm around
叫 ith

。
－－

72 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET ATJON OF WELL LOGS

qcωωFE35一
一

－oωI
GAMMA RAY API

o－

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WZ的回

惱H
- - nu vzm

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。
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mwc。
z已。”ωω』ω 。。

{ c ay vo u me)

k惱EZOEEZ

。
nu 5
。 100%

EOZOωZ司
5

OEmUO〉倡“一。』
20m
由

sand silt 。lay

coarse fine
LITHOLOGY /GRAIN SIZE
35m

A. LOGS B. GRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP (schematic)

F•gnre 7.21 Facies from the gamma ray log. ﹛A)Thechang自 in sandstone grain size are reflected in changes in the gammr rny value. This allows a
fac1es to be sugg間ted. (B) Graphic rep ·ernntation of the variation of grain size with gamma ray value Here it is expr田間d as a straight line but the
relationship is ve可 variable. It should p叮 allel the clay volume changι

unconformities where a long passage of time is repre- gamma ray log shows a typical shape 1t can be taken as
sented by little deposition. The mmerals associated indicating grain-size changes. A lack of shape is not
may be uramum-enriched phosphates or uranium- evidence for lack of grain-size change since it cannot be
enriched organic matter (see also Chapter 13, and interpreted
Figure 13.1). The fac1es scheme derived from the gamma ray log is
fully described in Chapter 12.
Fαcies
Correlation
An mteresting and fairly comprehensive scheme fo1
fac1es identification in detrital sediments (sand-shale) The gamma ray log is one of the most frequently-used
has been developed using gamma ray log shapes. The logs for correlation. It has ‘character', 1s repeatable, is
basis for the scheme is the relat1011sh1p between grain not affected by depth, it gives some indication of
size and shale content It is shale content that the lithology and is simple (Figure 7.22). Moreover, it is
gamma ray log md1cates, but it is interpreted in terms almost always run and the sensitivity scales are always
of grain size. For example, a coarse-grained sand will relatively similar Generally, because it is used for
have a very low shale content, a medium』grained sand correlation, it is reproduced on the well compleuon lo皂，
some shale, and a fine-grained sand may be very shaly the document used to reassemble the essential drilling
The changes in grain size will be followed by changes in and geological data at the end of a well （時e
gamma ray value (Figure 7.21). Chapter 11).
This method of indicating facies with the gamma ray Besides its availability, the gamma ray log has
lo臣， however, is not straightforward. The relationship inherent advantages for correlation, especially when
between grain size and shale content is very variable, as this concerns shales The gamma ray value of shale
is the relationship between shale volume and gamma formations 1s often va1 iable, depending on the vanous
ray value (see ‘Shale volume’) Empmcally, if the amoun個 of clay minerals, carbonate and organic

NNW
BN-2 BN-13
SW
Figure 7.22 Correlation using the gamma ray log. Baronia field, Sarawak (From Selmer,
mallet ptesent. Hot izontally, at the same strattgraphic
level, these various elements tend to show only slight
variability in the complex m凹， i.e the depositional
environment which controls the mix is laterally
persistent. The complextty does not persist through
time, as most abrupt changes are vertical. There are
changes, amongst others, tn source and age Thus, the
gamma ray log value in shales remains constant
laterally but changes vertically. These are ideal charac『
teristics for correlat10n.
In sandstones, gamma ray log shapes are often used
to correlate However, the shape ts a facies characteris』
tic and often leads to false correlations (e.g.
Figure 13.8). Log shapes in carbonates are generally
related to shale distribution and 品 such are more
reliable for correlat10n. However, the shapes must be
sufficiently consistent to ensure that they are not
related to uramum concentrations, as discussed above
(see ℃arbonate radioactivity’)
Although tt has many t dvantages for correlation,
the gamma ray log also has disadvantages. The fine
detail on the logs is merely statisttcal vanation. A
comparison between any log and a repeat section
shows to what extent this has an effect (Figure 7.7).
Fine peaks therefore cannot be used for correlat10n
The second disadvantage is that the gamma ray cannot
THE GAMMA RAY AND SPEC1 RAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 73
SSE
BN-4 BN-19 BN-7 BN-5
NE
50
SCALE
K抽
FEET
10。
200
1980)
be calibrated Although absolute values are given on
the logs they are relative both to hole size and tool, the
former because of Compton scattering by hole mud
and the latter due to detection capabilities. Logs, to be
entirely comparable, mnst be ‘normalized’ (see
Chapter 11).
7.10 Quali個tive uses of the spectral gamma ray log
Shale and clay minerals
A certain amount of literature exists on the possibility
of identifying individual clay minerals usmg the spect-
ral gamma ray log. As was shown previously s間
(‘ Geochemical behaviour’) the potassium content of
the clay mmerals vanes considerably between species
but is moderately constant within species (Table 7.8).
Thorium, too, varies but with slightly less consistency
with "each species (Table 7.13 ）心 The intent is to find if
these variations enable the individual sp凹es to be
identified qualitatively, and eventually quantitatively.
The interval of the Muddy T formation of Eastern
Wyoming has been studied by Donovan and Hilchie
(1981). They found a fairly good correlation between
potassium radioactivity and illite content. However,
they also found that while there was no cor間lation

74 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET AT!ON OF WELL LOGS
叫
ML
20 12
16
12
(
Eaa
}
z
• 8
。 5
。
K (%}
Figure 7.23 Graph of the theoretical distribution of clay minerals, hcevy minerals and evaporites, in terms of potwium and thorium content.
(Redrawn from Quirein et al., 1982)
between clay mineral content and total gamma ra
diation, there was a strong correlat10n between total
counts and uranium content The essential rad1at10n
was therefore coming from uranium. The evidence
suggested that the uranium source was principally
smectite, its presence being caused by tbe exchange of
the uranyl ion fJ om the formation waters. Uranium
radioactivity was therefore related to the presence of
smectite.
Almost exactly the opposite was found in the
analysis of shales around the North Sea (Dypvik and
Eriksen, 1983). The authors found that potassium and
thorium were the dominant contributors to gamma ray
activity with uranmm being of mmor importance (cf.
Table 7.14).
A complex quantitative approach to clay『mineral
identification has been proposed (Quirein et al., 1982).
The authors suggest that clay mineral species, along
with feldspar and evaporites, can all be identified
relatively simply by their Th/K ratios (Figure 7.23).
There is certainly a tendency for this behaviour (cf.
Tables 7.8, 7.13) and it is the basis for using just
thorium as a shale indicator (see ‘Quantitative uses').
Howev凹， it is not certam that individual clay minerals
fall into such a simple classification. Such a classi日
cation demands a strict chemical control fo1 the
distribution of the elements. As was md1cated, po『
tassium is chemically involved in the clay lattice, but
the exact behaviour ofthormm in terms of clay mineral
composition is not clear. This method needs both
empirical and theoretical iustifi位山on.
Local variations, complexity of clay-mineral mix-
tures and many other contnbutory variables allow no
convincingly clear picture as yet for clay-mmeral
。
侃一
100% ii lite 'point'
一
一 一 一 一
• 」
6
identt日cation. The use of the spectral gamma ray log
for this purpose is still in the future.
Detrital minerals
Using the spectral log to identify detrital minerals such
as feldspar and mica has already been discussed (see
‘Quantitative use of the spectral gamma ray log',
above). Qualitatively, where sand (and porosity and
permeability) a間 suspected from other logs, high
potassium radrnllon values on the spectral log will
mdrcate feldspars or micas. High thorium values will
indicate placer deposits The spe氾tral log is therefore
more specific than the simple gamma ray log.
Depositional environment
In as much as thonum, potassmm and uranmm a1 e
environment indicators, the gamma ray spectral logs
can be used for environment 1denti日cation
The prmcipal use of the three elements is in the
identification of the depositional environment' of
shales. The affinity of uranium for shales of marine
ongin has been documented (Koczy, 1956), as h品 the
affinity of thorium for terrestrial sediments (Hassan
et al., 1976). Consequently, it has been proposed to
contrast the content of uranium in shales to that of
thorium to give an index of the amount of marine
inl1uence on the envHonment of deposit10n (Adams
and Weaver, 1958)(Figure 7.24). Marine shales should
have a low Th尺J ratio, with the converse the case in
continental shales. Publrshed figures give some sup間
port for this idea (Table 7.18).
 ！于

THll GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 75

MARINE CONTINENT AL ENVIR。NMENT

·：~

J
+

而
UTHOL.OGY

仿制志a
W
I叫
」
OVEE
zzxi

。＠喝IMOOSQ
ωEM信

的。J

M阿
uoga

﹛Emw
i
high ppm thorium
~， low

7~ ＇＇＂叫s cook S叫roe

• low

而面而前布古＝－
' 4 '
.. Th II rain

F1gure 7.24 Schematic re pr目。ntation of the use of the Th/U ratio to indicate environrr errt of depoSition. (Source of da恤， Adams and Weaver,
1958.)

However, the make-up of a shale in any environment
is extremely complex, and simple systems of environ
ment ident的cation will lead to simple errors. The
chemical composition of any shale and the chemical
conditions of the depositional environment are very
complex. In addition there is frequent reworkmg and
redeposition. Cody (1971) examined theu田 of boron as
a salimty md1cator, and commented ‘ the complexities ...
of natural environmen臼 make definite conclusions
(about reliability) extremely difficult'.’ The same com』
ments can be made about the radioactive elements as
environment md1cators

T。TAL COUNTS dAp!h COUNTS PER MINUTE

potml'm
怕 0 145%/CD
岫州咖

F于s;;，叫co
CPM lhorlum
。 3ll oco

F1gu阻 7.25 High valu目。furanium acti叭ty i<Jentified on !he spectral log correlation with fractures. Completion on zone A alone gave 3 BOD,
while the additton of zone B ga>e a total 18 BOD. (Modi日ed from Fertl, 1979.)
 。

76 l'HE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

% ORGAN C GARBOM
2 4 6 8 10
.
12

.
14
'
一－ GA仇純~A
5fl
RAY A門
100 150 200

ORGANIC MATTER TYPE

。

"PrnO'I 5C%
《
EV戶口
aou

/ga,ma cay
這←＿.， gacic ca'hoo sapropel 90%
500
"prnpel 20 50%
cuti~ule~

sapr。但l 田 8C%

Figure 7.26 High organic cao·bon 、 alue' and the total gamma ray giving good correlation, in thisα15e due to uranium associated with orgamc
matter.

Table 7.18 Uranium and thoriumconte叫 of shale (from Adams and Source-rock evaluation
Weam, 1958)

Shale type 'Thor自 ll!TI The relationship between organic matter and uranium
'Uranium 'T1/U
(ppm) (ppm)
is the basis for being able to identify source rocks using
21 the spectral gamma ray log The theory has alre»dy
34

Grey grnen American

Russian Platform
13.1
II
4.9
2.7
~--
been discussed (see ‘Uranium’ above) and illustrated
、

Black shales ＇（~ 14.月 H 1（~ 15) (Tables 7.10, 7.11; Figures 7且， 7.10). High uranium
5
3

Avernge shale (est.) 12 士 1 3.8 ± 1.1 values may well indicate high 01 ganic content
'Usmg average values (Figure 7.26), but not necessarily so. If uranium can be
'Fi gm芯S with too wide a sprnad to he re泌Uy rnpresrntative, added by confidently used for the identi晶cation of paths of
the author formatton『water flowage (see ‘Fracture locahzation'), it
cannot also be used to identify sour℃C 10cks since it is
Fracture localization far too mobile Moreover, mvestigation show that in
叫附 mmmf

lacustrine environments organic matter is not enriched

間dhNH
山 own

m吋叫 UM 叫

四品叫 mnLm

kl9ao
mv
別回扣）
onnmw叮 hae 趴

nd14叫加仇

mm 叫也 J

asat AULUAUAU , t
叫囚的－

臼 £hmr

B 叮叮叫別
nwA 。

岫 nEybn
uu
ekv

ntn

Ieis
xu

aeadu1O k3
y 叫 YHUW

11YL191t
ILUSv3n 1131
131

in uramum and that orgamc-rich shales can show

別山叫切的，

don
14 ！

IFJcfnormal uranium values (Meyer and Nederlof, 1983).

slkf1

llIM
3t15

:’
由 dm

哨LIdrt

臼 K

The use of high uranium values m shales as a means

moep

ado
mmw 阻

祖明
E

of identifymg organic matter is unreliable. Such values

閏月
md

叫m
耐心n

巾
珀 U廿巴

--
n
－

可L 凹

should be used only as an mdication. The use of

啥叫

,-
2h

<
K

-
I

uranmm content as a quantitative estimate for orgamc

自

y
巴

matter content is not advisable

 '

8 Sonic or acoustic logs

8.1 Generalities seismic sect10n. Crnss-multiplied with the densi句， the
sonic is used to produce the acoustic impedance log
百阻 log and it ts the first step in making a synthetic seismic
trn品。

The sonic log shows a formation's interval transit time, Qualitatively, for the geologist, the sonic log can
designated At (delta-t, the reciprocal of sonic veloc甜y). indicate lithology, may help to identify source rocks,
It is a me臼ure of a formation's ca pac1ty to transmit overpressure and to 叩me extent fractures. It is fre-
sound waves Geologically, this capacity varies with quently used in correlation (Table 8.1).
lithology and with rock textm e, notably porosity
(Figure 8.1 ). 8.2 Principle酒。f measurement

Principal uses
Quant1tati ve紗， the somc log is used to evaluate
porosity m liquid-filled holes As an aid to seismic
interpretation tt can be used to give interval velociti自
and velocity profiles, and can be calibrated with the
The sonic tool simply measures the time it takes for a
sound pulse to travel from the emitter at one end of the
logging tool to the r白血vers at the other end of the tool.
The sound measur叫 is that carried by 'P' or compress-
ional waves (Figure 8.2）。 Between the emitter and the
receiver the 'P’ waves travel through the formation.

SONIC LOG
看 Seal 日， mlo.o,eeoode/ft ﹛血。

140 120 100 80 60 40

機毒草
SHALE

COMPACT
SANDSTONE

COMPACT I , , , '--, , ，『， 1 仕主d =52 ~／ ft

LIMESTONE
COMPACT I~ ；；：：：：； ;;::::; 41 院調 =44 µ!ft
DOLOMITE
LESS
COMPACT 機義道 I ~ values va『Y
SHALE 隘讀 I "-considerably
做呢肯認翎 ,60 170 µ!ft
COMPACT

NATER

SHALE
COAL

SALT
ANHYDRITE

SHALE

Figure 8.1 The some log: some typ 恥cal responses. The sonic log shows a formation's ability to transmii sound weves. It is expres.'°d as Interval
Transit Time, t.r. '(1 × 10')/Llr =son旭、 elociiy, ft/s配
 。

78 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 8 I The principal uses of the sonic log

Discipline Used for Knowing

Quantitative Petroph)sics Porosity Matrix velocity

Fluio velocity

Seismic Inter>al Integrated tr"'el

velocity time
Seismic markers
Seismic Check shot,s
calibration

Acoustic Direct use of

impedance sonic Jog
Qualitative Geology Lithology Matrix and minernl
and velocities
semi『

quantitative Correlation
Texture

Fncture Density log

identification pornsitie>

Compaction and No11ml comp阻ti on

01 erp'<ssnre trends
Geochemistry Source rock R闊的tivity log
evaluation valu曲

The sound emissions from the tool generally have a speeds of about 1500mjh (5000 缸／h), produ間還 one
frequency between 20 40 kHz (kilohertz) or 20 000- reading every 8 cm (3 in) of hole. {These figures do not
40 000 cycles per second (Figure 8,3), The tool will apply to the newer long spacing sonic tools: see below.)
>

register about five complete measurements per second

(borehole compensated) which at normal logging 8.3 Tools

Modern somc tools consist of a double array of somc

pulse emitters (transducers) and receivers, each array

。 11111州11111111111\lillll I I IIII 州︱ consrsting of one emitter and two receivers This

arrangement compensates for borehole eff巳cts In the
個＋／＼／＼／＼ conventtonal borehole compensation (BHC) arrange-
rare act』0" - / v v \ ment the emrtter-receiver arrays are inverte址， while in
the newer long-spaced arrangement the arrays are
Figure 8.2 Schematic representation of a typical 'P’。r cnmM parallel but pulsed sequentially (Figure 8.4),
pressional (sound) wave, In the logging environment they are the The tools are mostly run hole-centred so that the
most rapid, sonic pulse radiates symmetrically about the tool and
measurements come from all sides of the hole
INTERVAL BETWEEN simultaneously
PULSES
50ms { ob , 10 門a •>
Ie 20 tlmes/seoond Table 8.2 The principal sonic tools
l一
Name Symbol Company
TIME
vvv ’.
Borehole ℃ompensated
Sonic
BHC Schlumberger
Long Spacing Sonic LSS Schlumberger
B~~~~；~i~；mpensa ted BHC Dresser Atlas
﹛.~戶：國::: s}
SONIC PULSE Long Sp＂°吋 BHC ~~~~s~~~~ing
Acoustilog Acoustilog
Figm·e 8.3 Soniβtool emitter patterns （目hematic), Typically ai.~＇.rlse Acoustic Velocity Log Welex
lasting 200 micro<econds is emitted every 50 milhseconds, 20 Borehole Compensated BCS Gearhart
times a second. Four· pulses are needed for a complete log measure幽 Sonic
ment (Redrawn from Ser悶， 1979,)
 。

SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOGS 79

岫
sp 到

圳
L G G
RC

P 叫
BOREHOLE

8
COMPENSATED

（
SONIC

ll
RU

Jt

hHUHHH－U
2Ha

。
i1

‘自M
－ MMHiz
Z
風冒Amittsie
E0 月
－－ M 阿帥
－
、J
~

T=transmltter
L= low" U="PP''
R =receiver

UY

Figure 8.4 Sonic tools. Rep扭曲ntalions of a borehole 巴compensat吋 sonic tool which gives inslantaneous readings with an mverted 閻明iwr
transmitter array and the Long Spacing Sonic Tool (Schlumberger) which give旭 long and short』spaced readings usit唱 a time (i.e. positio叫 delay
system positions (1) and (2) a間 both relati>e to the same measure point (Modifi剖 from Thomas, 1 們 7 and Purdy, 1982).

Lng presentation, scales and units
Sonic log values are given in microseconds (µs) per foot
(1microsecond=1 × 10 6 seconds) The value is cal-
led the interval transit time and is symbolized as At
(Figure 8.5). The most common in阻rval 甘ansit tim間
fall between 40 µs and 140µs: this is the arithmetic
sensitivity scale usually chosen for the log
(Figure 8.5α）. The velocity is the reciprocal of the sonic
transit time, i.e. velocity ft/s = 1/1!.t µs/ft. Even on lo~s
with a metric depth scale, the transit time is mostly still
given in; s/ft. The necessary conversions must be made
to extract the metnc velocity, thus
At = 40 µs from the sonic log.
Velocity= ____l_τ ＝ 25000 此／s = 7620 m/s.
斗。× 10 ﹜ Dresser Atlas Acoustilog自Resistivity tool). It is best run
When a sonic tool is run on its own it 1s presented m
full-width track 2 and 3 (Figure 8.5α）. If, as is often the
case, the sonic log 1s combined with other tools, the log
appears only on track 3, often with the sensitivity scale
of 40µs-140µs maintained (Figu自 8.5b).
An integrated tra叫 time (or TTI) is r目orded
simultaneously with most sonic logs. It represents the
average velocity for the format10n logged m milli-
seconds (ms = 1 × 10 3 seconds) (Figure 8.5), each
millisecond appearing on the inside depth column as a
bar. Each 10 ms is a longer bar (Figure 8.5). Adding the
milliseconds and dividing by the thickness of the
interyal covered gives the velocity. The TTI milh-
seconds may be added together to correspond to the
travel times on the seismic section: seismic sections are
usually in two-way time, that is TTI × 2
The sonic tool is frequently run in combination with
the resistivity logs (e.耳 Schlumberger !SF-Sonic tool;
hole-centred, although modern tools may be excen-
tred, especially in large holes.
 。

80 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

(a) BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC LOG

已
INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME
。哼了 microseconds per foot
的

other logs receiver －！閃開

{ GR, SR, calipe 「 etc﹜ spacings, feet

140.0 90.0 4('

I I I ，＿＿一 主
/"
integrated ~
travel time －戶，
t millisecond~ _
. ,.
什叫 ,,

(b} LONG SPACING SONIC LOG

~呻ii" delta t 何可二：ti去「可訪

long spacing pounds
圖唔，骨．．．．－．．．．：．‘.·;4°QT「．﹒~『包~ U_B_/F個1 ．．．．．．－．．．．．．『－－－－－.0司啊．﹒O情O-
other logs
240.0
{ GR, SP, caliper etc)
DT (US/Fl
140.0 40.00
delta t
short spacing
戶－ resistivity logs ﹒『

>

integrated
/ .
travel time
DT short
' 可
1 O milliseconds

4、
DT long ‘. l
>
1

Figu<e 8 5 Typ』cal sonic log headings. (a) BHC tool; (b) long spacing tool (on the !SF-sonic combination of Schlumberger).

8.4 Log characteristics velocity, the shallower the penetration (Serra, 1979).

Depth of investigation Bed resolution

The path of sonic waves measured by borehole tools is
essentially along the borehole wall with little penet
ration The penetration in fact seems to depend on the
wavelength of the sensed waves. The theoretical depth
of investigation is between 12cm and 1 metre and will
depend on the velocity for the formation ; the higher the
The vertical resolut10n of the sonic is the span between
receivers for the borehole compensated tools and
should be similar for the long-spacing tools
(Figure 8.4). This is frequently two feet (61 cm). Beds of
less than 60-cm thickness will be registered on the sonic
log, but a true velocity will not be recorded.
 '
SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOGS 81

CALIPER BHC ABERRATIONS { a, b }

6" 11" 16 伽

INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME microsec/ft

(a) 140 90 40

出
25m
\
﹛ b ）。

~1°'
cal
bit size

15m

LSS ABERRATIONS {C, d }

一哥
INT. TRANSIT TIME (d) INT TRANSIT TIME
(c }
240 µsift 40 240 µsift 40

。 。
p .---IL______;('
主

-c三P

1 nu’
TIll
PS aeLwm
r at on

『I 一一
25m 25m

P~paired spurious peaks

Figure 8 6 Unwanted environmental effects on the some lo巴（a) BHC tool, cycles dpping ;(b) BHC tool, noise spik間，缸， d)long s戶、cing tool,
paired aberrations:、 DTS ~short spaced son自此 DTL ~long spaced sonic. The pairs are s巳 paratcd for the most part by IOrt, th巳
自 ecet ver/tra nsmittc 自 distance
 •
82 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Tahie 8.3 Unwanted environmental effects· sonic log 8.5 Quantitative 峙的

Factor Effect on log Severity*

The some log can be used to calculate porosities,
Caving ‘Cycle skipping’ Cc mm on although it is usually inferior to neutron or density-log
Diminished t-.t troughs to calculated values
a mud value (BHC)
High or low or alternate To use the log it is nece,,ary to propose that when a
parred anomalous formation h之間， on average, a uniform distribution of
peaks (L目前 small pores and is subjected to a heavy confimng
Hole rugosity ‘Noise triggering’ Co血mon
Increased t-.t spike' (BHC)
High or low or alternate
parred anomalous
peaks (LSS)
*When the effect makes the log reading unusable. Ratings:
仕eque瓜， common, pment, rare.
BHC ~Borehole Compensated Sonic LSS ~ Long-Spr ced Sonic.

Unwanted logging effects

The most common unwanted logging effects on the

sonic log a閃閃used by poor holes, either rugose or
caved. There may be an mcrease or a decrease in
interval transit time (Figure 8.6 and Table 8.3)
(Thomas, 1977; Purdy, 1982). Sonic logs registered
soon after logging are the most reliable Prolonged
exposure to drilling muds causes deterioration, es-
pecially in shales (Blakeman, 1982).
核心

扭曲

18.00
- -
闢HU
M岫
叫＋

18.00 oa
間﹒
阱，

E3
NZ HT
Tt MM

- -

14 聞
J
曲曲
”〉信也。缸。凶証。。

120

.. .’
K

8叫

DELTA t VS COAE PO ROSIγY

8 曲︱
FOA CORE GRAIN DENSITIES
BETWEEN 284 ANO 2.88 (00LOMITE)
..
－

1BWESτ／ EMBINA 0-2 REEF WELLS

. ‘
qF句．．

4曲︱
. 69 POINTS PLOτTEO
d

2.個

相開 44 00 ..個 62.00 圖曲曲曲制曲 阿岫 7100 個個 曲曲

DELTA< ...蛇／FT
Figme 8.8 Interval transit time compared to measured porosity in a dolomite. (From McFadze圳， 1973.)
 '
SONIC OR ACDUSTIC LOGS 83

pre8'ure, there is a simple relat10nship between velocity Table 8.4 Some lypical sonic malrix velocities (sec also Figme
and porosity (Wyllie et 吼， 1956). 8.11) (from Schlumberger, 1172; Serra, 1979; Gearhart, 1983).
i\tm，（州的 V(m/s) V(ft/s)
1 ＋﹔ 1 一中
一一－
v VL vm, Sandstones
(compacted)
55.5 51 5410 5950 1800~ 一 19500

which can be written, replacing M for V, as Qu且 rtz 55.\ 5530 18150
Limestones 53-47.6 5ROO 7日 nn 19 日 00 230tn
血t ＝ 抽血tJ, + (1 申）直tm, (2) Calcite 46.5 6555 215C D
Dolomites 45 38 5 677日 7925 222~n 260日 3
where V =tool-measured velocity Dolomite 40 7620 250日。

同＝ velocity of the interstitial fluid Shale 167 62.5 \ 600-50C J 50日 3 一 16 日 r n

几， = velocity of the mat1 ix matenal
中＝ porosity
M =tools measured interval transit time
血 t,.
=transit time of interstitial fluid
Mm, = transit time of matnx material
Equation (2) simply states that the transit time mea- (1
sured by the tool is the sum of the time spent in the sohd)
matrix and the time in the fluid. it 1s called time ai erage
relationship (Wyllie et al., 1956). This ‘time' is a func-
t10n of the matrix velocity and volume (distance)
(Figure 8.ηThe relationship is best translated into
graphic form, where it becomes obvious that the
measured interval transit time has a linear relationship
with porosity (Figure 8.8). The relationship will vary
depending on the velocity of the matnx material (see
equat10n 2). Some of the more common matrix velo-
cities are shown in Table 8.4.
Although the quantitative method works for ave-
rage conditions tn compacted formations and es『
pec1ally in carbonates (Sarmiento, 1961), where ML
and Mm, are known, there are many variables besides
matrix and porosity which affect Velocities (Figure 8.9).
The effects which cause the most deviation from the
simple law m porous formations are compaction (i.e.
external p自ssure）問pecially m sandstones, and the
presence of gas.
In unconsolidated sandstones, for example those
buried at le品 than 1500m 2000m, travel times are far
too long, and the calculated porosities may be over
40'./:, (impossible theoretically). Most logging compan-
ies provide compaction correction coefficients, ba.sed on
cross-plottmg sonic porosities and density- or neutron-
log porositie治 It is, however, best to avoid using the
sonic log to calculate porosity in unconsolidated
formations (cf. Sarmiento, 1961).
When gas replaces liquid in the formation, the time-
average graph no longer appli閱（i.e. VL is replaced by
VL and V,,J Even though the sonic pulse does not
penetrate deeply into the formation, there is often
sufficient gas in the shallow invaded zone to affect the

vi~
/
v

pornolly d申＂＂＇＇ tamparatu『申

v v v

'"'" ''" , •• "!"""'" '"'"'""

vi/ vi~ v

(dill '"" ＝。。Mi 》

pore pressure pressure
"'""'' "'"""
Figm·c 8 9 A number of the Facto悶 which affect rock velocities. (From Shen吭 1980, after Hilterman, 1977)
 。

84 THE GEOLOGICAL IN1ERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME •lft At

」
INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME 200 150 100 BO 70 60 50
OE
40

叩叩尸
m1ccosecoods pee foot
－h
5 25 30
40
－川………………甘

ω縛。、
230 』ω

coals

將
anhydrite
salt
言。一一z

一 dolo 削.. ,
(oh ell<划，i明.，，.，們·~
-
的o

-
。o－

san<islones
-
－

-1
O〉

shales

3 4 $ 6 8 9 10
VELOCITY km/second
Figure 8.11 The average veloαty range.< of common lithologi自
cnmpa間d The considerable amount of overlap indtcatcs that
velaαty alone is seldom diagnostic of lithology (vain曲 arc for depths
typical of oil exploration wells). See Table 8.4 for matrix velocities
and Tahle 8.5 for mineral vdociti自
喇

with sands and shales and low velocities with shales

oo

(Figure 8.11).
心

Velocity, nonetheless, may be diagnostic and is

叭…

EB certamly md1cative of certam rock types which are

often m the near pure state m nature. Such ts the case
叭一

for halite (rock salt), gypsum, anhydrite and coal

(Table 8.5).
叭一

Correlation sonic log character

…早

Figure 8 10 The effect of ga' on the sonic log. The sonic velocity in
The sonic log is a sensitive recorder of a formatton s ’
this porous sandstone is lowered by about 的4 lithology. Although the precise lithology may not be
…已…………………

identified, the somc velocity of a particular formation is

apparently very typical. The log shows even the
velocity. Indeed, the effi創ct can be used to identify slightest changes. It is rather like the colour of a
gaseous hydrocarbons when a gas/water contact is formation: it is not diagnostic of a particular lithology,
pr聞自1t (Figure 8.10). To esttmate the real porosity in but 111 some formations the colour is both very typical
the presence of g拙， the porosity calculated from the
raw log should be multiplied by about 0. 7, but this is
only an estimate Table 8.5 Some diagnostic (mineral) velocities (from Serra, 1979;
Gearhart, 1983; Schlumberger, 198').
To calculate porostty in the presence of shale the
some log must be corrected for a shale volume de1 ived !it如s/ft) Vekcity• (m/s) Veloαty• (ft/s)
from other logs.
Water (saline) 189 200 1610 1525 5290 5 日。。

8.6 Qualitative 翩翩 Halite 66.7 67 4550 15 000

Anhydrite 50 6100 200CO
Litholoq JI identification
GypHtm 52-53 5860 190CO
The velocity of the common sedimentary rock types ts
Anthracite 90 120 3050 oo !OOCO
rarely dtagnostic there is too much variation within
:.

each type and too much overlap between types Lignite 140 180 2日 00 竺 6500

(Table 8.4, Figures 8. 日， 8.12). However, such is the

Casing (st閏月 57.8 5270 17 300
natural occurrence that high velocities are more likely
to be associated with carbonates, middle velocities *Averages
 '

SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOGS 85

CALIPER ;nches
月1
(a }
。 2800

2850

（5】 ZW
泣。。
{b } 2950

3000

Figure 8.12 Sonic log in sand shale sequences. (a). The sands have a lower sonic velocity (about 3385 m/s) than the shal目（ 3凹Om/s). （的 The
revers巴， where the sands have higher veloαty (about 4350 m/s) than the shales (3300m/s). Sonic 間locities are therefore not diagnostic oflithology.

and at the same time mdicates subtle changes. The Texture

sensttlvity of the sonic log 1s especially evident in fine-
grained sediments or beds without porosity. The
sequence illustrated (Figure 8.13) is entirely shaly:
cuttings and side-wall cores find only shale. The sonic
log, however, picks out small vanat1ons, probably m
textu間， in carbonate and m quartz content, to show a
very distinct stratigraphic interval, despite depth differ-
ences This characteristic sensitivity makes the sonic
log excellent for correlation.
The inherent capacity of the sonic log to indicate
texture is recogniz。d in i的 use to calculate porosity (see
above) . The way in which sound travels through a
formation is intimately associated with, apart from
porosity’ ‘matnx and matrix materials, gram size
distribution and shape, and cementation' (Wyllie et al’,
1956), in other words texture (Figure 8.7). The example
shows the use of the sonic log to indicate grain-size

86 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL UJGS
90 µs
90 µs
MARKER
DATUM
Figure 8.13 The ‘char臨出， of the sonic log used forccrrelation The log is sensitive to lithological changes (texture and composition) as indicated
by the logs in this shale sequence. The outside wells are 40km apart, the zone between 40m and 75m thick.
changes in turbidite sandstones (Figure 8.14), but
textural e叮且臼 are equally seen in any lithology from
ltmestones and dolomtt帥， even to shales. As was
indicated m the description of the sonic log character,
the subtle changes used for correlation are, in part at
least, texture-controlled
Fracture identification
A knowledge of the presumed travel paths of the sonic
signals (Figure 8. 7) sugg的臼 that the log may be used
for fracture ident晶晶tion The sonic log porosity is
probably only that due to the matrix, and does not
include fracture porosity. This ts because the sonic
pulse will follow the fastest path to the receiver and this
will avoid fractures. Companng somc porosity to a
global porosity should indicate zones of fracture. The
subject is fully described under the Density Log (see
Chapter 9,‘Fracture identification’). A full waveform
'I
!I analysis of the sonic signal can be used for fractme
detection It requires a special waveform output and a
specific analys間， and 1s not considered here.
Compaction
As a sediment becomes compact, so its velocity value
mcreases Tins is not an attnbute that can be easily
。
90 µs
90 µs
/
quantified, as geophysicists know to thetr frustratton,
but qualttative compactton information is contained in
all sonic logs. The effect is most obvious on reduced-
scale sonic logs where, over thtck shale mtervals, there
is a regular increase in velocity downwards due to
compaction (Figure 8.15). In extremely homogeneous
intervals when interval transtt time ts plotted on a
logarithmic scale and depth on an anthmetic scale,
there may be a straight-line relationship which repre-
sen臼 a very re伊lar compaction (Hottman and
Johnson, 1965). Such relationships a間 especially visible
in the Gulf Coast Tertiary of the USA (Hottman and
Johnson, 1965) but occur in many parts of the world
(e.g. Herrinι1973; Magara, 1968). The effect of com-
paction can be studied by measuring shale porosities
.wht仙， in turn, can be correlated wtth sonic transit
times (Magara, 1978) (Figure 8.16). Quantitative旬， this
can be expressed as shale porosity= 0.466 血t 31.7
(Magi!凹， 1978). This underlines the notion that com-
paction trends must be constructed usmg only one
lithology. Th間的 usually shale, but sandstones only or
limestones only may also be used (e.g. Sarmiento, 1961,
Magar a, 1980). The only true picture of compaction, in
fact, can be obtained by comparing the same stratig-
1aphtc mterval at various depths. Relocated at their
burial depths, the intervals will define a general
compactton curve.
 •
SONIC OR ACOUSTIC LOGS 87

INTERVAL
TRANSIT TIME
{ microseconds)
GR 25/11 戶5 sonlc llt 1240 40

400
口的hF

500

e 7

〉止〈戶也ULFEUE」
nunu
nunu
EVZHaou
(
。。∞－「

D
800
EO凹∞F

900

Figure 8.14 Textural indications from the sonic log. Grain-size

cha\1ge< in the turbidite Heimdal Sands, Palaercene, North Se> Figure 8.15 Compaction in a shale sequence shown by a regular
(from Sarg and SkJO 闕， 1982). FU~ fining up, CU~ coarnening up. demase in interval transit time with depth. The velocity demas自
from approximately 160µ/ft to 140 仰自 0間I' 5叩 m

Using general compactton trends it is possible to
esttmate erosion at unconformities or the relative
amonnt of uph虹（Lang, 1978; Magara, 1978).
Compaction is generally accompanied by diagenetic
em自個 which are irreversible 令E Schmidt, 1973) and
‘ ’
stay frozen durmg uplift. The compaction of a sedi卜
ment represents its deepest bunal. Having a general
compaction curve for a particular mterval, any 已over­
compaction' can be explained by uplift. Tracking back
to the general curve gives the amount of uplift
(Figure 8.1ηSimilarly, any '.jumps ’ in compaction, as
at unconform1ties or even fau凶， when compared to
general well trends can give some tdea of the amount of
section missing The method has many irregnlarities
and should be used with circumspect10n.
Instead of using empmcal well trends as a reference,
a theoretical curve may be used. It is constructed by
plotting 血t from the log against shale porosi旬， using
the relat10nship shown above (i e. <P = 0.466dt - 31.7)
When the results are plotted on 咽mi-log scale they
show a straight-line relationship (Magara, 1978). The
origin, the original surface of deposition, is taken
at 200µs, this being the sonic velocity of water but
representing a shale porosity of 62%. Back-plotting the
present surface values from a well to the 200-µs origin
gives the amount of erosion (Magara, 1978).
High】pr臼sure identification
Acoustic velocity can be used to identify overpressure
Other things remaming constant, an increase in pore-
pressure or overpressure is md1cated by a drop m sonic
velocity. A plot of shale interval transit times through
an overpressured zone shows a dtstmct break m the
average compaction line (Figure 8.18). The principal
reason for this drop is probably the increase in shale
INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME At log /<ll
Figure 8.16 The relationship between mudstone porosily （φ%） and
inte<val transit time in Miocene mudslones, Japan. (From Magara,
1968.)
 。

88 THE GEOLOGICAL !NrERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME t>t log INTERVAL TRANSIT

。門
TIMEC>t log
。己 。
0 µ ltt
制 v µ/ft
問

" 200 100 50 30

‘‘
BBZEEB
－
‘－aI
呵，

恥／ J
1000
.....
Jill

U
（E﹜ZHa百

喇站岫臼問
叫
r

鬥
nu
o

hHmro
2000
2000
-
..
1
bZ
..

3000 zo
3000
﹛

.
EVZ

/.?
個且也可

shale t>t I

4000
4000

Figure 817 Uplift and erosion indicated by shale sonic inte<val Figure 8.18 Overpressure mdicated by a plot of shale inte<val tra汀!Sit
transit times. Well 2 has been uplifte~ and shows shale transit tim閱 times against depth. A decrease from the normal cnmpaction trend
(c01npaction) consistent with burial 1100 m deeper than at present. indicat曲。verpmsure. (D and D, are for overp扭扭ure calculations,
Well I defines the ιnormal ’ shale trend without up@. S田 text)

porosi旬， although several factors are probably com- has the same interval transit time as the point bemg
pounded (Figure 8.9). It is considered possible to cal- measured An example of D and D, eqmvalence is
culate the amount of overpressure from the extent of marked on the sonic-log depth plot (Figure 8.18). The
deviation of the sonic velocity from the normal com- above calculat10n suggests that the pressure at Dis the
paction trend (Table 8.6) (Hottman and Johnson, sum of the hydrostatic pressure to D, and the litho-
1965 ）。 Overpressure may also be calculated by an static pressure from D, to D
equivalent depth method, the simplest of which gives Although the sonic log can be used to identify
the following formula (Magara, 1978): overpressure, it can only do so once drilling and
P=(ow × D,) + o,(D - D,)
where P =formation fluid pr凹sure at depth D (psi) Table 8.6 Overpres 叩間的timates (after Hottman and Johnson,
1965).
ow =formation『water gradient (psi月。
iJ,. = lithostatic gradient (pst月t) ilt decrease from
average trend(µ.s) 4日 60?
D =depth of calculation point (ft) 。 20
D, = eqmvalent depth (ft) with same sonic tran- R間erv01r fluid pressure
sit time (see below). gradient(g/cm') 1.07 1.84 2.16 2.3?

D ,ts a point in the s郎tion at normal pressure wluch Gradient（但1戶。 0.465 0.800 .935 竺 1.00
 '

SONIC OR ACOUS rIC LOGS 89

R重 PUBLIQUE FRANQAISE.

MINISTERE DU COMMERCE ET DE L’ INDUSTRIE.

。 IR~CTION DE LA PROPRIET 且 INDUSTRIELLE.

一一一----i>+CI---一一

BREVET D’ INVENTION.
Gr. 8. 一－ Cl. i. N。 786.863

Pr、oc6d.6
et appareillage pour la reconnaissance des terrains travers6s
par un sondage.
Societe di祖： SOC！且T區 DE PROSPECTION 重LE也TRIQUE (Proced曲 SCHLUMBERGER)
residant en France （包i叫．
Demand6 le 1 er juln 193~色， a 16 heures, a Paris.
Delivre le • 7 juin • 935. - Puhli6 le t • sep但mh間， 935.
[Bre叫 d'invention don! I~ d曲vra岫 a ete ajour岫扭扭曲ntion de I恥 H 5 7 de la loi du 5 Jlllll•的，8叫
且吋恤晶 p前 la I。i du 7 酬nl •900.]

Pl. umq仙＠
!i'' 1llBJIR!I
叫“.”
叫“ Proapecl1個創呵，

(Pr<叫<I~• Sduol恥，阱，﹜

1"79:/ s
" "'
n~Z

’,

.,
r、

, "
J可5
/

Brevet Schlumberger du log sonique

F;gurc 819 The brevet d’mccnlion for the sonic log deposited by Schlumberger in Pans, June 1934. (From Allaud and Mart凹， 1976.)
 '

90 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 、IVELL LOGS

1711jil

logging are completed, by which time it may be too

late! 。

Source-rock identification
--

M
By itself, the some log cannot be used to indicate 50

source-rock potential However, the presence of or-

game matter, especially m shales, lowers sonic velo-
cities, apparently in dire吼叫ationship to abundance.
li If tbe sonic-log values are cross-plotted against ano-
ther diagnostic log, such as the resistivity, then organic- ’。。

〔
EM戶v
! rich zones may be identified (Figure 6.35) (Meyer and
lhLJIll

－a
Nederlof, 1984).

＠mu
The principal logs for semi ” quantitative souree rock
ident1ficat1on are the density and 阻sistivity logs (see 150

Chapters 6, 9), but the density log is affected in poor

INFill
-
hole or when grain density varies, whereas the sonic log
1s relatively unaffected and the sonic resistivity plot
may be more reliable (Meyer and Nederlof, 1984). 200

8.7 Seismic applications of the sonic log

-- Acoustic velocity is the essence of the seismic S阻 ti on

250
and the sonic log. Indeed, the sonic log was 01 igmally
ill invented as an aid to seismic prospection as is seen by ＇＂仙。 lty log ::iclcmic trace
’
Schlumberger's brecet d mt ention registered in Pans
in June 1934 (Figure 8.19) (Allaud and Martin, 1976). Figure 8.20 The contrasting frequency content of the sen也 log and a
After its mvent10n the somc log became a tool for S副smic trace. (Redrawn from Shen缸， 1980.)
-
petrophysicists and geologis徊， but today it is reverting
to i 臼 oiigins and is increasmgly becoming a sup 且
plementary tool m seismic prospection.
TIME/DEPTH CURVE SCALE

Seismic v. son阻肥locit間 0 25
ooo-way tic•
0 50
''"'°'''
0 75 1 Oo 1 25
。
The frequency of the sound pnlse used in sonic logging
1s in the range 2。一40 kHz ; the equivalent pulse in 500
se1sm1c work is 5 50 Hz. The some tool can resolve
beds down to about 50 cm or even thinn缸， The seismic 、
wave can resolve, typically, down to about 10 m in 芯， 000
>
ω
shallow section but only 50m in deeper section, it
depends on velocity and wavelength Seismic re- '~
solution, then, is approximately 1/100 that of the sonic 軒
,E
log (Sheriff, 1980). The difference is well illustrated
包
”
E
when seismic and sonic traces are directly compared
E 閻明
(Figure 8.20). 晶

Somc log data, 1f it is to be compared to seismic data, 。

seismic ma『，，『
」，／ ho巾＇＂＇
must be brought up to the same scale and must be
averaged.
.
3000
Interval t elocities
basement
The results of sonic logging may be presented in several
ways so that they may be used m seismic mterpretation. 。 2 4 6 8 10

Two presentations, which are complementary, are the ml', 10 3

INTERVAL VELOCITY SCALE

interval velocity and the time-depth curve. Figure 8.21 The pre,.ntetion of sonic 、。 locity data to match Jhe
scale of seismic da!a: the tune depth 叩rve and the interval velocity
To find mterval velocities, the sonic velocity 1s graph. The two horizontal scol" are independent: the depth scale is
averaged over important stratigraphic mtervals, or common to both curv自
 •
SONIC OR Acnusnc LOGS 91

sonic velocity mis .§

0 0 0 ..c
。口。女
0 0 0 ;;;'
OJ ＂＇寸古

。 。

KV
血〈叫」戶
ω←
也

〔mhu。t
門
的
電3
c
.8

ooω）。EZh
1.0 1000 1.0
。
ω
~

」「山
ω
E

M也VD
~

>-

眉苦
~
3

lobz
。
扭
扭

2.0 2.0

intervals likely to be indicated on the se阻mic section

(Figure 8.21). The velocity is found by counting the
integrated travel-time marks (Figure 8.5) over the
interval concerned, and then dividing by the depth
covered For instance, if 200 marks are counted (i e.
200 milliseconds) between 2400 m and 3400 m (thick
ne8S 1000 m), the interval velocity is 1000ρ00
× 103 m/s ~ 5000 m/s. Interval velocities a阻 usually
presented in histogram form against depth
(Figure 8.21 ）.從、
The time-depth curve is made by accumulating the
interval velocitie<. That 凹， the accumulated milli-
seconds are plotted against depth (Figure 8.21). For
example'. the interval discussed above would be plotted
as a straight line from a point with coordinate< of 800
milliseconds (x axis) and 2400 me tr閱（y axis) to 1000
milliseconds and 3400 metr目（i.e 200 ms for 1000 m).
The interval above, 790 metres covering 175.5 milli-
seconds (i.e. interval velocity of 4500 m/s) is repr自ented
on the scale for depth from 1610 m一2400 m and on the
time scale from 625-800 血illiseconds (Figure 8.21 ).
The presentation on the time axis then becomes similar
to the seismic section. A normal time-depth curve is
taken from zero tllne and zero depth (1.e. corr℃cted
from well KB to surface datum) to the well TD. From
this can be read the average time to any particular Synthetic seismic logs
depth or stratigraphic honzon, and this value can then
be used to convert seismic tnne maps (isochron maps) A synthetic seismic log is a presentation of the data
to depth maps (isobath maps). contained ma sonic log in the form of a seismic trace. In
itHilli
。

92 THF GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 可VELL LOGS

SONIC VELOCITY s。NIC REFLECT ！。N REFLECT自ON SYNTHETIC A se1sm1c section is the result of acoustic rellections
VELOCIT、 COEFFICIENT COEFFICIENT SCISMOGRAW
OR WITH from subsurface strata The reflections depend on the
ACOUSTIC TRANSMISSION
contrasts of the acoustic impedances (i e velocity
一
IMPEDANCE LOSSES
(• __!U_ ) P/.6.T 一－＋ + 戶＋
× density) of the adjacent layers, that is the reflection
coefficient (R):

acoustic imperlanc。 below acrn<tic impedance abne

R
-- accustic impedance abo>e + ac 叫“ ic impedance below

time
time
F1~ure 8.23 Diagrammatic rep•宙間 tation or the Construction or a
synthetic seismic trace from the sonic log, (From Thomas, 1977.)
a computer-derived calculation, the high frequency
data of the sonic log is replayed at the low frequency of
se1sm1c data.
DzV2 一 D1 V1
tC
D2V2 + D1 V1
When both a sonic log and a density log are run in a
well, the acoustic tmpedances of the layers logged can
be calculated (Figure 8.23). The acoustic impedance
log represents the logged section as it would be sensed
by the seismic pulse.
With the aid of a computer, a synthetic seismic signal
is formulated and passed through the acoustic imped-
an田 log. The seismic signal is distorted just as it would
be if it were going through these layers in the subsur-
face Recordmg the stgnal distortions, the computer
constructs a synthetic seismic r田ponse (Figure 8 23)
The original sonic data have been converted mto a
setsm1c trace. The synthetic seismic log is invaluable for
‘tying’ wells to the seismic log, and demonstrating the
effective resolution on the section

lIl

--
 '

9 The density log

9.1 Generalities
The log
The density log is a contmuous record of a formation's
bulk density (Figure 9.1). This is the overall density ofa
rock including solid matrix and the fluid enclosed in
the pores. Geologically, bulk density is a function of the
density of the minerals forming a rock (i e matrix) and
the volume of free flnids which it enclose• (1 e porosity)
For example, a sandstone with no porosity will have a
bulk density of 2.65 g/cm 3, the density of pure quartz.
At 100% porosity the bulk density is only 2.49 g/cm',
being the sum of90% quar位 gr副ns (density 2.65 g/cm3)
and 10% water (density 1.0 g/cm3).
Principal uses
Quantitatively, the density log is used to calculate
porosity and indirectly, hydrocarbon density. It is also
used to calculate acoustic impedance. Qualitative旬， it
is a useful lithology indicator, can be used to identify

SHALE

QUARTZITE φo

SANDSTONE φ10% 帶（ 2.49 g/cm3)

φo

LIMESTONE
φ10% 叫 2 54 g/cm3)
φo
DOLOMITE
φ10% 帶（ 2.68 g/cm3)

SHALE
吾吾

SANDSTONE
φ20%
@

density very variable

2-2.8 g/cm3
SHALE

compact
ORGANIC S~~AL
LE
SALT
SILL(IGNEOUS }

SHALE

F•gure 9.1 The density log some typical responses. The density log shows bulk density. 'Density and porosity with fresh formation-water
density 1.0g/cm' (cf. Figure 10.1, which is on a compatible scale of neutron porosity）。
 。

94 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 9 I The principal um of the density log

Disciplme Used for Knov叫1g

Quantitative Petro physics Porosity Matrix density

Fluid density

Se1sm1C Acoustic (U阻 raw log)

impedance

Semi －『quantitative Geology Lithology (With neutron)

and
qualitati;c Shale Aver洞ge trends
textural
changes

Mineral Mineral
iden!I日cation densities

Reservoir Overprwu凹 Average trends

geology identification

Fracture Some
問cognition porosity

Gee chemistry Source rock Density-0.M.

evaluation celib1at1on

Table 9.2 Density and el。ctron density of some common compounds (from Schlumberger, 1972, Drwer
Atlas, 1983; Gearhart, 1983).

Actual Tool-derived Tool

density density (g/cm1) differnnce
Compound Formula ρ， (g/cm1) (electron dens 』ty) (g/cm1)

Quartz SiO, 2.654 2.64 2.66 十 0.0師

Calcite CaC01 2.71 2.71 Zero
Dolomite CaC01 MgC01 2.87 2.85 2.88 十 0.02 to + O.Gl
J~8 2.99)
Anhydrite CaS04 2. 2.89 305 + O.Gl to · 0.02
(2.89-3.05)
to 十 0.06
~~~~~
KCL 1.98 1.86 1.99 十 0.12
NaCl 2.16 2.03 2.08 +o‘ 13 to 十 0.12
Gyp.n1ID CaS04.2 日， o 2.32 2.33 2.40 0 01 to -0.05
J2.3-2.35)
Anthracite coal L 1.32 L日0 ('l.47) + O.D3 to 一 0.04
ii·32 1.8)
Bituminous coal L 1.15 1.17 ('1.24) + O02 to 0.05
(1.15-1.7)
Fresh water LO 1.0「l .11) Zero
Salt water 20~｛~ ppm 1.146 1.13(11.24) 一← 0.016
盾。11' 40。 AP! 11(CH,) 0.85 0.85-0.97 0 to • 0.12
Methane CH4 0.000677 0.00076
‘Gas’(average) C,_,H4., 0.0007726 0.000886
'Schlumberger 1985 only;'Gearhart 1983 only

certain minerals, can help to assess orgamc matter
content and may help to identify overpressure and
fracture porosity (Table 9.1).
9.2 Principles of measurement
The logging technique of the density tool is to subject
the formation to a bombardment of medium-energy
(0.2-2.0 MeV) collimated (focused) gamma rays and to
measure their attenuation between the tool source and
detectors. Such is the physical relationship that the
attenu泌的n (Compton scattering see sect10n 7.2) is a
function°of the number of electrons that the formation
contains-its electron density (electronsfi凹的－ which
in turn 1s very closely related to its common density
包／cm3) (Table 9.2). In dense formations, Compton
scattering attenuation is extre虹1e and few det巳ct able
’
gamma rays reach the tool s detectors, while in a lesser
density the number is l?uch higher. The change in
counts with change m density is exponential over the
 1干

THE DENSITY LOG 95

亡 E - TOOL

皇 400 I ---..

昌 m
TOOL HEAD
(schematic}
但＇＂
5
GAMV~ 酬
恤A叩陪同＂τ
" （＇叫＇＂ m﹜

”。 益。
,., 卸

DENSITY g戶m' a•凹陷sated

W 刊＂＇叫
Figure 9.2 Correlation between the dcn<ity-tool ntdiation count
(counts per second) and bulk density. A high density gi' es a low

「叫
count. (Redrawn from Desbrand凶， 1968.)

i﹔﹔ JJ~／
︱心血＂~f~／年一
岫＂＂
間則T
帥 ASUR 巨
＂（的＇＇ m﹜

F•gure 9.4 A density tool (Dcnsilog from Dresser Atlas) and a tool
叩開 E商中的 head （由hematic). (Modifi的d from Dr鼠， ser Atlas, 1982.)

ENERGY Mev
。。 l （，洲 ion e entron volts}
’。 10
01
＇＂＂附：AL GM，，啪”＂叫間

Figure 9 3 Illustration of the energy bands of density and litho-

density (photo electric) logging and the dominant types of gamma
ray interaction. (Data sources Tittman and Wahl, 1965;
Schlumberger, 1982.)

耳。:mc 自O•「25 一
CO~！！＿下
，~fi~一
lf)N+o·~
1/500
CALIPER BULK DENSITY
HOLE DIAM IN INCHES GRAMS/CM3

2.5 2目。
l「4-1-T-1 一「可一「『 T 「一「t一4
2β

」 >

、＜ 司巴已‘•、、
- ,曰
,/

~＂＂ =」＇
＇屯
←、語

/BULK DENSITY 去
LOG
L一一一 一」
啊， 『自＇＇＇＂＇，：a
月口／＇
E晶
2.25日
~
∞。 . 字

昕一1 I ~CALIPER
LOO
I;-, J言＇. J_,CORRECTION
」 」 」
一」 」← CURVE
81/2“ ho la nea『 ly L 』F ie +.025
"on 9'"9•"
·?

」 」

←一一
三〉 ' 」 」 」

‘三區，

Figme 9 5 Typical log heading ofa density log The density log 的 over tracks 2 and 3: the scale is g/cm'. The automatically applied correction is
’
shown in log form (dashed). T 1is is an 'old style heading, t e befo間 about 1980.
 。

96 THe GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 9.3 Modern density tools geological applications to be tested and will not be
Name Symbol Company considered further her刃

Formation Density FDC Schlumberger 9.3 Tools

Compensated
Litho-Density Tonl LDT Schlumberge'
Compensated Dcnsilog CDL Dre'Ser At!曲， Wei間， The usual modern density tools have a collimated
Gearhart gamma ray sour＇曲（such as radiocobalt or radio-

Table 9.4 Unwanted environmen 祖leff<凹的…C en"ity log

Factm Effect on log Severity'
Caved or rough hole Decre"e in formation density Frequent
to apprnach a drilling mud
density ,,Jue
Barite in the drilling mud Automatically corrected in the Rare
tool when mud-cake 的
thick, g;m the cake d叩 si句
When the effect makes the log reading unusable白 Rating> :frnquent, commnn, prese ,t, rare.

average logging density range from about 2目。－3.0 caesium) and two detectors (near and f盯） which
g/crn 3 (Figure 9 2). Detector coun臼 in modern tools compensate for borehole effects when thelf readings
are converted directly to bulk density for the log print > are compared and combined in calculated ratios
out (Figure 9.5). Source and detectors are mounted on a plough-shap巳d
A rec冶nt advance m density logging has seen the pad which is pressed hard against the borehole wall
introduction of a tool using the photoelectric c叮ect(the during logging (Figure 9.4). Density-log readings
Schlumberger Litho-Density Tool). At energy levels therefore refer to only one pomt on the borehole wall
below Compton scattering, gamma rays become so
attenuated (low in energy) that they are ‘品ptured’ and Log presentation, scales and units
absorbed. The effect is dependent on both the
rnedmm's electron density and its atomic number The density log is normally plotted on a linear scale of
(Figure 9.3). The log records the formation’s photo- bulk density (Figure 9.5). The log is run across tracks 2
electric absorption index (Schlumberger, 1982). The and 3, most often with a scale between 2.0 and 3.0
log has not been m use for sufficient time for 由 g/crn3. The rnam log is accornpamed by a curve
indicating the borehole and mud-cake corrections that
have been automatically applied. A record of cable
tension may also be included, as the density tool tends
to stick in poor holes
The tool is tun typically as a density-neutron
p, combmat10n along with a gamma ray tool and a
一7 caliper-e.g. CDL-GR-N (Dresser Atlas), FDC-CNL-
80 I
/ GR (Schlumberger). The caliper is an essential accom-
I
」4ZO

I panirnent to the density log for reasons of quality

I control
－帥笠

60
J
”，zo

9 .4 Log characteristics
←uarh可

40•- Depth of investigation and bed resolution

呵呵一－ p, "'" d•徊。1。’（shnrt ﹜
一一一一－ pι ＇＂ ＇＂＇＂＇＂＇＇＂叫 ’
Research.mto the density tool s characteristics shows
－－－－四 Pb ＂＂＂胡t 仙＂ doo.;ty
20
that its depth of investigation is very shallow.
Figure 9.6 shows that 90% of the Schlumberger FDC
I response probably originates from 13crn (15 in) or less
b from the tool. These al'e experimental results using a
。 sand with 35% porosity (Sherman and Locke, 1975). In
。 5 10 15 20 250肌

normal loggin臣， the investigation depth will probably

DISTANCE from BOREHOLE WALL
Figure 9 6 The depth of investigation of the density tool is ve江y
shallow. The graphs show experimental 阻rnlts for a 35% porosity,
附ter filled sand. (Redrawn from Sherman and Locke, 1975.)
be even less, around 10cm (4 in) for average densities.
Consequently the density tool is likely to be much
affected by hole conditions Moreover, in pornus zones

BULK DENSITY
包 ULK
DENSITY
2•5 g/cm3
TOOL MEASURED
Figure 9.7 Tool m田 sured bulk density and a visualization of the derivation of the porosity component. The figu間s are for a 8'ndstonc with 10%
porosity
where the tool has its prmctpal petrophysical use, it will
be measuring the invaded zone. There is little chance of
it detecting Ouids, notably liquid hydrocarbons, in
pla間可
While the depth of investigation of the density tool is
small, the bed resolution is good. At average logging
speeds (about 400 m/h, 1300 ft/h), true densities can be
read in beds down to about 1 m (3 ft). At lower speeds
(about250m舟， 800ft月力， thinner beds may be resolved
down to 50cm (18 in). Partial reaction from the density
tool may be caused by very thin beds, especially if they
have a ve1y high or very low density. Calcareous
nodules 5 10 cm thick, for example, are seen as peaks
on the density log.
Good b叫 resolution renders the density log useful
for drawing bed boundaries.
Unwanted logging effec的
The most frequently-encountered unwanted loggmg
eff臼臼 are shown in Table 9.4. The shallow depth of
mvest1gatJon of the density tool makes it very sus臼p­
tible to hole cond1t10ns, despite compensation and
automatic corrections. The density log should be
mterpreted along with its corresponding caliper log.
9.5 Quantitative t陋的
Porosity calculation
The density log is us叫 to calculate porosity and it may
also, with difficulty, be used to calculate hydrocarbon
density. To calculate porosity from log-derived bulk
density it is necessary to know the density of all the
individual materials involved The density tool sees
global (bulk) density, the density both of the grains
forming the rock and of the fluids enclosed in the
interstitial pores (Figure 9.7). As an example, if the tool
measures a bulk density of 2.5 g/cm3 in a salt water
bearing formation (fluid density 1.1 g/cm3) we can
interpret any of the following:
Grain density Lithology Porosity
2.65g cm' Sandstone 10%
2 71 g/cm' Lim田tone 13%
2 87g/cm' 'Dolomite 21%
•
THE DENSITY LOG 97
COMPONENTS
“
p。RE FLUID
Dens<ty 1'1 g/cm3
- M盯RIX (grnlns}
Density 2'65g/cm3
1 ”
Of course, if we know the grain (matrix) density and
the fluid density we can solve the equation that gives
porosity from the summation of flmd and matrix
components (Figure 9.7) For example,
bulk density (p.) =porosity ( q,)× fluid density (p,)
+ (1 中） x matrix density (Pnml
When solved for porosity this equation becomes.
' p ，.， 一 ρb
porosityφ ＝
Pm• Pr
where Pm,= matrix (or grain) density
Pr =fluid density
Pb ~ bulk density
(as measured by the tool and hence
includes porosity and grain density).
The relationship between the bulk density (as mea-
sured by the tool) and porosity can be extremely close
when the grain density remains c油nstant (Patchett and
Coalson, 1979). The example shows a reservoir of
orthoquartz1te composition and a reasonably constant
grain density of 2.68 g/cm3 (Figure 9.8). The porosity
derived from the bulk density log in this example
corresponds well to the core porosity when a matrix
density of 2.68 g/cm3 and fluid density of 1.1 g/cm' are
applied.
If constant grain-density figures are applied to a
formation and the grain density is not constant, the
porosity calculated 1s inaccurate This is the case with
the North Sea Jurassic sands, where up to 30% mica
can mcrease the average grain density to 2.84 g/cm3
(mica density is about 2.76 3.1 g/cm3). When too low a
grain density is used, the porosity is underestimated by
the density log (Fig.ure 9.9).
Erroneous porosities may also be calculated when
the fluid density changes. This is the case when a rock is
satu,.rated with g品eous hydrocarbons. As shown
above, the porosity equation is furmshed with a grnm
> density and a fluid density. The latter is 1.0 g/cm3 for
fresh water and 1.1 g/cm3 for salt water (but may vary
with temperature). In the presence of gas (typical
density 0.0007 g/cm3) the fluid density drops dramati-
cally. As the example shows, the density log gives too
high a porosity (Figure 9.10). If the porosity (and water
saturation) can be calculated by other means, the
 •
98 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

BULK DENSITY gtcm' Acoustic impedance

22 2~ 2·6 2·6

The density log is used in conjunct10n with the sonic

30 20 。 CORE POROSI"τV 法
log to calculate acoustic impedance. The subject is
briefly described in Chapter 8 (s間‘Seismic appli-
cations of the sonic log').

f'ma = 2 68 g/cm '{ quartz} 9.6 Qualitative uses

f'll =’, g/cm"{salt water}
.........,.,, The density tool gives a continuous log of the
們
。勻呵，T『﹒ format10n's bulk density and it needs no mterpre阻ti on
as the character is given directly The qualttative use of
this log therefore depends on the ~eological signific-
ance of the density of a formation.

Lithology identiβcation

Grain Density
Histogram The densities of the more common lithologtes are
品？ 2。
晶晶，‘＃
rarely diagnostic since there is too much overlap and
－用－
50 用＇.’ too much spread caused by difference洛 in compositton
and texture. Shales, for example, may have densities
ranging from 1.8 g/cm3 to 2.7 g/cm3: the density d前er】
ence between a plastic clay and a compacted shale.
Overall, oilfield densities generally measure between
島

、 2.0 g/cm3 and 3.0 g/cm', the common lithologies span間

2•6 2·il5 ?.'1 2•75- "2:S
G"I" de,.;<y 910巾3 ning the whole of this range (I able 9.5).
.. Although the density log is itself a poor indicator of
lithology, combined with the neutron log it becomes
excellent. In fact the neutron density log combmation
is probably the best qualitative indicator of general
lithology. The subject is described in Chapter 10 (see
‘Neutron density combination').
The den.1ity log in shales compacti棚， age and
..'" composition
’。Om一1
Although it is impossible to recognize shales solely by
Figure 9 8 Close correspondence between the bulk density iog and their density, the density and variations in density
core-measured potosity in an orthoquartzite. The buik density can become diagnostic once a shale has been identified
be conve.·ted to porosity using a matnx density of 2.68g/cm', as
indicated by thβinset histogram.
Shale compaction

The compactton of shales with burial ts a well known <

phenomenon and it can be followed on the density log

Shale compaction involves a series of textural and
density log can be used to calculate the hydrocarbon compositional changes, resultmg in a progressive m-
density. crease in density (e.g. Burst, 1969). For example
When oil is pre甜 nt the porosity given by the density shallow, uncompacted clays have denstties around
log is essentially correct. This is because the density
tool investigates the flushed zone (see ‘Depth of
Table 9.5 Densities of common lithologies
in vestigatwn’, section 9 4) where only a small volume
of oil remains. Mo氏的ver, the density ofoil is quite close Lithoiogy Range(g/cm') Matrix (g/cm')
ot that of water (0.7 g/cm3 v. 1.0 g/cm3). G拙， however,
Clays shal閏 1.8-2 75 Varies
is more mobile and freqnently occurs in the flushed (av. 2 65 2.7)
zone where, because of the la1 ge density d叮叮ence with Sandstones 19-2.65 2.65
water, it has the effect of diminishing the bulk density Limestones 2.2 2.71 2.71
Dolomites 2.3 2.87 2.87
as described above
 但

THE DENSITY LOG 99

e SANDSTONE n。 mica
。 MICACEOUS SANDS"『ONE
30

.:;: ；：芯《：b：﹔
的們〉←aozo

20 訐之。：：
~ra;n de叫y
65 g/cm'
包山ZOO

。．
。

10
。
.
、、
國

。
。

。
。

。
。
25 20 15 10
。
5
SANDSTONE POROSITY { LOG)%

急1 2'2 2'3 24 2·5 2'6 2"

BULK DENSITY g/cm3
F;g1ue 9.9 The effect of mi品。n porosity valu" derived from the bulk density log, For the graph a matrix density of 2.65 g/cm3 ~as us吋（givmg
the diagonal hne). For the micaceous sends, core-measured P'rositi9' are consistently higher than those gi、 en by the log, because the grain
density is too low at 2.65 g/cm'. Mica has dens山間 up to 3.10g/cm3. (Redrawn from Hods 。n, 1975)

2.0 g/cm3, while at depth, this figure commonly rises to
2.6g/cm3
Changes due to compaction are gradual and, when
seen in one well, occur over a considerable thickness
of sediment (Figure 9.11) To see clay compaction
chan皂的， unless the shale series is very homogeneous,
average shale values should be read off the density log
and re-plotted at a small vertical scale (say I :5000).
This method allows clay compaction to be examined
even in shale sand or shale-lime sequences.
Shale age
Although it is by no means diagnost時， shale density is
often md1cative ofage. In general, older shales are more
dense Palaeozoic clays are rare, as are Tertiary shales
The mcrease in shale density during compaction,
although essentially due to a decrease in porosity
(Figure 9.12), is accompanied by irr℃開rsible diagenetic
changes (Shaw, 1980). Compaction tre.nds therefore
become 'foss11tzed'. This means that in the subsurface,
a change in compaction trends will indicate a change in
age, Ill other words an unconformity (Figure 9.13)
Beyond this, if general compaction curves for a region
can be established, the maximum depth of burial of a
formation can be estimated The methodology is
similar to that described using the sonic log (see
℃ompaction', Chapter 8) However, for compaction
studies the density log must be used carefully It is very
responsive to local htholog1cal variations and a usable
average is often hard to obtain
S﹜祖 le composition
Shale density changes due to compaction are gradual,
while small-order, local vanations are more likely due
to changes in shale composition For example, an
increase in carbonate content ts generally a囚om­
pamed by an mcrease in shale density. The increase in
density is even more marked when iron carbonate
(siderite) is involved (density when pure, 3.89 g/cm 3).
When organic matter is present, the reverse occurs and
the density diminishes, organic matter havmg a very
low density (around 1.2 gJ.cm3 ; Figure 9.14). This re且
lallonshtp may be quantified (see ‘Source rock eva-
luation' below).
The density log in sand.•tones composition and
diagene.•fa
Bulk density variations m sandstone generally mdicate
porosity changes However, as explained above, tlus is
 。

l
Aυ
仇U
THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WEI L LOGS

（
EVZ
BULK DENSITY AVERAGE

制
aoa
〉。。」z

,, ,., 22
g/cTIO
2·3 ,., SHALE
DENSITIES
"
。

LOG DERIVED
←』」

SANDSTONE POROS 』TV

35/. 30'/. 25'l. 20·~ 151·
。 ;oo 2•10 g/cm3

600

GAS
J
戶

25m 700
ka－
u－．h．

2·22 g/cm3
800
－
a）－．
，．一…

900
50m

WATER 1000 2· 22 g/cm3

@

75m ’，。。

12個 2·25 g/cm3

Figure 9.10 The effect of gas on the density log. In this example the
gas zone reads about 35% pornslty: it should read 27% I叩rosity.
1300

”。。 2·40 g/cm3

eo

<

"'
＂一

2。一
- 一
一
1500

1600m
2·50 g/cm3

'"
盟，5
& 一
一一
Figure 9.11 Shale compaction with depth shown on a compresrnd
vertical sea峙， bulk density log.

10 一 一一
一一一
ll 5一 一
.Ip,
not true when there are changes m grain density. Pure
quartz sands are considered to have a grain density of
2.65 g/cm3, but in reality such sands are rare. Overall
。 ' - ＇「 J I I I I I I I gt ain density wtll change depending on the non-quartz
Terti~ry Cr1>taceous Jura•s1c Tri P卸的 Pe1m Miss De前例。” Sill or~ 的 C Camhr間，
constitnents. Sands are commonly mixed with feld-
。 ＇°。 ,00 300 400 sec 6叩
spars (density 2.52-2.的 g/cm3), micas (2.65
Age Ma 3.1 g/cm3) lignite fragments (0.5 1.8 g/cm3) and rock
Figure 9.12 Porosity d叫：ne, as a function of age ofclaystone, shale, fragments (variable density) see Figure 7.14. Heavy
slate. (Modified from Burst, 1969, and Manger, 1963) mmerals may also be a constituent (2 7-5.0 g/cm3). The
 •
l AUI
THE DENSITY LOG

llili

Dm卸
Et3

訕訕32
K2Mmm v

，』
RHHU TE$
- T.0.C.
的訕。

11nslty
dq

2
21 2·5 2·6 2·7
。 咖

--
〉w〈
h戶包山F

SHALE 4間

i
」凶』
MRJ

翩翩
的
ohwhw
100
h恤JOA

－Fz“
E
aEa
UNCONFORMIT'll

苟
。
'" " " T,0,C%
。－。

Bulk
2•7 2•6 25 24 2 。＂ ＇刊登。 1-!l Den~ity
NO的ωEMU4

HIGH LOW g"m戶

200
卜＼ Hgure 9.14 The effect of organic matter on shale bulk density
value.•. When organic matter content is hi阱， shale density is
〈﹔ 3眩目
considerably lowered (note density s 口 ale is reversd from log.)
〈M

(
山L

T.0.C. ~Total organ也 carbon.

ji I ~s well known rntca sands of the North Sea Jurassic

問servoirs (cs already discussed) con阻in up to 30%
-- ·300m
muscovite (Figure 9.9). The density of muscovite (2. 76
JL mgure 9.13 Smoothed bulk density log values showing an abrupt, 3.10 g/cm3) increases the average gram density from
gro8' de1rnity change aero" a ma1or unconformity. 2.65 g/cm3 to c. 2. 日2 g/cm3 and it V缸1閻明th the mica
content(Figure 9.15). In samfa without shale, therefore,

[戶戶s~！v 1「亡
grain denstty can give some idea of sand composition
Changes in grain denstty in sands are generally
gradual and of a moderate order Abrupt changes,
。 especially in otherwise homogeneous beds, often in-
dicate diagenetic or secondary changes. The example
shows a sand with a zone of s四ondary carbonate
SAND
cement (Figure 9.16). In cores these zones are shown to
have very abrupt limi扭. A stmtlar phenomenon may
also occur with secondary pyrite cement
10
仁故f
包~~~mica）冒
SAND
Mineral identification

Density becomes a criterion for hthological identift-

cation when it is either abnormally high or abnormally
w岫川札間岫

hm－
叫

抖憑j
R
Ell

BULK DENS』TV
o。晶晶」．．．．，

山︱

20 ,., ,., 2·3"""'2·4 ,.,

－
t

1lVIl

且 間

MIC~C叫到
仆人－V－

這：1
bit
－－

E－－

l.J''••
lll

叫－
Varu

JJλλA 八叫凡斗
JU

j
－－X
八，一

﹔。

岫
l1仆仆門
－－uv
巴 er
G，

：﹔：﹔研
U
－…
－－E
e
佇
－ue…E

恥叩開
由削間du
u立

叩開M糊

30m
向

l甜：1凹 ！P
Tkh
－戶

J」叫叫
s
－

L1J

』 Wm
咽地
ihm

l浦j :
1
．…

．．

....
UOV4n
v－

+--
H…
va

I
． －

ppro,lme<e """ doMlty of Mo-mkeo叫

．吋叫

’' m
""'" '" 2•%>
Fig11re 9 IS The effect of muscovite (grain density 2.76 3.l gf<α ＇＇）
-- -
j
」 QU 吼叫
－

。n the bulk density log in mieaeeous sanrls. The increase 111 density
一地問

n ab
抖

16S me n ca
問h

EP
Fl

9l
間
叫個

紋。

21
uk

below 15 m is due to the 剛開 content. The percentage of mi叫 9b

個

indicated is based on thin咱自hon analysis of core n1叫erial

 。

102 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

CALIPER
;ns BULK DENSITY g1cm'
7 8 9 10 2•1 2·2 2·3 2-4 25 2·6 27 28 29 3·0
。

Sm low peak_
2 02 gJcmo

h;gh peak
2.9 g/cn、3
10m •

15m
Figure 9.17 The identification of coal, with low deuity and pyri 侃， with high densi旬， on the bulk density loιLithology from corc analysi•

low (the average for sedimentary rocks in oil wells

Table 9.6 Diagnostic mineral and lithologi』
being abont 2.5 g/cm 3). Coals, for example, are idcn『 cal densities (from Serra, 1972, 1979,
tilted by very low densities, between 1.2 g/cm3 and Gearhart, 1983; Dresser Atlas, 1983).
1.8 g/cm3, and pyrite, conversely, by very high den- (g/cm')
siti間， between 4 8 g/cm3 and 5.17 g/cm3. The extreme Low Lignite 。.50 1.50
Coal 1.15 一1.70
m%Lrk〈

Anthracite 1.32 1.80

印

Organic shale 1.80 2.40

M閃

BULK DENSITY
g/cm3 High Pyrite 4.80 5.17
EEC

。斗、
一，～三－冒L－、－』已－

Siderite 3.0 3.89

t

2.5 2.9140
Basalt 2.70 3.20
。 Genis.s 2.60-3.04
1
J 『」
，

、
c定

SHALE
－‘一－

values for these minerals may not be reached under

ztJL
3

natural conditions, but abnormally high and abnor『

25m mally low peaks are still easily visible (Figure 9.1η.The
、、J－ 、JKJ、J

more common extreme and diagnostic densities are

shown below (Table 9.6).
+++
•++
+•+
E個portte E已lentification
·• + +
FKyt

+++
+++
+++ Chemical deposi徊， because of their punty, may at least
+++
+++
50m
+++
be suspected if not positively identified by their den >

+++
sities (Table 9. 7). Care must be taken, as evapori阻s
－－

SALT I ＋＋＋＋吋＋
+ + + may be impure and dens1t1es will be altered. However,
J

+++
〈

+++
most evaporites tend to gtve mtervals of cnnstant
3t

•++
+•+
.,., + den叫 wjth very little variation. When this occurs,
dj1
－

斗＋＋
+++
+++
along with densities near the pure mineral values,
+++
+ + + evaporites are probable (Figure 9.18）。
+++ 75m
一
！
J

+++
＋＋卜
－

嘿扭頭頭 Overpres，叫 re identificatron

Figme 9 18 Bulk denSJ!y log ow a salt shale series. The density log The general increase in shale density with depth of
over the evaporite intervals tends to grve constant valnes. The
neutron log ae<ists in the idenlific活ttion of the evaporite intervals. burial was described under the heading of compaction.
(</>N salt~ - 3). The prmc1pal cause for thts gradual mcrease 1s a
 '
THE DENSITY LOG 103

Table 9.7 Evaporite dens1ti" (typic"I va』 Table 9.8 Some shale porcsity values (l,3,4, frcm ref. 2).
lu聞 as s田n by the density tool)
Approximate shale p叫 osity
Evaporit°' Dens此y (g/cm')
Area 5~0 111 1000 m znoo m 5000 m
Salt 2.04
Anhydrite 2.98 1. Gulf Coast 4仿~ 28% 22% 13%
Gypsum 2.35
Carnatlite 1 57 2 Nagaoka
Sylvite 1.86 Plain 4仿~ 29% 17%
Polyhalite 2.79 la叫pan

3. Vencrncla 30% 24% 12%

4. Oklahoma 23% 13% 4% (0)
diminution in shale porosity with increasing over-
burden. Mudstone porosities may be 拙 high as 50% 1. Dickinson (1953)
near the snrface, diminishing rapidly to below 20% 2 Magara (1968)
3. Hedberg (1963)
from about 600 m downwards (Fignre 9.19) (Magara, 4. Athy (193的．
1978). The actual figures and gradients vary from one
region to another (Table 9.8), although the normal
trend of a progressive porostty loss is universal
However, porosity may increase with depth and they inevitably become overpressured: they begin to
when it occurs there is overpressure The general support some of the overbnrden pressure (see
decrease m shale porostty is accompanted by an Chapter 2). This has the effect of preserving porosity. It
expulsion of both pore-water and interstitial watet is this preservation wluch causes a break m the
(Burst, 1969). The fluids are gradually squeezed out compaction trend which is registered by the density
durmg bunal. If the flmds cannot escape, once trapped log The density break therefore identifies zones of
abnormal pressure (e.g. Fertl, 1980) (Figure 9.20).
。
…
G•叫
Fracture recognition
Ha1zlllne
formation Numerous methods have been proposed for the identi-
fication of fr也tures (Schaf，血， 1980). One of these
500
involves the comparision of density-log porosity with
sonic log porosity. The density tool recor s bulk
density, and as such will include both intergranular
Nishiyama porosity and fractnre porosity. For the sonic measure-
Formation
1000 ment, however, the sound waves will take the quickest
path from emitter to receiver. This path should avoid
the fractures The somc velocity will therefore give only
intergranular porosity. When the density” derived po-
rosity is much less than the sonic porosity, the dt叮叮－
~ 1500 ence is due to the fracture porosity (Schafer, 1980).
In practical terms, the two logs should be nonna自
lized to permit this companson. This may be done with
Shilya
Fo『mat1on the logs themselves (Figure 9.21) or by cross-plotting
200C core 『verified values to define 'fracture fields'.
The method ts by no means everywhern simple and
successful. Cross-plottmg log density against log ve
locity on core-verified values for the Grove Formation,
Te radα酬
Kansas, showed dtstinct fields for fractmed and non-
2500 卜口『 mat1on
fractured formation (Etny間， 1981). However, the fields
Nanalam showed exactly the reverse relationship to the one
Form<1tion expe心ted: for a gtven velocity,fractured zones showed a
Shiunjl high density, and for non-fractured zones, a low dens tty
τu“ (Figure 9.22). The problem seemed to be one of li-
3COO
0 10 20 30 40 5fl 130 70
thology, with the fractured zones occurring over a
MUDSTONE POROSITY %
particular hthology. The cross-plot may be showing
Flgu,.. 9 19 Diminution of mudstone porosity with depth. Nengene, lttholog1cal differences 1ather than the piesence of
Japan. (Redrawn from Magara, 1968) fractures
 。

104 THE GEOJ 且G!CAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

100
SONIC BULK DENSITY
µ/ft g/cm3 。 個一。。
。 。。白。屯。
150 100 25 制 90
2。 。、。。。O
NORMAL
.-
、、
且
80
持 ~←苦＼。。
槍” 一泌＼
”。
。
,::...是“
PRESSURE υ

“特
F 。
<J) \t 鴨

楚”。”
=> 70
””、
2200m 。
已J
HIGH
<( ’‘神，‘
PRESSURE 60 句廢

50
2-8 2-7 26
月·5 " 2·4 2·3
2300m DENSITY' 9 /cm0
Figure 9.20 Overpressure shown by a diminution of bulk density. II 瓣， FRACTURED ZONE
is paralleled by a diminution in sonic velocity. (Rcdrnwn from
Gilreath, 1966.) O; NON-FRACTURED
Figure 9.22 Fracture ident1日cation by croS'-plot, in the Grove
Formatio泣， Kansas. Fractured zones show higher than normal
Source rock 四aluation densities for corre.•ponding sonic 可 docities: this is the cxaxt 1wrnc
of the usual case (compare Figure 9.21).
The presence of orgarnc matter in shales lowers their
density. The normal average matrix density of a
mixture of clay minerals is about 2.7 g/cm3 (Table 9.9), this, the relationship between density and organic
while organic matter has densities between 0. 70 g/cm3 matter percentage should be normalized The density
1.80 g/cm3 (Table 9.6). The presence of organic matter log gives a volume percentage whereas the geochemical
therefore has a marked effect on shale bulk density laboratory measurement is usually quoted as a weight
(Figure 9.14). percentage The two, however, are simply related
The organic-matter effect on the density log can be Normalization of the density log reqmres a calibration
quantified (Tixier and Alger, 1967) and the log used to with laboratory-derived measurements, there bemg no
derive the amount of organic matter in a shale. To do universal relationship (Figure 9.2月 However, once the
calibration is made, the density log can be used, in
some cases, over qmte large areas for the same
stratigraphic interval to give good continuous es-
2·37 2·56 2·71
timates of the percentage of organic matter (Schmok凹，
1979).
More universally-applicable results seem to be
obtained when the bulk density values are qualified by
era田－plotting with other log values. The bulk density
cross-plotted with normalized resistivity values is an
effective discriminator and can be used to identify the
6350'
source potential in a variety of formal!ons (Meyer and
Perforated
zone
IFRACTURES Nederlof, 1984). The method is discussed in Chapter 6
under ‘ Resistivity logs,,‘Source-rock identification'
AUSTlN
CHALK
j The density log can be used to identify organic-rich
6400"
shales but it can also be used at the othe1 end of the
·bulk density
Table 9.9 Clay and clay mineral dens1lie' (from Fertl,
6450' 1977; Johnson and Linke, 1978, Patchett and Coalson,
1982)
Species Density (g/cm')

6500' Semectile 2日日 3.00

Kaolinite 2 40 2.69
Chlorite 2.60 3.22
Con Vest Energy Corp N01. John B. Lupe 11iite＇可此1uscovite 2.76-3.10
Figure 9 21 IdentifiαHion of fractures in the Austin Chalk, Texas by Bio lite 2.65 3.10
plotting the bulk density and sonic logs on a compatible porosity
scale. The fractu 間d zon閏 give a lo ＂峙， density and higher pornsity Average shale matrix 2.65 2.70
th叫 the sonic. (Modified frnm Schafer, 1980.)
 '
THE DENSITY LOG 105

/
/. ~
~
/.

、
•-
:c
~ 16-0 • / -
~
、’， 40
~
~ 12'0 • ：主f毛＼
．．凡...
;.
哥叫

~ ~
../ . /.
/.
ν亂”
“”
凶

gs
~
.'.. 6·0 • ;'
υ
。
5000 6000
~ ~ 70Cl0
/

/ HR. DENSITY, CPS

草草 4·0 ← /
/ Figure 9 24 Quantitative use of bulk density values (high-rcrnlution
~ ~
/
/ density CPS) to give shale c"ntent of coal 但也 content). The core--
deri>ed ash content correlates excell<ntly with the log derived
司

。O。·O
~一一 4·0 60 120 160 2"0 values. South African coal field (from Lavern and Smits, 1972).
FROM CORE ANALYSIS
TOC ﹛ w• 站） OEτERMINED

p=LOG DERIVED BULK DENSITY

TDC= TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON
Figure 9.23 Comparison of the organic content derived from the
density logs and from core analysis, Bakken Formation, Williston
Basin Dashed linc shows ideal agreement. (Redrawn from Schmoker
and Hester, 1983.)
spectrum to estimate the shale content of coals. Ash is
the material left after the complete calcination of a coal.
The percentage ·of ash in a coal is one indication of its
economic value. Coals with a high ash value are denser
than those with little ash and the relationship is
exponential (Lavers and Smits, 1977). The bnlk
density, once caltbrated, can be directly converted into
ash percentage (Figu自 9.24). The results are suf-
ficiently good to obviate cori11g (Lavers and Smits,
1977).
 。

10 The neutron log

10.l General泌的 contam abundant hydrngen nuclei, which in the

The log
The neutrnn log provides a continuous reco1 d of a
formation’s reaction to fast neutron bombardment It
ts quoted in terms of neutron porosity units, which are
related to a formation's hydrogen index, an indication
of its richness in hydrogen.
Formations absorb neutrons rapidly when they
geological context are supplied by water (H20）。 The
log ts therefore principally a measure of a formation's
water content, be it bound water, water of crystalli-
zation or fr間 pore-water The richness in hydrogen, or
quantity per unit volume, indicated by the hydrngen
index, is converted directly to neutron porosity units
N叩tron porns1ty IS real porosity in clean limestones,
but other lithologies require conversion factors. Since
it is calibrated to limestones, the log 1s sometimes called
the Limestone Curve (Figure 10.1 ).

mMe
叫 lF剖→一州位叫叫州叫一一吵
um」一～－叫計划＝「
立 ι
Nn8
Ee
uus

叭。→「
UM4

%但
吼叫。←是血管
且，

S
封品﹛（－

﹞一－ qHHqM

一一
斗也州州仙一
-
1

－
a
」

4
－－ ll
A

SHALE
li
！－

－M 「－ 「一叫一〕
－－

lJ11
QUARTZITE φo
AF
仇MV
4

!I SANDSTONEφ10%
m
」%個州

φo
LIMES 『 ONE
小
’～＝＝ AV
恥N

φ10%

φo
DOLOMITE
J

φ10%
一－－
－－
－－－

SHALE
一一－

se
c
ll」
1
－

shales very variable

＼＼＼ φN = 75日 25%
SHALE \
\
\
\
\
compact \

COAL C二一「 、
SALT φN= -3 % I
SILL (IGNEOUS)
」

「
SHALE

Figure 10.J The ne11tron log: some typical respornes Thc ne叫ron log shows hyd1·c11e11 index which is converted to neutwn porosity units.
'Porosity with fresh water and the Schl11mberger CNL tool (cf. Fig11re 91 which is on a compa1ible sc況le of porosity)
 '
THE NEUTRON LOG 107

Table 10 1 The principal uses of the neutron log.

Discipline . Used for Knowing

Quantitative Petrophys1c.• Porosity Matrix

Hydrogen index

Qualitati時 Petrophysi" Idenli日ication Lithology

of g'S

Geology Lithology shales Gro阻 lithology

Evaporites Neutron
evaponte
values

Hydrated
minerals

Volcanic and Calibration

llltrusive
rocks

General Combined
lithology with density'

'Using neutron log combined w拾起 density log on compatible scales.

Principal 1的es log on compatible seal剖， it is one of the best subsurface

lithology indicators available (Table 10.1).
Quantitatively, the neutron log is used to measure
porosity. Qualitatively, it is an excellent discriminator
between gcs and oil It can be used geologically to 10.2 Principles of measurement
identify gross lithology, evaporites, hydrated minerals
and volcanic rocks. When combmed with the density Neutrons are sut、atomic particles which have no
electrical charge but whose mass is essentially equiva且
energy types lent to that of a hydrogen nucleus. On travelling
'"''gy(eV
"'"''
}
through matter they lose their energy in colhs10ns with
particles of the same m阻s. that is with hydrogen nuclei
N巨 UTR。N

EMISSION

23
: 〈。lh• 「 toe I)

-
c。 LLISIONS
EEE
ANO
SLOWING -a
間叩

THERMAL
叫 FFUS’。N
ANO
CAPTURE+
γ＇－RAY 巨 MISSION ·.: -'·

Detectors for
囚。pllhocmel "'!'°°' <oth11r t。。 I)
閏 t抽rmal neutrons
囝 γ 問yo

Figure 10.2 Schematic dmgram of a neutron life, showing the energy

degradation after emi5'ion and the neutron tool detector levels. Figure 10 3 A compens叫ted neutron tool schematic Tl e source
(From s叮悶， 1979; Tittle, 1961; Owen, 1%0). and detectors are held pressed against the borehole 附II
 。

108 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 、>.TELL LOGS

Table 10.2 Ne>tron logging tools

Detection Company Tool name Symbol
Epitheo·mal Schlmnb叮ger Sidewall Neutron Pm·,,ity SNP
neutrons Dre"" At a< Side~all Ep.thermal Neut•·on N EN
Thermal Schlumbe<geo· Ccmpensa!erl Neutron Tool CNL
neutron> Dre回 er Atlas Compensated Neutron CN
Gamma rays Schlumbecgeo· Gamma Neutron Tool GNT
of capt<• e Dre'8叮 Atlas Neutr n-Gamma Tool NG

γcay' o1 ooptcce 100

thermal neutrons 80

op;•hecmal "'"''°"
’。。－ 0 025aV
60

m」
fast neutrons w戶z－
3 〉佐〈E←－凶也〈山的zoaωUM
4
0200864

S叫『阻 4MeV
4

distance
=50 cm

Figure 10 4 Spatial distribution of neutrons and disintegrntion

prodccts around a fast neutron soum as used in logging tools.
(Modified from Serra, 1979.) ,
」K。。← z。但」3

Collisions with all other heavier or lighter nuclei do not

result in sigrn日cant ene1 gy loss.
戶凶Z

The fast neutrons used in logging have an mi ti al

energy of between 4-6 MeV and an initial velocity of at
least 10000km/s (Figure 10.2). They have consider-
able penetration capabilities but after a few micro-
seconds （阱， 0.000001 second) and succe晶ive collisions
2
(100 or so) the original fast neutrons with 4 6 MeV of
energy descend to the thermic energy level of around
0.025 eV (Figure 10.2). To reduce a neutron from 2
Me V to 0.025 e V requires 18 collisions with hydrogen
nuclei, but 257 with silicon and 368 with calcium nuclei ' 。 20 30 40
(Serra, 1979). At the thermic energy level neutrons, now
'° p。ROSITY %

termed thermal neu甘ons, no longer lose energy by
collision but diffuse randomly, mamtaming constant
energy. In a vacuum, a the1 mal neutron will diffuse
randomly for 13 minutes, but in earth materials its
lifettme vanes: 5 µs in rock salt, 450 µs in a limestone
without porosity and 900 µsin quartzite (Serra, 1979).
The period of diffusion of the thermal neutrons
comes to an end with capture by the nuclei of the
fo1mation. The rapidity of this captme is mainly
controlled by the nature of the nuclei. Chlorine and
boron for example are very efficient 刮目pture (i e have
an efficient cross-section of capture). On absot bing a
neutron, the capturing nucleus becomes highly excited
and emits gamma h叫1atio日 This is the so-called n, y
radiatton capture reaction (Figm℃ 10.2).
Figure 10.5 Graph showing the consistent relationship between
neutron tool r°'ponse and total limestone P""O>ity Devcnian.
Cro8'ett Limestone, Texas. (Redrawn from Archie, 1950.)
The distance which a nentron can travel during the
whole process of collisions, diffnston and eventual
capture depends mainly on the abundance of hydrogen
nuclei in the medmm When hydrogen ts abundant, the
distance• travelled is short: when there is less, the
distance is relatively larger It is this principle that is
used in the loggmg tools.
10.3 Tools
The neutron tool consists of a fast neutron somce and
two detectors (Figure 10.3). The source bombards the
 '
THE NEUTRON 凶G 109

THE NEUTRON CALIBRATI。N FAαLITY formation with fast neutrons, and the detectors register
3/8" steel deck plate the degradat10n m energy of the neutrons as they pass
through the formation.
The sources used, such as plutonium beryllium
(PuBe）。r americium beryllium (AmBe), produce fast
neutrons (energy 4 6 MeV). The detectors vary with
tool type, depending on the type of neutrons detected.
concrete
(Ce•lh•go m"b’。〉 The logging tool may be imagined as surronnded by a
- llm•'1ooo (1 9% po<o.lty }
In blocks mist of neutrons centred on the source The heart of the
‘ mist contains fast neutrons, the borders contain slow
、r Indiana limestone or thermal neutrons and the outside fringe contains
(19% po<o.lty)
ln blocks gamma radiations (Figure 10 4). Tools exist with de-
Austin limestone tectors for each of these zone早， although the more
<26% p。＇°＂＂＇﹜ modern tools have thermal neutron detectors
ln blocks
(Table 10.2). Both source and detectors ride on the side
of the borehole wall during logging (Figure 10.3).

Units of measurement and log form叫

INDIVIOUAL LIMESTONE BL。CK

Most neutron logs are now plotted on a standardized
arithmetic scale of neutron (or lim田tone) porosity
uni個 Previously, each logging company used different
units for its own neutron tool, but it was shown (Archie,
1950) that there is a consistent relat10nship betwe叫l
neutron』tool values and porosity in clean limestones
(Figure 10.5). This value repr田間臼 real porosity only
under standard conditions m clean limestones, but to
find the real porosity in other lithologies, the neutron-
Figu" 10.6 The AP! nuclear log calibration facility at the log value 品n be converted by usmg tables or empirical
University of Houston, Texas, USA. (From Belknap et al., 1959.)
‘
calibrations (see Quantitative us間， below).
An API standard umt does exist for neutron tools

neutron ph 』（φ） rho bulk

gamma ray { i e. neutron porosity) (i.e. bulk density)
bit size API units scale 1 ~iv. 3 units) scale 1 div. 0.05 g/cm3
cable tension
\ 1一一：.，，－
_IsN.§οO
」
J
一
_υJ耳E阻』斗
到叫
叩惜肌
ι

caliper
~
I - ,;RI
-0.250
。’。
0.2500
{ A } delta rho
(i.e. density
correction s }
~ （日／ C3)

~~9~o －－－－－－－ ~l!L﹛－一一﹜【~－：；~古CM~）一一一

} -20.1~：，
苟

o.o 10(•. 0 0 .4500

」 」

, >
, ?’ ～、

> Lτ －」’－~ 'I; 且一

三＝，
可斗－ neutron
」－ 」

司 back-up
_;:,,, 』
弋哥
，~

F三
k三 字誼，
：支吾
」 」

－·＇一
」
~ 、－ 三軍
電仁
• 」
' tension log
about 2200 lbs)
ir -==
\.
土，

It ＇~
b
1750
<
~
"'
- τp
<

. 缸一
density correction
about 0.05 g/cm3)
「三 ’c~ 主計
'
:;o

-
>

H~ !
」〈口

ffi
NEUTRON POROSITY DENSITY LOG
LOG (reading about
(reading about 2.37 g/cm3)
40 units)
Figmc 10 7 Typical log heading for a neutron-deosity tool combination This heading is of tl1e new type pro diced by the Schlumbe•·ger CSU
uni(. The neutron and density log scale' are compatible for a clean Jim目tone 拉N’。%~270g/cm'.
 。

J 10 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

100 Table I 0 3 Depth of imcstigat』on of the neutrcn

ooo
864
tc ,Js as a function of porosity (from Serra, 1979,
/ after Schlumberger)
可E 四面前

一一－－ near detector

/!/ 一－ far d。 teotor Porosity 90% of signal
- •PP',eo1 '''°'11y
%
HOHog

/I I 60cm
。10

~
可 20 34cm
10 34cm
8 pooh•• 2n 2Jcm
。 15 20 25 30 35 40 cm 30 16.Scm
distance from b 。 rehole wall
Figure 10,8 The moderate depth of in V•自 tigation of the neutron ton I
illustrated by expecimentally-dedvcd J-factorcurves. The" are for a
也ermal type, two detector neutrnn ton! and a 35% porosity water咱
自lled 8"0d. (From Sherman and Lncke, 1975.) ’Table 10.4 Unwanted environmentaI effect1 neutron log
Factor Effect on log 'Severity
and is defined, as it is for the other nuclear tools, in the Hole rugosity and Increase (normally) in
test pit in the g.rounds of the University of Houston, caving 拉 neutron to read mud Present
Texas. This prt contains a 6-ft zone of Indiana Mud salinity Automatkelly corrected Rare
limestone with a porosity of 19% and it ts fresh-water most effect on thermal
wet (Figure 10.6). One neutron API unit is 1/1000 of neutron detectors
the difference between the instrument zero with no Temperature and Automatically ccmected in Rare
radiation and the log deflection opposite the limestone. presrnre each individual run
Three other zones are included in the pit, one of pure
•When the effect mak血 the log reading unusable已 Ratings: frequent,
water, one of Austin Chalk (porosity 26%) and one of cnmmon, pfesent, rare.
Carthage Marble (porosity 1.9%) (Belknap et al., 1959).
These standards enable neutron tools to be calibrated
and the neutron」og readmgs standardized
True formation values may be obtamed on the log in
The neutron log is generally plott叫 across tracks
beds down to about 60cm (24in) with the SNP or
2 and 3 (Figure 10. 乃 The most common scale is
40cm (15in) with the CNL. However, with average
from 45 (to the left) to 一 15 porosity units.
logging speeds it is best to consider the minimum
The tool is generally combined with the density,
resolution to be 1 metre (3ft) The neutron log has a
gamma ray and caliper tools, i.e. the FDC-CNL or
slightly lower resolution than the density log but is still
LDL-CNL of Schlumberger or the CN用Compensated
a good bed boundary indicator.
Density tool of Dte'8er-Atlas. When the combination
is run, the neutron and density-log scales are made
Unwanted logging effects
compatible for a clean hmestone (see section 10 7
‘Neutron density combination'). On this format the The common unwanted environmental effects which
density log is a solid line, the neutron log a dashed line
influence the neutron log are shown in Table 10 4.
(Figure 10.7).
None is unduly annoying.
10.4 Log characteristics
10.5 Quanti阻tive us的

Depth of investigation
Porosity
The depth of investigation of the neutron tool is
The neutron log is used to calculate porosity. The tool,
generally small In most normal logging it is of the
as mdicated above, measures hydrogen abundance or
order of 15-25 cm (Figure 10.8). It varies with each tool
hydrogen mdex In clean, water-bearmg formations,
but also vanes as a function of the hydrogen index and
the only hydrogen pre,ent is in the formation water
therefore porosity Maximum investigatwn is in low-
(H20). The neutron tool therefore responds to the
porosity materials (Table 10.3）。 As the table shows, the
volume of water-filled pore space, and gives a me阻ure
maximum penetration in a tight formatwn with a low
of the porosity (Figure 10.9). Exp扭曲ed mathemati <

hydrogen index is only between 50 60 cm.

cally,
Bed resolution log1 。中＝ αN 十 B

The relatively shallow depth of investigation of the whereφis the true porosity, a, Bare constants, and N is
neutron tool rn accompanied by good bed resolution. the neutron tool reading.
>
 lIl
THE NEL TRON LOG

PURE WATER POINT %

/ 40
ωmzoaω』
《XO旬C 】 COmOw

'"
：這 30
ω戶。

E
OHC 。EWH

•
』 h£v

0
恥

心
、3
‘一 20
＠巳

。
2

so ~

’。。
4伊

pocoelty % 拉

但他ao, ""hW叫 wflllod focmatioo) 。

垃 10
"
@
屯

F•gure 10.9 Graph of the ideal 1elationship between hydrogen =

』

index, as m間'ltred by the neutron tool, and porosity. Compare

Figurn 10.5.
However, calibration is necessary for the above
calculatwn，抽 matnx matenals have differing effects
on the neutron log. A water-filled sandstone with 20%
porosity gives a different neutron」og reading to water
filled limestone with 20% porosity (Figure 10.10).
Alternatively, if very accurate results are required, for
example in a field study, the neutron log porosities c阻
be compared to measured core porosities
(Pigure 10 11). The empirical calibration allows zones
not cored to be 品curately and confidently mterpreted
This latte1 method is especially useful m limestones and
dolomites.
。
。 ’。 20 30 40%
oo"1rno pocoalty to 。I "'"" (CNL }
Figu<e 10 10 Graph for deriviug the true porosity from a
Schlumbergeo· CNL tool values for defined 阻ndstone, lime<tone and
dolomite matric目 Note that only the limestone matrix gives a 1/1
relationship. Example: tool neutron porosity~ 30%, true porosity
for sandstone matrix~ 34%. From Schlumbergeo·, 1972.)
Hydrocarbon e刀ects on neutron porosity
The rules governing the relatwnship between neutron-
log porosity and the true porosity in clean formations
are vahd when either wa阻r or oil fill the por間（the two
flnids have essentially the same hydrogen index).
However, gas having a very low dens1句， has a very low

到J.00

、8.00

18.00

14.00

＂＇口個

£
1l
~ 10.曲

8 8叫

6.00

心.001

,.00

.. .00 4.00 S間 1200 16.00 叩開 '4,00 28.00 扭曲 J6.00

COMPENSATED NEUTRON i』MESTONE p。ROSITV %

Figu間 10 11 Compensated neutron log valu°' plotted against core porosity values (points wilh grain densitie< between 2.84 2.88g/cm'). 18,
W自t Pembi叫
 11lI
'

112 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 忘＞／ELL LOGS

2.0 2.9

45 一 15

什 HH
-;;,
可b

10
<_' GAS EFFECT
Jγ’ (large negative

內
(

MHHU
)
E ..,:"
, separation }
":;-20
~
' ＜－弋二，
<
巴，
電3 ’，包
、
_,~
~
30 <
r 主〉

也－、一
40 --·
日 30

~
是R

－~
ω
20
。
』

。
已
。

tt
』

。 10
。

。 30
。
10 20
叫 UU1U 叫 1ldJill

porosity units %
neutr 。n
(CNL Schlumberger }

Figure I0.12 Logs (A) and cro'8-plot (B) showing the effect of gas on the neutron (and density) logs The neutrnn values from A a間 used in the
cro8'-plot Bη1e neutron shows too low a porosity in gas zones.
刊刊 lH 山川li川川川

hydrogen index compared to water. The presence of Slight admixtur s of shale wtth reservoir matrix
TffphrLHU

gas makes the neutron log give too low a porosity
(Figure 10.12). Corrections for g剖 content can be
made (Gaymard and Poupon, 1968) but the best use of
this phenomenon is qualitative. Moreover, on the
neutron-density combination (see below) g拙 stands
out very distinctly, giving a large negative separa-
tion (Figure 10.12).
Shale effects on neutron porosity
Since the neutron log is sensitive to all hyd1 ogen
nuclei, it is sensitive to both fr℃e and bound water The
former 1s formation water, the latter occurs in clays
etther within the molecule or adsorbed between clay
mineral layers (see ‘Neutron log m shales',
section 10.6).
material therefore dISrupt neutron porosity values, and
the true porosity cannot be calculated without cor-
rections. The example (Figure 10.1 月 shows that the
neutron porosity stays constant while the true porosity
vanes considerably.
A study of shaly sandstones showed that in quar但
clay mixtures the hydrogen indices of wet clay and
formation wa回r are very stm1lar (Heslop, 1974). In
other words, the neutron is incapable of separating wet
clay from water. Cross 』plotting gamma ray values (as a
clay indicator) against neutron log values illustrates
this. The gamma ray log shows diminishing clay
volume and the neutron maintains a constant value
(Figure 10.14). The neutron-derived porosity is there-
fore erroneous and the neutron cannot be used to
derive a clay volume. In shaly sandstones, therefore,
the neutron porosity value 1s best not used
 '
THE NEUTRON LOG 113

10.6 Qualitative us間 sandstone poros,ty

line 一 CNL

Lithnlogy identification 30%

: .
The use of the neutron log to identify lithologies
depends on an understanding of the distribution of the
hydrogen index in natural materials
The hydrogen detected by the neutron tool occurs
in two principal chemical combmations, one between ..••• ·'‘. 20
hydrogen and carbon (the hydrocarbons), and one . . .... >
between hydrogen and oxygen (simply water).
Hydrocarbons occur as gas閱（methane, etc.), as liquids . .. ..
...
_

..r.
•
的

。
匠

(oil, bitumen, etc. ）。r as solids (coal, orgamc matter) . . ...... 。

已
Water occurs as free water (m pores), as absorbed ions ..“...
．．．．．一
山
丘
a’,..
(as in clay Interlayer zon個）， as water crystallization (as
in evaporites), or as combmed w叫er (as in igneous zone of
''
/’...
,
... •
。
10 。
rocks). shaly sands
The lithologies in which these various forms of
combined hydrogen are found have hydrogen indexes
which cover the entire scale between 1 and 0
(Table 10.5). Probably only pure wa臼r can be re-
cognized categorically by its hy.drogen index, which is
1 However, the neutron log gives an extremely sen- 40 30 20 10 % 。
sitive reflect10n of lithological charactenstics and NEUTR。N POR 。 SITY
LOG VALUES
changes, and combined with other log responses the Figure 10.13 The e『ect on shale on neutron porosity values. The
neutron log registers shale as poro,.ty (water) The true porost11es
should fall along the diagonal line (compare Figure IO 14)
OJ/1!'1114 INTlill'IAL 164 TO 9的
＂~＂’， oo••• R•y ﹒司 pi unit~
一一﹔一一一－：－－－－－－－－：一一一－－ ；－－－－－－－一：一一－一一 i 一－一一曰：一一一－ ,＿一．曰
'I 一－－一一－：－－－
I I I I I I I :; 1; IUO,·JO
I I I I I I I I
I I . I I I I I
I I I I I 3' －啥
I I : I ; :h4J~ I
; 1 : : 2 11、’。 l
I I I I 12«7S602 II
: 2 JJJ1!1765 41
I l l I 3 ：扮柏村且必 ; SHALE I I I
l一－一一一：一一－一－﹔－一－一＿，＿一，一位－ 12432J5-J~2 －周圍一一－：~－一－－－－－；一一一一－： －－一一一－ I －一一－－ 1
I I I IJ < I 2 J«I I I I I I 叫·＂＇
I I ; 122J 4 13 22 I I I I
I I I 1'3> '122 2 I I I I
II II I: """"''
23~。4022 ; 2 ; I I
: I
' 'I
I I 22J4777 .’,
1 ; :I l24'il!i2J ] ; ; : I I
I : : 2~‘63 ·~23 ﹔ i I I I
:;: 2 ‘ 2H•‘J 2 2 I : I I : :
iI一一一一－﹔一『－－－－：一－一，一－
I I ＂。<12----J 廿一一－－－
11942 I 211 －－一一－一：一一－－‘一卜一一－一－：
I I I－一一一一：－－一一－－
I 'I 。。叩
I I I l27>2 21 I I I I I •
; ;
:I .: 2 ：忌。
2~2 l日E
I
I
I
I
I
l
I
;
I
i
; I l 2 : I I I I
l
i
:
I
l
. ""
l。4
: 22 I
I
l
I ;
. SAND '
I I : 222~ I I I I ;
: : : 46" : : : I I 1 :
1 一』呵呵一＿＿ ，＿一一一一：一一一－ 3- ：：！－一一一 I －一一一一：．一－一－：－一一’” I
I l I 2'/Jll< I I I I －－一－－ II 一－一一一﹔I '" a 咀
I －一－－：－
I I I 62• I I I I I I I
: I 2 I 2 2222 I I I : : : :
I i ; 2 I I i I i I I I
I : I 2--+ ' '

：－一一一－：一 - ﹔一一一一：一一一－－－ 1 －一一一－ 1 －－－－－－：一一一，一：－ -- －：咀叮叮 叮一－ .:-- 一一 i zυ· ＂＂

i ;! !”: i

：一－一－－：－－－一一一
-10.00 .oo i 一－－－－－－20.0。
hl.00 1 －一一一一，＿一一一一，＿一一』﹜
Jo.oo '40.0Q I －『一一oo.oo
~a oo
, －一一一－ aoI 一一一’，
i 』一一一＿＿10.00 oo
1
此 .oc
.oo
”eutr。n - llMeston•ρ。 rosi ty u門＇＂

Figu間 10.14 Neutron log values cro8'-plotted with gamma ray V"lue.• in a shaly sand formation. The neutron log shows the same porosity in
shaly sands, with gamma ray values between about 50 70 AP!, as in the cl聞 I S似ids, with gamma ray values below about 50 AP! This is not the
case; they a間 lower in the shaly sands (compare Figu阻 10.13), (From H回lop, 1974.)
 。

114 THn GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Table 10.5 Neutron log valuc.s or some common lithologies (from Table 10.6 Combined wal叮 m clays
Serra, 1979; Edmundson and Raymcc, 1979).
Clay type % water' Hydrogen Neutron
Lim<' lone Hydrogen (av.) index+ porosity value
porcsity units index' (CNL)
CNL
Illite 8 0.09 30
Water, fresh I00 LOO
Water, salt 60+ 0.90 Kaolinite 13 0 37 37
Quartι2
Sandstone» - 2 to 25 Chlorite 14 0 32 52
Calcite 一1
Lime> tone昕一 l to 30 Smectile 18 22 0.17 44
Dolomite 1
Dolomites' 1 to 30 叫Veaver et al. (1973 ）十 Se<ra (1979).
Shales 25 to 75 0.09 to 0.37
Coal, lignite 52 0.66
Coa' anthracite 38 0.40
Methane (20 to 50) 0.49 with a neutron porosity value of 50% does not have a
real porosity of this value. The hydrogen index is high
取 Apprnx1mate ranges up to 30% porosity
1200。 F, 7000 psi. because of the presence of both free and bound water.
When a clay is deposited, up to 70% or more of its
volume may be water. This diminishes very rapidly,
hydrogen index becomes diagnostic This is examined and over shallow geological depths typical of oil wells,
below. is generally between 10% and 25% depending on the
de gr凹 of compaction (cf. Figure 9.1.l).
Neutron log in shales compactwn Clay water is divided into free pore-wat凹， adsorbed
water clmging to the clay but also m the pores, and
The neutron log shows abnormally high porosities' in ‘ lattice-water which forms part of the clay mineral
shale or clay intervals Values vary between 75%φN structure Clays with no lattice-water show a gradual
and 25% 中N, but a typical shale has values around 40 elimination of both pore and adsorbed water by
50%φ N (Figure 10.1 月 The neutron log will therefore compact10n. A restduum of about 10% usually re-
indicate probable shales (40-50% </>N) as opposed to mains Interstitial water is an tmportant element of the
sandstones (0-30% 中的 or limestone (0-35%φN). The smectites (Table 10.6) and complicates compaction
values m braekets are only ‘typical’, not exaet. A shale since it is more or less stable up to an abrupt

NEUTRON POROSITY UNITS %

30 15 0
Om
ω－
ωZω

25m

ll -
丈二三
」～〉

（可

甸 「
~
、
氏、
可

、－
。CMW

'一’
」
, , 、’
s、
的

亡
之： ~
• 50m
－~一－
~

-r一一一－
.>
－~
~
司每一
時苔，
-
一
一三三＝
可－
~
(

-< >
三三一

的glll'C 10.’的 Typical neutron log t且pons 巴 in a sand shale sequence. Shale' give high valuesφ N 41 45'.:-;,: sands give lower valuesφN28 30%.
φNin shales is due to free, adsorbed aud interlayer water, and dccs not give real puro到 ty.
 '
THE NEUTRON LOG 115

100 dehydration point This point is largely temperature-

controlled, but in otlfield work is often related to depth
i 80 A clay rich in smectite above the dehydration point
may contain up to 20 25% interlayer water: below it is
~ 80 rapidly eltmmated. In depth terms this can be any-
where between 1500 m and 5000 m but is usually at

L
about 2000m (Shaw, 1980).
An attempt has been made to study th巳 behaviour of
the various clay waters using neutron-density cross間
plot techniques (Honda and Maga間， 1982). Adsorbed
有／？……C 站（
,f 10 20 / 50 and free water will be detected as porosity by both the
I ~＇ ' ' ' , ' '
2.8 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 density and the neutron tools. Interlayer water will,
however, only be detected by th中 neutron. The line of
Figure 10.16 Indication of clay water typ" on a density equal density-neutron porosity' indicates the limit of
neutron crn8'-p!ot. The outside (heavy) line hrn; a slope of
吵SNP~ 7.65 十 1.14 4,FCD. (Rerlrawn from Maga 間， 1982.) the interlayer water (Figure 10.16).
This theoretical be ha v10ur of water in clay for-
mations (Figure 10.16) is difficult to see on the neutron
logs. In a typical well of 3000 m there is a gradual
diinmution of the average neutron shale value
20
(Figure 10.17). This is presumably the compaction
effect yet it 1s surpnsingly small when the theoretical
, diminution of water content with depth is considered.
Frequently, when compaction 1s mdicated on other
>
u
z logs (for example the sonic) the neutron」og value
§，。
由
remains constant (Figure 10 18). A verified explanat10n
" deep of these phenomena has yet to be found, but they
(2375
2425m} suggest that the bulk water content of a clay, as seen by
the neutron, remains constant, while its distribution
between pore-water, adsorbed water and interlayer
water changes. Pore-water should diminish with
。" ao " so
NEUTRON P。ROSITY UNITS % compact1 凹，
(log ＂仙。，，

Figure 10 17 The effects of shale compaction on neutron log values

in a sand-shale sequence. Histograms of the log values show the
d1mmution in sand porosity, bl!t only a small change in the shales.

TRANSIT TIME NEUTRON POROSITY UNITS %

54Fs

~S/fj
140 40160 30 。 15
600m 600m
－t
bE三 LZFC
Lkr

700m 700m
弓 U 、
之手主唔，豆，可
－

BO Om aoom
tt
言j，，互了

900m 900m
h在

1ooom －＇總聽姆總翱 ' ' ' ' 1000m

F;gure 10.18 c,mpaction in a shale sequence shown by a d田間明se in int叮val transit time (i1 crease in velcdty) while the neuunn log shows
constant values
 '
116 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

ZF
卜 a苟
GAMMA-RAY API NEUTRON POROSITY UNITS % THIN SECTION
CONSTITUENTS

ω
10 到 60 45 。 10% 50% 100%

E 。的αF

』。“
F－
hcmO。

MW
N制』吋

、
nu
』EO －巳
－o
r~＞

3σ

LQ

MW』
O。
主
EodvOF

<:.-
EO的mF

Figure 10.19 Changes iu the neutron log cmelatable with changes in quartz adm阻tu而 The higher the quart, content. the lower the neutron
V"lue.

SEDIMENT ARY
LOG (core }

NEUTRON POROSITY UNITS %

60 45 30 15

>
三〉
'
〈之了 +--organic matter peak
可戶 『、、『『『－
一－ - -,.
一
一一
」、、
\

-
~

占三一一一 10m
->
~ }- . organic matter pe甜
~ ，，，，，’，’、、、.
‘三『．、
、－－－～
－一－可－
二三〉
f一一
> 、、』

三三
20m
<
戶
,/
/
E 二一一「 organic matter peak、
C」且、‘
---> 『『『』『』
－一一一一一「L「

Fign間 10.20 The effect of organic matter on the neutron log Organic maller Im a high h) drogen index and causes a moderate increase in the
neutron log wlues.
 •
THE NEUTRON LOG 117

Table 10 7 Neutron log values of some evapontes (from NEUTRON

z←－」
GR API
Schlumberger, 1985). POROSITY%
200130 20 10 0 『 10
Mineral Composition Neutron 。 Om
log
value'
Ca 1rn lite KC!MgCl, 6H,O 601

E個
SALT
I

H『
Gypwm aS04.2H,O 60•
Kainite MgS04KCL3H,o 60'
Poly halite K,so,MgSO,
2caso.,2正I,O 25 CARNAL LITE
AND SALT
Halite NaCl -3
shaly 1oorn
r0 ‘
Anhydrite caso, 2
"
些主＿ t主空一一
-3

↑ f戶CNL apparent limestone porosity

Neutron log in shales. composition

Even though there are differences in the amoun阻 of
ccimbmed water between clay mineral speci臼
(Table 10 6), vanation in the proportions of these in
natural shales probably has very little e叮e也t on the
neutron log Variations in non-clay minerals are much
more noticeable and they dominate the neutron
response.
Rapid or short-amplitude changes of the neutron-
log values in shales mostly r目ult from two causes
changes m admixed quartz content and changes in
organic-matter content.
Typical quar包－daychang閏 are seen on the neutron
log occur in cyclic deltaic sediments (Figure 10.19). The
neutron is sensitive to the addition of quartz, with a
hydrogen index of 0.01, replacing clays with a high
hydrogen index (Heslop, 1974). The same result is
obtained on the admixture of any material with a very
low hydrogen index with clays. This may be quar但 as
above, limestone, dolomite or certam evaporites: the
lower the clay volume the lower the neutron log value.
Entirely the reverse effect is caused by the admixture
of organic matter with clays: they cause an increase in
the hydrogen index. This is because organic matter has
a higher hydrogen abundance per Jnit volume (hy
drogen index around 0.66) than clay (Table 10.6)
(Figure 10.20) The increase in neutron values with
organic matter is notable, but not as marked as the
attendant decrease in bulk density (see Figure 9.18).
Evαpo rites
The neutron log can be used to distmguish between
evaporites on the basis of water of crystallization
(Table 10.7).
SALT
200m
Figure 10 21 The hydrated evaporite carnallite (KCIMgCI,6H,O)
identified on the neutron log. The halite which accompan 悶 the
carnalhte has a neutron value near zero
or the evapontes with water of crystallization,
gypsum(CaS04.2H20) 1s the most common. However,
carnallite, polyhalite and kainite also contain the water
radical (Table 10.ηAll these minerals have a high
neutron-log value which differentiates them from other
evaporites such 阻 salt (NaCl) or anhydrite (CaS04),
which contain no water and hence have a log value of
zero (Figure I 0.21 ).
Identification of hydrated minerals
Hydrated mmerals (excluding evaporites) are not com-
mon However, hydrated iron compounds may be
sufficiently abundant to affect the logs. Thus a zone of
chamosite (2Si02Al2033FeOnH20) in the Liassic
shales of the North Sea is sufficiently rich to be seen on
the qeutron log (Figure I 0.22). The zone is characte-
nzed by an increase in the neutron log value associated
with a corresponding increase in the bulk density (see
also section 10. 7,‘Neutron density combinat10n')
Vo/came and mtrusiυe wcks
The neutron log is especially l站eful in the recogmtion
of intrusive and volcamc rocks most of these show
 '
118 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

BULK DENSITY g/cm3

2 5 3.0

GAMMA RAY API NEUTRON POROSITY UNITS %

0 同5 30 15 0 1副
一一「一一「一一－，一一一

〈－c
Om

」’，、、／
、
<
?'-
peaks related 「、
to mineral ~＇
hydration j

＇＼＂~／
10m

、、、一、、、
電文

\
~
、、
「
20m -<- \

Figure 10.22 Chamosi恤， a hydrated iron mineral of formula 2SiO,.At,0,3FeO.nH,, 0 causing high neutron values. Note the high density of
the chamosite zone. Lia,,ic, North Sea.

>- I NEUTRON LOG cuunto/second

<O I
。 12500 2000 1500 1000 500
"" I 自＇ I
主 I *BOUND WATER wt % high neutron-log values associated with high
!:: 10 1 2 3 4 densities.
350- .,J
The high neutron-log values in igneous rocks are due
to their high content of chemically·咱bound water. The
DIABASE bound water may be original or associated with
alteration products, mainly clay minerals, which re-
sult from the reaction of hydrothermal fluids with the
400 original intruded rock.
ι、刁，－.
l屯.，，.，，了后
An example is shown of an altered diabase with no
ι＇，：：－；＿；，：＂＂.
y‘♂、／’J , ,

：.·~.~·＇. ,, porosity (Figure 10.23). The neutron log is seen to be

r.~~~~：令7月
U 古，.，..、， 1
responding entirely to the bouud water (between 1 4%
by weight). The alteration produc阻 m this example are
450-t﹛三、決~：~1 bioti阻， serici妞， kaolini妞， montmorillonite and chlor-
官：／予、：~·~：
﹜ ；＇（~
V 一.·，弋
I阻， all of which themselves have varying amoun但 of
l、、 l 、、仁、，，
；：、·c·叭J、﹔、叫 water (Table 10.6) (Nelson and Glenn, 1975).
~ f；.•己「： co
<
Similar high neutron values with high densities can
可， i; 、，、？「三：~
,. ·，、..，叫
γ 、 1 、 l、·＂ be seen in a senes of basalt flows encountered in the
so o-t"; : '.;,-c'd
、了「.，
subsurface (Figure 10,24). The flows were subaen剖，

三三潤
·"·"
、、一 ，、？、
and show weathering and soil development on their
之·；之，＿，..，，1
surfaces. Alteration products, mamly chlorite, are more
(I ＇，.、川、
I
abundant at the tops of the flows than at the base. The
v、﹔：；：：； ＇；＇：~I
sso－［：失＇.f｛月：
l 、一～：、工→ neutron log values reflect this.

10.7 Neutron density combination: lithology

identification
、：－：.﹔：－，~，.，.
：λ：：.＇.＿＇ 于 Clean formation-'
Fioure 10.23 Neutron resp'11se to volcamc rocks with bound water
the e>ample is of a diabase with 1-2% of 叩 lphide min副刊liwticn. It
has no pornsit ）凡＊ Bound water values from analyses of 10 ft (3 m) B~ themselves, both the neutron and the density log are
campnsit°' on pulp. (R吋rawn from Nelrnn and Glen”, 1975.) difficult to use for gro8' IIthology identification
 '
THE NEUTRON LOG 119

問問他叫凶叩
clean 目n血lo岫
po•o,llle'

〉OO 」。z←＝
19
NEUTRON POROSITY %

《
aFV
ltmeS1ooe matrix 43 2
2 0 o oo

。E。制的
_4'L 一－· .19 - ..f} _:c1.5
GAMMA RAY API

【E
2 1

ωE＝

昀OBE 刮去－E 呂
0 50

EdN
古 O巴＝〉 too。
om
個

主，.，densi1y "
;; 2.4

XEgo
mah法mEO－u
.?! 2.5
~
四 2.6

－】
~
吉

~ 27 CJ
。
25m 26
I~
I釗
29
i主
3 0
-5
。 10 20 3n 40
"'""°" pe<o,lty loco, %
(op"""' llm,,tooo porn,lty)
Figure 10.26 1 he density neutron cross plot. The plot 的 n目前sary
500內
to find real, clean formatton porositi" b即制閣。f the d1ff叮ingeffi田！＇
of matrix type on the two logs (see text). Example: denstty 2.28 g/cm',
'PN ~ 25%: real poro,ity 25%, lithology clean lime<tone-(cf.
Figure 10 2月（Cro帥－ plot for Schlumberger FDC-CNL logs in fr"h
watco-filled sandstone. Plot from Schlumberg<', 1979)

straight-line relat10nship only holds good for clean

75m
Flguce I0.24 Neutron log 自＂ Pot1Se to ba8'lt flows. The flows show
a low gamma ray value co叮臼ponding to a h自gh neutron log 、 alue.
The lithology consists of basalt flows with interbeds of iron-rich
clay soil.
However, once combmed, they become probably the
best available indicator for the reasons given below
Both the neutron log and the density log should be
showing the same formation parameter-porosity
Plotted on compatible 1月 scales, they should give
identical values and it should be possible to super-
impose the two logs (Figure 10.25). In practi間， this is
usually not the case, but clean, water-filled limestones
give almost perfectly superimposable logs, as shown in
Figure 10.25.
The explanations can be taken in two stages Firstly,
the scales of the two logs are made compatible (nor-
mally）。n a clean-limestone 田ale. A neutron-log value
of zero (no porosity,100% matrix) corresponds to a
bulk density of 2.70 g/cm3 (the density of pure caloite is
2.71 g/cm3), and so on to a neutron value of 100 (100%
fluid) and a density of 1.0 g/cm3 (the density of fresh
water) (Fi眼1re 10.26). A cross-plot of density-log values
against neutron-log values will show a straight-line
relationshtp, a point on the line correspondmg to a
particular ~orosity (Figure 10.26). This is the ‘clean
limes to肘， It帥，
The second stage of the explanation is that the
limestones because matnx matenal has variable e位cts
on both logs. A sandstone is seen differently from a
limestone by the density log because of a different
matrix density (s間 Chapter 9) and by the neutron log
because of the different hydrogen index of the matrix
(Table 10.5). On the cross-plot of density-log valnes
against neutron」og values, the clean sandstone ltne
P,lots as shown on Figure 10.26. Again, a point on this
hne corresponds to a clean sandstone with a particular
porostty In the same way a ‘dean-dolomite line' may
also be constructed (Figure 10.26).
For logs plotted on compatible scales, the variations
in matnx are translated mto a separation of the curves
and it is this that is used for lithology identt日cation. A
clean ltmestone shows no separation, while for a clean
sandstone the separation is slightly negative and for a
clean dolomi旭 moderately positive (Figure 10.27). For
a constant matnx the absolute values will change with
porostty, but the separation will remain more or less
constant (e.g. Figure 10.25). If the formation ts clean,
the type and degree of separation therefore indicates
matrix type i.e. lithology (Figure 10.27).
Shale and shaly formatio 阻
Clean formations and the ideal reactions described
above form the minority of cases. Shale is usually
present
Pure shale is recognized on the neutron density
combinat10n when the neutron value is high relative to
 。

120 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

NEUTRON POR 45 % I 15
(limestone mat 『 ix) ︱叫－~~ ' 36 30
－「，－『，－， －「－回，
24 18
－可g/;;m圖，3
12
「－ ~
6
~ ~
0
1- -6 戶 12
~ ~ ,-2.「
.95
BULK DENS ITV )
2.0 2. 1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2且 5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2司9

shale 麗觀 ,,; , >

:‘• density

neutron
Om
{ low porosities) ~
︱乞

︱電〈
主
r’ 一＿， line < f
、~， zero
一4 且，

1- porosity
limestone
J且

－~宅、
""' limestone)

25m
example:
φN 25 、r •
ρB 2.28

(high porosities) ? _,
>

＇~

“主主
50m
Figure 10.25 Neutron porosity log and bulk density log ploUed on compatible seal剖 The neutron porosity is displayed with a scale for a
limestone matrix: the density for a matrix of 2.70 g／叫n' （ ~zero porosity). The two logs follow '"ch other closely over the limestone interval
Example ： φN ~ 25%. Bulk density~ 2.28 g/cm' See Figure 10.26 for cross-plot poSition

45 NEUTRON POROSITY INDEX % 15

42 36 30 24 18 12 6 0 6 『 12
- ' --.,. .，－－﹝「 T ﹝一T .,- I 「.. ，，，「「
•」:r: 2.1 2.2 哇t;1摺封電 2.7 2.8 號
’+ ve sepa 『 a ti on

shale

SANDSTONE
』－ ，＿吋 -ve separation
φ15%
.’ .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
,....’...,.....
. . ...
.

LIMESTONE

φ15%

DOLOMITE

II
-
<!>15%
。

shale
國
Figure 10 27 Id間lized neutron density log combination respous由 The figure shows clean sandstone, lime.stone and dolomite, all with 15%
waler filled p。rosity.
 '
THE 阻UTRON LOG 121

the density value. It gives a large positive separation to
the logs, the neutron well to the left of the density. This
separation is typical and diagnostic (Figure 10.22) and
is due to the high hydrogen index of shale matrix
material (see ‘Neutron log in shal臼’， above).
If shale becomes diluted by matrix grains such as
quartz or calcite with low hydrogen indexes
(Table 10.5), the neutron log value decreases rapidly.
Such a change is not seen so markedly on the density
log since the matrix density of shales (2.65 2. 7 g/cm3) is
similar to that of quartz and calcite (2.65 2. 71 g/cm 3).
On the log combination, the result is a decrease in the
neutron-log value and a decrease in the log separation
The decreases continue until clean formation values
are reached (Figure 10.28).
Ideally, the changes from pure shale to clean for
mat10n a間 progressive on both logs as the volume of
shale decreases. The relationship can be considered as
roughly linear. A 50% shale mixture should thus show
50% of the change from pure shale to clean formation.
Qualitatively large or small separations can be con-
sidered to indicate more or less shale (Figure 10.28). In
practice, small separations i.e slightly shaly for-
mat10ns, tend to be related to low neutron values, while
pure shales show large positive separation and high
neutron values
Used properly, the neutron-d凹sity combination is
the best log indicator of shale. It allows a more reliable
indication than the gamma ray log ar叫， at least
qualitatively, can be used to evaluate the degree of
shaliness (Figure 10.28). Used thus, as a shale indicator
and with typical known separations in clean for-
mations, the neutron density combination can give a
good idea of lithology m almost all normal formations.
Unu別wl lithologies and minerals
Although knowing the log separations expected on the
neutron density combination from clean formations
and shales allows the construction of a gross lithology,
there will be cases where the s¢paration is anomalous
and cannot be explained by simple, typical lithologies.
For example, the two logs generally move together, a
higher density corresponding to a lower neutron-log
value. When a very high density corresponds to an even
higher neutron log value, a simple lithological expla-
nation is not possible Such a case is that of the
chamosites in the North Sea Liassic (Figure 10.22). The
increase in neutron-log value is caused by the
chemically-bound water in the chamosi扭， wh!le the
density mcrease rs because the mineral is dense
(3.的 g/cm3) The large separation and extreme values
are very characteri 叫IC
Some similar unusual separations which may be
diagnostic are shown graphically in Figure 10 29.

60 45 NEUTRON 30 POROSITY 15(1imest。ne）。

一一－，一－ －一一一 l 一一一－ T一一一
BULK DENSITY g/cm3
2.2 2.7
..
‘ hill
開
lpunu

Om

LmIllit
e
。
『

--
10m
l

coal

\ 20m

Figure 10.28 Change., in the neutrnn-densily combination separation due to change治 in quartz clay admixture. In the two coarsening』up,
deltaic sequences shown, the quartz con阻nt increases upwards relative to the shale. The separation changes are due mainly to the change> in
nentron value (compare F自gure 10.19)
lnUMHilli
。

122 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET ATJON OF WELL LOGS

WATER Eva po rites

1 0
/ Evapontes are also distmctive Since their densiti目（see
-- 叫口／／ /
Section 9.6,‘Mineral identification') and also their
hydrogen indices (see above,‘Evapontes ’) may be
// diagnost眩， evaporites become very distinct by the
E combmalton of both logs. The absolute values of both
logs and the log separation (Figure 10.30) are both

:B，戶且
indicative
山

里
it Conclusions
也
>
少r ﹛ APPROX CNL PORO 臼 TY (sandstone} The neutron density combination is the best lithology
•
!!!
g;
~~，［~glauco 一 1001地 indicator for most formations. Shale心 and shalincss
and evaporites can be identified, clean formations and
Ul 3.0 I ' even matrix type 臼n be suggested, and unusual
•重 II ＼ σbioti I e minerals located with the possibility of identifieat10n.
胃 Neutron and density values can also be used quanti自
口
tatively for lithology identification. The method is
生 described in Chapter 11 (see ‘Cross-plotting com-
patible logs', section 11.6).
I! b s i ite
4.0
barite

II
Ii
Ii
II
5.0 ιpyrite
的一直

c二：＞ haematite
Figure 10.29 Neutron density plot with tentative locations of some
川鬥

zero porosity non-quar 出 materials (From Ransom, 1977.)

6萃
〉OO」OZ←－
J

limestone φ ＝ 0

SALT = HALITE

ANHYDRITE

的。「【諒 GYPSUM

c CARNALLITE
, 立－
1.57 g/cm3 p
POLYHALITE:
L刊且也曰句 一一句

limestoneφ 泣。

Figure 10.30 Idealized neutron density lo島、 Combination responm in a s 叫 ·ic.s of pu間 cvaporites (Fo 自 FDC四 CNL Schlumberger, flgur田 from
Edmundson and Raymer, 1979.)
 '

11 Lithology reconstruction
from logs
11.l Introduction
There are two independent sources of lithology data
available from 011 wells, one set of data coming directly
from the drilling and one set from the wireline logging.
The drilling data consist of cuttings, cores and all the
recorded drilling parameters. The logging data consist
of the wireline log suite and sidewall cores For a
reliable hthological reconstructt冊， the two sets of data
are essential. As a result of the great sophistication of
wireline logs the drilling data are often forgotten. This
should never be the case smce the only continuous
sample of formation lithology com臼 from drill
cuttmgs.
This chapter describes the methods for interpreting
lithology by the manual method using log and drill
data, semi月automatic methods usmg mainly logs and
fully automatic methods using only a computer and
logs.
11.2 Lithology from dl'ill data • the mud log
The mud log and the way in which it is made is
described briefly so that the data it represents can be
used properly in log interpretation. Drill『derived data
and log間derived data often appear to be in conflict.
Which can be believed? This book d間cribes how logs
can be used and this section describes how drilling data
can be used, which a閃閃liable, and some pitfalls
The mud log is the geologist's record of the drilling
of a well. Before logging was invented, it was the only
record that existed. On thi的 log is recorded the
lithology, the drilling rate, bit changes ，直叫 recnrd,
calcimet句， dates and events· (Figure 11.1). The Ii月
thologyis based on an examination of cuttings small
chips broken off the formation as the drill advanc旭S
They are washed away in the stream of drilling mud
and brought to the surface. They do not usually ‘float'
in the mud, but are pushed upwards by friction and
draιAt the surface, the drilling mud is passed through
a large metal sieve, the ‘shale shaker', and the cuttmgs
are recovered It 1s from the shale shaker that the
geological cuttmg· sample is taken.
On the mud log, lithology is usually recorded in
percentage of cutting types in a particular sample, say
10% sand and 90% brown shale. New samples are
taken every 2 to 20 metres, depending on the rate of
drilling. Fast drilling rates of perhaps 1 minute per

SAMPLE GAS I CALCIMETRYI MUD

山

•< DRILLING RATE mi 叫m "'

l世
DESCRIPTI。別
FLU叫 T。TAL
> lo 可%。」% IBITS
。 2345 10 20304010018 ι 訓話＇ 1 ' 10-I 2.04.o o.oa.o I CASING
SH gy bl frm-hd
v carb mlc. non calc mud wt
1.40
SSThgyflme
'"b-aog mod, sted
matrix carb p。『
SH as ab 。VO
SST a a
SLST II. gy. 。 arb.
mlc ooo-calc
寸。。閥F

total gao
SST a a ab org. from ’deg.,slog ’
、、FN

mat ddlllog m"d

calcimetry aoalyoio

rate of drill
SH gy-11. bm flrm I.e.ot10%
'""'"'''
dolomite
ovb 『 i;,,, ol ollty
ad,.oce (I e 25 mlo \
for 1m advance)
DOL. to~s. mod. yel.
帥、O

mud wt
nd mlc xln 1.40
。N、F、－

/
N

鈺：E
F;gurc 111 A typkal mud log. The log is the well-site record of lithology (cuttings) and some dnlhng paramete臼 In this example cntting只
sample< were taken every 2 Jm.

124 THE GEOLOGICAL INTFRPRETATION OF WELL LOGS
metre at the top of the hole allow only one sample to be
taken every 20 25 m drilled (i.e. 1 sample per 20 25
minutes). At greater depths, rates of 30 minutes to drill
1 metre of formation are common, and a s目nplecan be
taken every 2 metres (i.e. 1 sample per hour）。r even
closer.
To reconstruct the mud lo皂， the time it takes a
sample to reach the surface after being cut, the lag time,
must be calculated. A sample drilled at 3000 m will take
perhaps 1 hour and 10 minutes to reach the surface. It
will be travelhng at 43 metres per minute up the hole
(about 2.6 km/h), the exact rate depending on the rate
at which the mud 且已circulated', that is pumped through
the mud system. The drilling rate is used as the basic
curve for the mud log (Figure 11.1) and is pr目ented as
real depth. A metre drilled is instantly recorded, but the
cuttings sample is lled to the drilling-rate log, so the
lithology corresponding to the depth 3000 m 3002 m
will only be recovered at the surface 1 hour and 10
(L) GAMMA RAY API
0 、~ 50
• DRILLING RATE minim
2 3 4 5 10 20 40 10叫
2400m
2426
2450
2475
• = rig data as in Fig. 11.1 (i:) =Log 恥
Figure lt.2 Comparison between dg-derived lithology interpretation and snb.'°qnent log interpretation. Note the effect of the ani;al of a new
lithology on the cuttings percentages. The rig beo bnundari°' are only ‘good gue"’
。
minutes after it has been drilled
1 he same principle of lag time is applied to gas
readings and to shows as to cuttings
On most mud logs the geologist has recorded not
only an analysis of the percentages of the cutting types
present, but also what this means in terms of real
subsurface lithology. For mstance, if a sand· shale
coal sequence is being drilled, all these litholog1es
‘ ’
become smeared while travellmg to the surface In thc
cuttings sample will be seen 50% shale, 40% sandstone
and 10% coal. 訂閱 geologist will then make a ‘gu目s' at
the real hthological column using the drilling rate,
knowing tl叫 shales will drill slow秒， sandstones faster
(Figure 11.1).
There are occas10ns when the drilling rate can be
compared to a sonic log or a gamma ray log
(Figure 11.2) and a good interpretation of bed boun
danes can be made from 祉， However, in general, the
dnlhng rate involves too many variables, such as
’ smeared' bed
boundaries on
cuttings log and
’ delayed ’ arrival
of new lithology

weight on the b祉， bit we肘， pump rates and so on, for it
to be an accurate boundary indicator. The mud」og
interpretation of lithology should not be used to
mterpret bed boundaries on the well logs.
It is important, therefore, to use the cuttings per-
centa耳目 in the right mann凹， As d臼crrbed previo1的紗，
a rock cuttrng from 3000 m takes over one hour to
reach the surface Dunng this time it become芯 mixed
with other cuttings taken at shallower depths and
moving more slowly up the hole. It also becomes mixed
with chips washed from the well walls, higher up the
hole, so-called 'cavings'. By the time they reach the
surface, samples are therefore consrderably mixed and
heterogeneous An expenenccd rig geologist will usu-
ally recognize cavings and elimmate them from his
cnunt The mixture of cuttings, however, from the
various lithologies is the reason why per凹ntages are
recorded. All lithological boundaries have become very
blurred.
When interpreting the cuttings logs, it is the arrival
of a new lithology which is significant. During drilling
from a thick shale into a thick sandstone, when the bed
1s actually penetrated only a small percentage of the
cuttings will be sandstone This increases, but there will
be 80% sandstone only several metres lower
(Figure 112) The drilling rate will correlate with major
lrthologrcal changes ~the so【called 已drillrng break'.
Gas levels are also likely to change.
Some pitfalls
Certam lithologres 盯c notorious for appearing on mud
logs, but not in the cuttings samples Such is the case for
loose sands, silts and soluble evaporites (e.g. salt).
The mesh of the sieving ‘shale shakers’ is such that
loose grains of sand or silt, even coarse sand, pass
through the mesh. If this is suspected, the mud may be
diverted through de-sanders, where all small grains are
extracted. However, de-sand mg is not routrne and
there are many cases where unconsolidated sand
reservoirs have been drilled and shale has been re-
corded on the mud log! Salt is a very srmilar case.
UnleSR the drilling mud is salt saturated, no cuttings
will be found on surface. Shale, mostly cavings, will be
recorded. An experienced rig geologist, however, will
note mud salinity changes along with drillin合rate
indicatrons which suggest the presence of salt.
The exact opposite exists where lrthologies which
seem to appear on the mud log do not actually occur
in the formatron. A typrcal cause is the use of lignosul-
phonate, a mud additive whrch reduces water loss. It
resembles lrgnrte and has very often been interpreted as
such on logs, but this interpretation rs suspect if it
implies the presence of coals in pure shale intervals
real coals mostly occur in zones of both sand and shale.
Despite these vanous anomalies, the mud log is
essential to the lithological interpretation of w1relrne
,,
LITHOLOGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM LOGS 125
logs As previously indicated, it represen臼 the only
contmuous record of real lithologies (except where
cores exist see below) However, because of the way in
which the samples are collected, litlrologies have
become mixed and bed-boundari田 smeared Wireline
logs can be u閥d to separate the mixed elements and
define the bed boundaries.
11.3 Lithology from cores 一－ direct physical sampling
Cores may be cut during drilling, when a continuous,
cylrndrical sample of the formatwn is recovered, or
they may be taken after drillin耳， when small, punctural
samples may be taken from the borehole wall.
Cores cut during drilling
During drillrng and before logging, when a complete
record of lithology is reqmred (for examplc in a
r聞自 voir), a continuous sample is taken by coring. The
drill brt 1s replaced by a core barrel. The retneved core,
dependrng on the preceding hole size, will be a cylinder
of rock 5 15 centimetr自 m diameter and n p to 20 me-
Ires long. It is a direct physical sample of the formatior1.
Being a real physical sample of the formation
lithology, a core appears to need no interpretation In
fact the reverse is true; cores should be used as
a reference to calibrate the logs from a lithological
pomt of view and to compare with the lrthology
interpreted from the wireline logs. Indeed, such com-
parisons are used frequently through this book: they
are essential to a proper understanding of the capab1-
lities of wireline logs. Cores provide the geologist with
the only record of real subsurface lithology.
Cores do rn fact n田d interpretation and processing
before they can be compared to logs. The principal
problem is one of depth. Cores are cut during drillin耳，
so that their depth limits are calculated by adding all
the lengths of drill string together. Mistakes often
occur, and frequently these depths do not agree with
the depths shown on the well logs. The logs are taken as
the reference: for detail the reference may be just one
log, frequently the sonic or the density log. The drill
depths for a core must therefore be adjusted to log
depths. The changes are usually about 士 Sm but may
be as much as± 15 m. Moreover, because of recovery
problems, the depth changes between contiguous cores
are frequently different. (Minor miscalibrations within
a core are also sometimes seen because of cable stretch,
but in most cases these can be ignored )
Even with the core depths perfe也tly matched to the
log depth, inconsistencies between the two may arise. It
is at this point that the capabilities of the logs emerge.
The problems of bed definition (see Chapter 2) become
clear, as do those of depth of investigation (also
Chapter 2) and what tlus unphes 111 terms of the volume
of rock sampled by a log. In extremely heterogeneous
 。

126 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

GAMMA RAY API

20m
CORE DETAILED RECORD COMPLETION LOG
1: 1 1:200 1:500
F;gure II 3 Record of cD阻s cut while drilling. The natural detail of a core is ‘generalized ’ on the sedimentological log at 1:200 scale. The
sedimentological detail 的 genecalim:I to lithology only at the I :500 scale.

SIDEWALL SAMPLE LOGS

LI t
。
SIDEWALL SIDEWALL
SAMPLER CORE 1950

2.Scm

（（：~（（®（且） )1.a cm 1~~：~

grey-brown
m1caceous
。 laystone /
sample depth
LITH LOGS
Figure 11.4 Sidewall core sample. Schematic illustration of a sidewall sampler, sidewall core and its record on a lithological log.

format10ns, the dffectional tools such as the density-
log tool may be difficult to calibrate because of changes
across the small distance between the core and the
borehole wall. These partic叫ar problems are discussed
in the chapters on 111d1vidual tools.
The level of detail at which cores can be compared to
logs is an important aspect of core utilization. A core司
derived sedimentological log should already bring the
natural detail of a core to a manageable level fm
comparison with the logs, at say a scale of 1.200
(Figure 11.3). Reservo口， sedimentological and calib司
ration studies can all be kept at this scale (see
Chapter 12). However, for general stratigraphical
work and the completion log, (see below) much less
detail is desirable: 20 m of core is represented by only
4cm on the log, so that considerable lithological
generalization is usually nee目sary (Figure 11.3).
Generalization is a skill learned through experience
and it must give clear and concise, but accurate, results.
The natul;lll lithological detail of a core is not ‘mimic-
ked' by a sedimentological log. The latter should be a
stylized representation of a cm毯， an implied mterpre-
ta ti on having been made. This sedimentological detail
remains at a scale of 1 :200 even though there has been
a 200% decrease 111 scale. For general work this detail is
usually lost, and at a working 1 : 500 scale the only
detail le立 over a cored interval is a slightly more precise
and accura阻 lithology (Figure 11.3).
 •
LITHOLnGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM LOGS 127

Cores cut after drilling
Several methods are available for core sampling once a
hole has been drilled and logged. All of them involve
cutting into the borehole wall.
The most frequent method is sidewall coring. A
sidewall ‘gun' 1s lowered mto the hole on the logging
cable 1t consists of a series of hollow cylindrical
‘bu lie妞， 1.8cm in diameter and 2.0 3.0cm long
(Figure 11.4). The ‘bullets’ are arranged in series along
the sidewall tool. The tool is run to total depth, depth-
calibrated with a gamma ray tool, and then pulled up
the hole The sampling points are decided in advance
and arc based on an inspection of the logs already run.
When a sampling pomt is reached, the sidewall tool is
stopped exactly at the depth chosen and a ‘ bullet’ is

INDUCTION OHMM BULK DENSITY g/cm3

02 1 2001 [1.7 2.95
20 I』
•ι
U』:r:
一－－」＿＿ J.-1 ＇＇＇~
GAMMA RAY CALIPER " SFLU OHMM ' SONIC J</11
I

。 API 200一＇！.＇~－＇－ - －」－ L

L
口
。 .2 1
一~一一
2001240
;
401ao
’
PHI
－－－－－－一一一－
NEUTRON %
－一一－一－
15
_,

主
I -l 1800

內斗
「L于
一1-1一斗 -l 1850

寸三主

f•gure 11.5 Well-log compcsite. All logs run 01 er the seme interval are replotted together The composite forms the basic dccument for a manual
interpretation of lithology

NEUTRON%
60 0
BULK DENSITY
1. 7
2400m
、－－ SD
且一一一一
「～～~

、
、~
弓一一一一
、一～一

2425m

、－，

。
@
＝今 build
4•- reiteration
Figm·c 11.6 Honzontal routine, manual method. The su羽田 for building up hthology: 1, rig data; 2, simple wireline log; J, all logs and well
sampl曲（only ne"tron det咽ty shown). The lithology is built up from 110 2 to 3, but with I副 teration. Note the incrming detail and precision.
 •
12 日 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRET ATJON OF WELL LOGS

fired. A small directional charge shoots the hollow steel
sidewall bullet into the fo1 mation wall which it penet”
rates by force The sample it recovers is，制 indicated,
about l.8cm in diameter and up to 3cm long This
sample is a reliable indicator of lithology (depending
on the accuracy of the calibration), but because of the
sampling method the rock is frequently shattered, so
that the petrological characteristics are destroyed.
Porosity measurements, for example, should not be
made on these cores, as the grains arc usually shattered
A new tool(the Hard Rock Coring Tool of Gearhart)
g1 ves a similar size of sample, 2.4 cm m diameter and
4.4 cm long (f.t × 1* in), but has a revolving sampler
and so avoids shattering Samples from this tool can
presumably be used for porosity measurements.
Sidewall coring as a method of lithology sampling
should be used essentially for verification. As the
sample is so small, interpretation problems can ari峙，
and sidewall core results should be used with care. In
sands with shale lamin帥， for example, a sidewall may
fall in a shale lamina and it will not be representative of
the zone as a whole. For this reason, in 1℃＇servoirs, a
closely-set series of samples is taken The obvmus
advantage of a sidewall core is that i個 depth is known
and it can be taken in a specific, chosen lithology.
11.4 Lithology interpretation from wirebne logs
manual method
The manual mterpretat10n of lithology from well logs
should be undertaken only using all the logs registered.
Now that logs are digitally recorded, all the runs from a
well can be re-plotted by computer to give one
composi阻 log (Figure 11.5). This is an extremely useful
document. The final lithological interpretation may
appear on this composite log or, to avoid ove1-
cluttenn巨， may be transferred to a document with only
the logs usually used for correlation. This is often the
gamma-ray (or SP) and a r閏istivity log, or the gamma
ray and a sonic log (Figure 11.8). The original lithologi 且
cal interpretation, however, 1s made on the composite
document showing all the logs.
Horizontal routine
There are no simple rules for the quick manual
interpretation of lithology from logs if there were,
this account would be superfluous. This book outlines
the capabilities and charactenstics of each of the open-
hole tools. To interpret lithology, these capabilities and
characteristics must be known and used. A systematic
approach is best. Thus, the gross lithology is suggested
by the mud log, this can then be corroborated and
compared at the same depth, horizontally, to a simple
log such as the gamma ray or the SPσ1gure 11.6,2).
The interpretation is then contmued, ag叫n
horizontally, through the other logs resistivity, so-
nic and density neutron. If all corroborate the same
interpretation, the lithology can be noted and then

GAMMA RAY API NEUTRON POROS盯Y%

60 • Q-12
＋~！2~＂ "I 是！：ld.~DU~TION ohm＇品︱ BULK DENSITY g/cm3
17 27291

jl ISP. ~GR 巴
3、、
Je 、

、 mrpk DL SHALE
I

/\
SAND clean
shaly sand
tzJ

SHALE
-
FKL

b
U 叫 hnnm

’、

-
『J

CAL

SHALE

<三〉
戶
- /

SAND shaly
戶
.J SAND clean
"- ~~~
h
﹜宮。】制伺a
』
ZDE←3UZ

口 『I ml' <l>I' 苟自戶，

〉←－2

~1z
o.I ZI .~I cl_ olO
帥，＂＇＇＂＇ ＝·~ =•o. o ’「
ωω 白山的山白 山 5
的山口

c
』ω

~ ~」 2

" < < ＜口

則m

里主主 工 Z
O 叫叫 ω 一

Figure 11.7 Vertical routine, manual method. Base line> and curve s 巳 parations are used for the vertical analysis in this sand shale sequence
 '
LITHOLOGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM LOGS 129

compared to sidewall cores or other samples
(Figure 11.6,3). If the lithology is not corroborated,
then there must be a ‘feedback from one log to the next
The first aspect to cheek is that oflog quality. The hole
may be very caved, one or more of the logs may be
badly recorded, and hence the readings are anomalous
These aspects are considered in the chapters on the
are not diagnos肘， but the density·-neutron com
bination shows obvious shale with either sandstone,
’ limestone or dolomite: sandstone is indicated from the
mud loιThe sandstones arc then marked on the
lithology log and compared to the mud log or sidewall
samples. A check with the SP shows that the neutron …
density indicated sand intervals cm respond to per >

individual tools. However, the anomaly may be within meable zones, and that in turn these have mud『cake
the lithology itself. indicated by the caliper The anomalous log, therefore,
For example, in a sand shale sequence, there may be is the gamma-ray From the interpretation it can be
40% sand and 60% shale marked on the mud log. The concluded that the sandstones have a high gamma ray
gamma ray log may read persistently high, so that only count because of mcluded feldspars, micas or othet
shale is suspected. The re.,istivity log and the sonic log non-sbale radioactive elements. The manual interpre

Table 11.1 Lβgging可tool response value'. All valuO' arc shown so that they ccver the range of value' found in the
various sources, i.e. none of the sour田•s has valu" outside tho阻 listed above From Serra (1972), Serra (1979), Dm"r
Atlas (1983), Gearhart (1983), Schlumberger (1985).
Density Neutrnn
Resistivity Gamma ray At., tool {21 pomity
Material (ohm m'/m) AP !{" (µs/ft) < ' } (g/cm') (ma) units <'}
詞
Sandston" up to 1000 18-160 53 100 2.59-2.84 0-45
。 T
u 、L Limestones 8日 6 x JO' 18 100 47.6-53 2.66 2.74 。一30
E 占百
Dolomites 17xto' 12 100 38.5 45 2.8-2.99 0 30
8~ ］＇ Shales 0.5一1000 24 1000 60 170 265 2.7 25一75

Quartz 10' 10" 51.2 56 2.64 2.66 2

關吋

Calcite 。 45.5 49 2.71 1

"' "
有何

言自 Dolomite
to' to"
17xto' 38.5 - 45 2.85-2.88 1
3534
0274
的百包囡囡

Illite 250 3 日。 2.52-3.0

Chlorite 180 250 2.6 3.22
hd
己

Kaolinite 8。一130 2.4 2.69

Smectite 150 2日 D 2.0 3.0
322
。
onut1
ω

Glaucouite 75-90 2.2 2.8

呵。W

Muscovite 10" 10" 140 270 49 2.76 3.1

品A

Biotite 10" 10" 90 275 50.8 51 2.65 3.1

們凹

Microcline 220-280 45 2.52-2.57 -3

h的

Orthnclase 220 280 69 2.53 2.63 3

H 的司。

365
802
Anthracite 90 120 1.32月 1.80
0。 18
10 ' 5
Brtum<nous coal 1。一 10' 100 140 1.15 1.7
U

Lignite 4 × to' 6 24 140 18~ 0.5 1.5

Gas (av.) 0 .000886
品。＼切

αc

Methane α： 0 626 日 0076

Oil (40° AP!) to'-10" 0.12-0.40 238 .97 60
B可

Water (80°F)
E

purn αc
。 189 207 1.00 (1.11們 1日 D
salt
(33000ppm) 0.031 (var) 180 1.19 60
。
品。 H Pyr自 10 ＇一10 ' 39.2 39 4.8 5.17 -3
望這 E 告 Siderit 104 1000 47 3.0-3.89 12
。
32035
EH口。n吋

一－

Halite < 104 10" 66.7 67 2.03 2.0日

Anhydrite 104 10'° 。 50 2 89-3.05
。一12
6

Gypsum 1000 0 • 52 53 2.33 2.4

M〉囚

Sylvite 10"-IO" 5CO 74 1.86 1.99

2

Polyhalite 2CO 57.5 58 2.79

-3
222
756
勻
A 勻b

Basalt 8 × l昕一 10' 12 24 45 57.5''' 2- 84

“也 Granite 10。
， nυ

24 96 46.8 53.5
丟昌官 Gneiss 10' 10• 24 48 48 8-51.6 -3
”岫伽扎

啊叫他

v"' " hfe

∞叮O

M 阻曲

km 叫

加
出叫 M

d
什山、門

叭l

NVFhHUt runo eeu

utl tr
nugb D e my
om 冶 h
o

(4) G問他art only

叭蚵
叫叫

(5) Pressure 1 kbar.

e
V戶門

(6) All values variable.


130 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATJON OF WELL
tation should find a compatible explanation for the
reactions of all the logs
快r ti cal routine
Although the horizontal routine is the basis for any
lithological interpretation, individual logs should also
be examined vertically for trends, baselines 肘， absolute
values For the gamma ray log, for mstance, and also
the SP, a shale baseline can be drawn but also a
minimum, clean sand? limestone? etc. line for the
gamma ray and a maximum deflection (SSP) for the
SP ﹜一（see Chapter 7 for the gamma ray and Chapter 5
for the SP) (Figure 11.7）。
Instead of a !me, colour may be used. The caliper
may be coloured to give caves and mud-cake zones.
The density neutron combination, if the logs are
plotted on compatible scal臼（Chapter 10), can be
coloured to underline curve separations (Figure 11.7).
The latter is an excellent lithology indieator, as has
been d的cribed in Chapters 9 and 10 Thus, a certain
amount of preparation of the composite log in the
vertical sense can aid in the horizontal routines.
Abso/llte values an I litholooy
For some of the more difficult, uncommon lithologres
and for beds with very high or very low readings,
absolute value tables can be useful For example,
evaporites are generally pure enough in the subsurface
to have distinct densities and velocitres this is cer-
COMPLETION LOG WELL: X
GAMMA RAY
API
。
u
Z〈－
if!
zoz←〈血
于叫 C1
的〈佐
sf
::>
』3
:c。re
90% rec.
Figure 1l 8 1 he completion log. An example er the log with interpreted lirhology, stratigraphy, hi drocarbon sho" s, tesrs and drill data. It is rhe
geologist ’s basic record' or a well. The lirhology com臼 from an interpretation of the log compc.,ire cores and drill data.
。
1且GS
tainly the case with salt (Chapters 8, 9). Abrupt peaks,
which may b也 important in stratigraphical interpre』
tations or diagnostic of a particular interval, are often
best interpreted using absolute-value tables. Coals, for
example, will be distinct on logs, as wiU be pyrite and
other mineralizations (cf. Figure 9.18).
Table 111 gives a resume of some of the more useful
absolute log values for lithology interpretation. Table'
in the individual chapters should also be be consulted.
Presentation
The final lithological 叫erpretation should be clear
and concise. Accepted and stylized symbols for Ii-
thology and bed boundaries should be used (see also
Chapter 12). Inevitably, the interpretation will lose
some of the details seen on the well logs. Nonetheless, it
is the mter preter who is the last to have all the data for
the interpretation at his disposal, and who must decide
the level of detail n目前sary. The resultant lithology
should not be over cluttered It is this interpretation
which will be used for the Well Completion Log, the
document used to summarize drilling and geological
data when a well is completed (variously called Final
Log, Completion Lo臣， Composite Log etc.)
(Figure 11.8). The m臼rpretation will also be used as a
database for stratigraphy, correlation and for making
small scale, resume logs. Too much detail is a
disadvantage. The scheme followed through this book
is an illustration of the use of simplified symbols for
lithology.
SONIC µ/ft DESCRIPTION
三三T
”輕
可← ω。
TOP ’ MASSIVE 12427m-2640m
6 SAND FORMATION ’ ISANDSTONE grny brown
medlum-c 。 arse gr
porous, oil & gas shows

40
30
*
>
~
20
虫
。
凶
~
10
F'1gure II 9 Histogram of log values This histogram is of gamma
ray values ow 100 m of formation. The sand and shale populations
are indicated. Between them is the zone of shaly sands and sandy
shal聞
1 LS Computer aids to lithology interpretation
A well-log curve represen阻 a series of quantitative
values, each value derived from the format10n. The
formation, and henc巳 the lithology, can be quanti日ed
For quantification to be an aid to or the tool for
mterpretation, however, there must be a groupinq That
is, a particular set of values must be shown to represent
a particular lithology. The lithology will be defined
numerically, rather than by its subjective appearance
to the geologist through cores and cuttings.
This quantification may be made at several levels of
sophistication: one-lo耳， two-log or multi-log. The most
sophisticated multi-log quantt日cations can give an
entirely computer-derived lithological mterpretat10n.
H istogram.1 one』log quantification
The simplest way of grouping well-log values is by
using a histogram, where the log value is plotted
against frequency (Figure 11 月 The histogram has
vanous uses. It can be used to define populations or
‘
average values For example, the shale and sand ’ ‘
values of a gamma ray log may be presented in this
manner (Figure 11.9) A second example shows a
gamma ray histogram ma series of volcamc rocks with
values forming distinct populations (Sanyal et al., 1980)
(Figure 11.10). Used in this way, the histogram helps to
define the log limits oflithology and average log values
(Walters, 1968).
A second use is in the normalization of particular
logs. This is done by selecting a consistent stratigraphic
mterval and comparing the log responses by compar-
ing histograms of the log values (Figure l l.11)
(Kowalchuk et al., 1974).
This 1s done as much for petrophysical as for
。
LITHOLOGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM LOGS 131
RHYOLITE
‘學EFBI 四E﹜的耐心
〉OZ山DO山mh
o』
tω
山
''""''"
GAMMA RAY--+
Figure 11.10 Histograms of gamma ray log values. Gamma ray
value> from a vokanic "quence showing distinct populations for
V孔rious lithologies. (Redrawn from San)'l et al., 1980)
genlogical reasons In this same manner, lustograms of
log values may be compared to histograms of labo-
ratory values when the same character is being mea-
sured (see Chapter 9). In the pe甘ophysical usage, logs
and laboratory values are made consistent for res臼voir
calculations In the geological usage, slight lithological
changes may indicate facies trends (see Chapter 12).
Finally, histograms have been used to make stratig-
raphtc correlations when curve comparisons were
inconclusive (Walters, 1968). The method seems dif-
ficult to apply and to envisage (Figure 11.12). However,
it does illustrate that a particular formation may give a
certain shape of histogram, the advantage being that
depth differences are eliminated.
Cross-pints-two-log quantification
When any two values are cross-plotted, the resultmg
senes of pomts may be used either to define the
relationship between the two vanables, or to define
DENSlTY
50
40
’ 30 I II NEUTRON
I
20
0.1 02 0.3 0.4 0.5
φ 一一＋
Figure 11.11 CompHiSon lo a master histogram. Neulron and
density log value histograms of one well cmnpared to ma 吼叫
histograms (continuous line) of six wells from the First White
Speckled Shale Upper Cretaceous, Alberta, Cmmda. (Redrawn from
Kowalchuk et al., 1974.)
 。

132 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL L且 GS

40
Well 4 Well 5

32

* Ill
已 N
叫
II
5
世 16

"
8
7·
' 1(\
; I '1
（，川 1
一－－~I
~
\_,,,J
L """
! L二k
500 700 1000 1500 2000 500
NEUTRON APl
Momboc•© ＇一＠＠

F1gure IU2 Stratigraphic use of histog•心ams. Stratigraphic zones eharactedzcrl by histograms of Jog values as an ~id to correlation. (From
Waite悶， 1968.)

fields, usmg both x and y axis value泊， giving the upper density cross plot: the plot of neutron porosity valu自
and lower limits of both variables. against density porosity values. The method has been
Both the above outputs are used in crnss-plotting explained previously (see Chapter 10, 'Neutron
well logs density cnrnbination') It w品 shown that cro個－
Three types of well log cross』plot exist: plotting neutron and density values can be used to
(1) Cross plots of compatible logs, that is those identify pure matrix and/or the related porosity. This is
measuring the same parameter, for example impossible using only the value from one of the logs.
porosity logs For example, a neutron log value of 25% may be a
(2) Cross』plots of incompatible logs, for example a dolomite with 17% porosity, a limestone with 25%
plot of gamma rayυ. neutron values the logs do porosity or a sandstone with 29% porosity
not measure the same parameter (Figure 10.26), but when associated with a density of
(3) Cross』plots of laboratory or sample values against 2.28 g/cm3 1t has a unique attribution, a limestone with
log values, for ex別nple porosity core values agarnst 25% porosity.
neutron porosity values. This cross-plot uses a straight-line relationship
between the two variables to quan!tfy the demed
Cross』plotting compatible logs characteristic and to identify lithology. It is the simple
case with only two variables, in this example porosity
Typical and illustrative of this type is the neutron and matrix (lithology). When shale, for example, is

1 00

120

1.40

1 60
的

160
FH、
M－O 〉←Z

2 00
－凶的

2 20
。

2 40

2 60

2 80

3 m
To
20 30 4-0 了。 so
’。。
10 50 60 90
NEUTR 。N POROSITY%

Fi2ure 11.13 Shale po mt defmed on a neutron densityα。由－plot Values from 200 m of a sand shale formation. Note !he arbitrary choice of one
‘pomt’ to represent shale.

.liil
 •
LITHOLOGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM LOGS 133

’。。

1 60
的EO閉
X〉←－ωZ叫DUL

2 00
」Dm

250

3 00
6 10 20 30 40 5rl 60 70 80 90 100
NEUTR。N POROSITY%

Figure J 1.14 Lithological fields defined on a neutron-density cross-plot. It is based on the ,alues from a SC nm in ten al in one well

added to this system, a more usual combination in
nature, a solution for three variables must be
developed.
On the era品 plot being used as an example, when
three variables are present a plotted pomt will not give
a solut10n the grid is defined only in terms of two
variables. Thus the point used above, density
2.28 g/cm3 and neu訂閱 25% can only be interpreted
as was shown, in terms of pure end』members If shale is
A more realistic approach is to define fields of values
on this plot in which a particular lithology is likely to
be plotted. The approach is empirical and the log limits
of each lithological field will vary from well to well, and
even within one well with depth (Figure 11.14).
However, the approach does help towards a more
rigoro帥， numerical definition of lithology on the logs,
especially in zones of rapid alternations of lithology.
A soplust1cation of the cross plot method of Ii- <

added, then a shale end member with neutron and>

tholog1cal qua11t1ficat10n is to cross自plot cross-plots.
density values mmt be defined This is the basis of the Schlumberger M N plot (Burke
For this plot, this is fre~uently done ; a neutron
‘
density shale point' is defined empirically. A great
L\THO PORO~訓 TY PLOT
(SALT MUO)
many lithologically unidentified points are plotted 1.3
SALT
and the ‘shale point’ is chosen to correspond to the
®

12
extreme value but withiii the supposed shale field
‘
(Figure 11.13). Once the shale point' is defined, the 11
GYPSUM
cross-plot can be divided into a compositional triangle, GYPSUM-ANHYDRITE-DOLOM TE
"LITHα.OGY
TRIANO\' E'
the end members being shale 100% (shale point),
>
10 cal a0<elop• 10< p 叫＇＂
- !YO

porosity 100% (fluid point, i且 neutron porosity 100%, Imm '""' '"' mp0<lte woe
bulk density 1.0 g/cm3) and matrix 100% (matrix point, 。 s LICA (2)
1.e for limestone, neutron porosity 0%, bulk density ' S\'L[CA (1)

2.7 g/cm3). Any point on the plot now has a precise

value of the three variables CaC03 DOLOMITE－＇訓LICA

‘
This shale point’ cross-plot has many drawbacks. _, ”LITl-101-0GY TR ANGLE "
10< pofofa Imm ahale-fcoa
Firstly, only one matrix can be considered at a time. A 06 ~o".v.，~ carbonate zone 叫th
zone will be mterpreted as only shaly sandstone or only .-c· 叩 開。。pdacy p0<。slty

05
shaly limestone-never both. But more importantly, 1t
mixes definable with undefinable values. Shale is
0.4 05 06 0 7 0.8 。＠ t 0
inevitably very variable, and the shale pomt therefore 'N'
very imprecise (Figure 11.l 月 yet the matrix and liquid Figure 11.15 Cro ；、－ plot of croS' plots. The M and N plot frnm
po in臼 are both quite precise. Schlumberger. (From Burke et 叫， 1969.)
 。

134 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

【 ~per\ ·l\ ＿.，，呻 le W<!ll ＜州州，er Ont J]t'> f'()J,1'1 s

" ' ' I 恥＂ 1'1MAL t~• 10 .妙。

:- ·- .. ~＂心， I .
－一一一－ .一一一一－一一一一！一一一一－ 1---------1 一一﹒－－－－ 1 .. -
.
－－﹜曰：自－－－－－－－－ 1 －一』一－－：一一－－－－－： 100. a”。

•• '
：﹔
: 2.
4 。：
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l : I : I •
'
.
;
: .• '
I '
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J 』＂＂
;
:

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I
i SHALEi
I
I
!
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: :
--------''
! 1
fJI)". 。。
: : : 3 l 3 命崎3 : : l : I l t
:
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,<;a 1.f.<i 1. 哩。＇·“＇ ..... """ ,,.. •:．凹， .oc

log resistivity
10
Fig1~e I I 16 Crms plot of incompatible logs. Gamma ray and resistivity valu°' cross-plotted to define lithology fields. (From Heslop, 1974.)

et al’, 1969) N is defined by a density-neutron cross- evident(ifthere is any). The resistivity logs, for instance,
plot, Mis defined by a density sonic cross plot, and M will show a consistent set of values in shales, as will the
is plotted against N (Figure 11.15). Theoretically, mi』 gamma ray log; this will become evident on cross』
nerals and shale become separated into fields, and plotting (Figure 11.16). In fact in almost all cross plo恤，
porosity is eliminated However, the geological value of it is rare not to fmd a consistent relat10nship of some
the logs is lost and a mineral identification more sort (cf. He<lop, 1974）.。ften empirical relationships
reliably done usmg mud log and simple cross『plots In become evident which otherwise would remain hidden
fact there is a tendency to rather obscure cross-plotting Plotting the gamma ray log values against the
m the vain hope of findmg a unique ‘shale point' or neutron log values, for example (Figure 1117) brings
‘mmeral pomt’. These points rarely exist in nature, out several relationships (Rider et al., 1979). There is a
except for chemically-precipitated deposits. In this consistent, straight-line relat10nship bet ween the two
respect, certain mmor minerals which usually occur in where both the gamma ray and the neutron logs are
the pure state can be identified by their end-points. reacting to a shale-sandstone m1xtu間， Each log is
Generally, these mmerals tend to the extremes. showing the volume of shale in its own way In cleaner
sandstones, the gamma ray log continues to react to the
Cross-plotting incompatible logs shale bu5 the neutron log is now reactmg also to
porosity, and the cross且plot relationship changes. The
The cross” plotting of incompatible logs is usually done shale field can therefore be defined by the break
to quantify lithology. Incompatible logs are those between the cross-plot relationships. Alone, the nent-
which do not, in the first instance, measure or indicate ron log is unable to differentiate between a shaly sand
the same parameter. Resistivity and gamma ray logs with pore回water and a wet shale with enclosed water.
are incompatible, one gives the resistivity, the other na The gamma ray log alone cannot identify porosity.
tural radioactivity and, by inference, shale volume. When cro<s間plotted, the limits become clear (Heslop,
However on cross-plottm巨， compatibility wiJI become 1974).

A
學
ocgaoio matta『
lil
lnf\llence
－－
ll〉←一的。缸。
/ ..
/
Z。
已但」
5 叫言
pcco"ty '""'
。
GAMMA RAY 一－一一←一一一”，
Figure II 」 7 Trend line., from a gamma ray neutron P"·ositycross
plot. The onset of porosity is visible, and also the influence of
abund飢＞t organic matter. (From Rider et 叫， 1979.)
On this same plot (Figure 11.17), at higher gamma
ray and neutron values there is also a relatior> ship
break It is due to organic matter Since the neutron
tool reacts to all hydrogen pr間ent (Chapter 10), it
reac臼 to the hydrogen combined with oxygen in
organrc mat阻r (a solid hydrocarbon). In the example,
the organic matter is mostly coal and lignite grains
with low radioactivity Thus, while the gamma ray
values diminish as the organic matter replaces the
shale, the neutron valnes increase or remain high
(Rider et al., 1979).
Thts same gamma ray/neutron plot can also be used
to identify anomalous shale zones. A straight回line
relationship between the two log values shows a typical
shale- quartz mixture Deviations rndicate a new ele-
ment When high uranium values increase the radioac-
tivity of a shale, for example, the gamma ray log will
react, but not the neutron log. There will be a deviation
from the straight-line relationship.
Cross-plotting log values against sample talues
The first use of this technique was to verify log
calculated values of porosity against those from the
laboratory (Figure 11.18). This, obviously, can only be
done over cored intervals The cored zone is then used
to calibrate the lo郎， and the normalized log values
applied more confidently to zones without cores. This
technique rs essentral to log rnterpretation. However,
when it is applied it must always be remembered that
measured values and log values are not a priori
identical. Core porosities are measured in a small plug
about 10cm3 in volume, logs usuall,- give an average of
about 10000 15 000cm3 of formation (i.e. over 1000
times the sample volume) Core porosrtres are mea-
sured under atmosphenc condrtrons, log porosities
under reservoir conditions, notably of pressure and
temperature. A pers的tent di叮erence between log and
core porosities of l or 2% will often indicate a difference
'
LITHOLOGY I叩CONSfRUCTION FROM LOGS 135
. ..
許〉←－mozoa山缸。。
4o 3'0 io 1o O
APPAR NT SANnRTONE POROSITY %
1.9 2.0 25 27
DENSITY (l.OG } g/om3
BULK
Figut"e 11.18 C rn-plot of log value., (density pm旬到 ty) against
sample vclu<' (core poro>i 句i The plot shov s the limits of accun閃Y
to be e>pected from log values.
in physical conditions, rather than badly回calibrated
logs.
Sample calibration may also extend to lithologies.
For example, the validity of the gamma ray log as a
shale indicator can be checked against laboratory
measurements of clay percenta耳目 (Heslop, 1975)
(Figure 11.1月 The amount of ash in a coal can be
compared to tts bulk density as measured by logs
(La vers and Smi郎， 1977) (Figure 9.24). This technique
of calibration for lithology is not used enough for
geological purposes.
Cross-plotting log against laboratory values means
that the position of the various po in阻 used is lost. This
is a statistical comparison, an individual laboratory
value ts not compared to an individual log value, and
represen旭 the 凹al advantage of the cross-plot. it
compares averages. In order to re-introduce individual
readings defined and identified points from a core can
be re-plotted on a cross-plot of log values. For
example, in order to identify lithological fields on a
neutron-Density cross『pl凹， lithologies defined from a
core can be plotted and labelled on this cross『plot grid.
Th扭扭 a process once removed from plotting the values
on a depth scale and comparing with the log.
11.6· l\咀ulti四log quantifica吋on of lithology
Two typical methods for the multi」og treatment of
logs will be briefly described below. Many methods
exist, so that mentron here is only by way of illus-
tration. The first method described is used essentially
by the petrophysicist: it is designed to indicate
hydrocarbons, and lithology rs a secondary consi-

136 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELI LOGS
.90
.80
〉《UMAZOEMhME。
叩開曲曲
3〉JLF‘JU
.30
、．．，
20
個 .10
Figure ll.19 Cro8'·plot of labcratory values (of clay volume) against log values (of clay volume). The plot is a partial verification of the log
derivation of shale volume. (From Heslop, 1975.)
deration. The second method is principally designed to
indicate lithology.
Petrophysrcal multi-log analysi.,
Any multi-log quantification of lithology 剖， for that
matter, hydrocarbons, must begin with a definition of
what is being sought. Thus, if we are searching the log
values for 011, oil should be quantified on each log. In
fact, in the 011 sear℃h it is not possible to give log values
to oil, so this is done for water, its antithesis. Any
calculation for oil can only be done usmg defined
values of formation-water 自由stivity, format10n-water
densi旬， formatio時water neutron value, liquid re-
spouse to the sonic log, and so on
In reality, character definition is progr闊別ve and
built up from one log to another For example, porosity
may be first defined using the _porosity logs. To define
porosity the matrix characteristics must be defined.
The porosity thus defined is then applied to a
resistivity log which cannot define porosity i個elf, but
once porosity is defined, can give the water saturation.
For this the water resistivity must be known The
system is reiterative, and ‘best fit' results are found
(Figure 11.20).
This form of methodology 的 the basis for many of
the logging-company systems. It relies essentially on
the definition of certain absolutes such as ‘shale pomt’,
matrix type, and forrnat10n water iesist1V1ty. Even so,
•
、
.
.20 .30 .40 .50 .E到
CLAY v。 LUME FROM LOGS
the number of variables that can be manipulated is
perhaps three or at most foe. A typical system, for
example, will define clay, quartz and porosity volumes
over a certain interval (Fi仰自 11.22). A more complex
system can define clay, silt, sand and porosity volumes,
or clay, feldspar, micE, quartz and porosity volumes
The output, however, is always in volume percentage
of the defined elements. The log is usually called a CPI
(Computer Processed Interpretation).
This sort of output can be criticized from a geologi-
cal point of view as being dependent on artificially >
defined absolutes which have little relation to lithology
in the usual sense. A sandstone is not defined by its
quartz per℃entage. it has a compositional and textural
defimt10n The output of these computer 『defmed ‘Ii tho-
logies' in percentage ofconslltuents does not, therefore,
represent geological hthologies.
Stati.,tical multi-log analys的
An entuely different approach is to use statistical
methods to cope with the enormous amount of data
generated by logs. The first method considered is that
of discriminant analysis (Broggi et 叫， 1983). Each
depth point is rep阻sented by a certain number of
variables (i.e. log values). The whole set of depth poin個
(i.e. the well) then represen旭 the population to be
examined. All typical lithologies are identified man-
ually at reference levels in a well, preferably where
 •
LITHOLOGY RECONSTRUCTION FROM UlGS J 37

Bay間， system is apparently capable of selectmg the

INPUT DATA
LOGS INPUT most useful variables to define a population and
WELL PARAMETERS r句阻tmg those which have no discriminant power

一一一一一一 一一一一一一一一一一一 (Broggi et al., 1983).

CORRECT LOG DATA
DETERMINE 私 PPROXFROM N 自 D PLOT
AND Rt FROM OIL OR DLL
DETERMINE Rw Ii Rmf
FROM Rwo a Rmfo CURVES
SELECT INTERVALS BY
LITHOLOGIC UNITS ANO
HY OROCARBON TYPES
EVALUATE INTERVALS
BY CROSSPLOTS
L;fhoo•y, PorosHy Type,
Hydrooorboo Effoots,CIαy Poroms
SELECT LITHOLOGY OPTION
FOR INTERVAL
一一一－一一←一一一一一一一一一一－
EVALUATE SHALINESS AND
CORRECT 仇， Pb, L'.t
區司可而 a Pma
A somewhat similar approach is used in the
Schlumberger ‘Facio！嗯，（Wolff and Pelissier
Combescure, 1982) In the method used, a certain
amount of preparation of the logs pre田des the final
PRE-INTER- statistical analysis.
PRETATION
First of all, the logs are rendered compatible by
choosing scales of equal magnitude. For example, the
neutron-log values range from 0 80 while those for
resistivity range from 0.1 to 2000. Res也aling using a
log's standard deviation reduces the variations to the
same order. Before passing to the next phase, shoulder
SELECT and thin bed values are eliminated by comparing them
PARA- to the values of preeeding and following depths.
METERS Significant differences cause a value to be eliminated
AND
MODEL smce they are considered to be unstable.
LOGIC Once normalized in this manner, new reference axes
are defined for the log-value populations using prin-
cipal component analysis The first principle eom自
ponent axis is the most important and is in the
direction of ma別mum variation. A principal eom-
ponent spa回 is thus defined. Using the prineipal
component analysis, data are grouped into small
clusters or loeal modes by a combinat10n of algor-
ithms. The reduction in data at this stage is of the order
LEVEL of 10 to 1 (Figure 11.23). Crossplots and squared logs of
BY local mode values indicate whether the stahs!Ically-
LEVEL derived data are representative of the original data

:-
INTER PRE-
TAT ION
側－
悶一間－

u
-
M一。－s

自由m
DE 河一副－制
Y 一－
N

-
一間一問
u －J

－－一－山
－。v － QM
－民uw－ KU

45 cr 2 5
0。一 nMV
于 －U

COMPUTE Psolids (cloy included) JNU

-45• -m -sq- --
m

2 5
悶

COMPUTE L'. t mo {shale corrected),

中 SONIC,li SEC.POROS.INDEX

c。MPUτE cpl l·Sw ﹜ a 卒﹛ l·Sxo

F。， M9'ed 0l自 Pl 。’

EVAWATE RESULTS EVALUATION

STATISTICALLY

PRESrnT RESULTS
os FILM or LISTING" RESULTS =-’ 、
p。rosily, Flu Ids, Litholoov

Flgurc 11.20 Logic for the computer interpretation using the Com”
plex Lithology method of Schh1mbe·ger (Poupon et al., 1970).

there are cores, and the characteristics are supplied to
the program Bayes' discriminant analysis is then used
for chai acterizing and SOI ting the various depth points
into populations which represent the type lithologies.
Vigu間 11.22 Squared logs made from statistical clustering. The
example shows the effect of plotting clustered values alougsidc the
origin~ ！ valu" for a nentron log and a density loιThe '"uh should
be compared to the c叩開 plot of Figure 1123. (Redrawn from
Schlumberge沌， 1982)
 '
138 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 、IVELL LOGS

(Figure 11.21). The local modes, numbering say 100 The ad vantage of statistical methods is that natural
150，成re then grouped by linking those that are closest, variability is accounted for The geological recogmt10n
with a result that between 4 and 20 clusters are of a lithology can then be reduced to the classification
obtained. This grouping can be automatic or manual if of a series of geophysical numbers: rt IS conceptually a
geological data is available, as it should be from the simple op也ration (albeit complex mathema!lcally) A
mud log. It is the final groupings that become 'elec- geologist's lithology, formerly only a concept, becomes
’
trofac1es In most cases these are in fact geophysical numbers, more easy to manipulate and more
lithofacies 01 electrolithofacies: they are of the same consistent.
or廿er as the lithologies used by geologists
(Figure 11.24).

DEPTH LITHOLOGIC POROSITY AND FLUIDS FORMATION

FLUID ANALYSIS
CHARACTERISTICS %BULK VOLUME 崎 BULK VOLUME

SHALE 柚 BULK VOLUME WATER SATURATION HYDROCAR~ON WATER CLAY OTZ POROS
。 100 1 叩輛 。
PERMEABILITY INDEX HYDROCARBON VOLUME ....................................................................................

104 !'Sh『 0 25 50 % 柚
。1 0 。 100 。
HYDROCARBON WEIGHT
o !'Sh戶 Ph 0.25

~一
ali。「＇P".'. ( - )Bil Size
「「－ T －「串11
-4

：：”它－一
可－氏 t=j:::

-..- 司、
－言書 誨峙早
』，－ h』 「『『 怕、

.、。 ’

、 "-'· 』f
.
：...~

「Y‘
r

軍＇＂毛~
司且”，－’，自- :1
J
. I --·
知：：： ;;' ZONE OF
4、1宮:
中
『~，....＿＿＿
/
~
. , ’
..

:;i INTEREST
、 ~ ~－－－， ~
a ’,

．越 ;
t!f!t!
~
-
\
主主
’
•
、2
..

、‘ 恥．．‘ 一 、＇
’

c
一 ~－~ ~c
..

1、 可
...
『
’

三三且
(
- =,

’...
、 -
Figure 11.22 Typical computer processed interp1℃talion (CPI) output. The lithology is in vciume % of end membe ·s. The log is mainly for
hydrccarbon indication {Frnm D阻'Ser Atlas, 1982.)
 。

LITHOLOGY RECONSTR U仁 TION FROM LOGS 139

7"
10 ,. " 52 " " JO " 1‘ 23 23 15 的 6
'REOUENCY PLOT NUMBER 0' POINTS •
A>OB ._28 且， 2。”. 12
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. i ：岫NED 州：．

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ij~l!!ll,(
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Figure 11.23
Effects of chistering data for Schlumberger Facio log on the neutron-density croS> plot, Top: unzoned data. Bottom: zoned data.
The zoned data show a large reduction in scatter. (From Serra and Abott, 1980.) -
 '
140 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

IFACIOLOG FROM GST I 直口

DEPTH
SH 向L E I

SH 們L E z, S 肉” DY

S 向 ND 2. C 肉 LC 肉 REOUS

SHALE I
L I 門 ESTONE

S 向 ND 3

5，有 ND 2, C 內 LC 肉 R£0US

宮內 ND 3

S侖 ND 2, C ，有 LC 酬，~cous

SAND 3 400
SAND J, SH 肉 LY

SAND 3

SH 向 LE <. VERY S 舟” DY

SH 肉 LE z, SILTY

LIMESTONE I

SAND 3

SH 向 LE ~. VERY S 肉 NDγ

SAND 3

cscc
2izz
NHNHNHO

HuHuN
CAwedn
aHO 鬥

nunωnut

酋鬥 MHan

．鬥》’
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r』

ss
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a鬥

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們 v’ a
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w 伺
U

r』

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,
口
A
門。鬥

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們 Nn
」 RU

旬，

鬥 Uu
鬥 P

1
BR

s
鬥

SAN 口 3

SHALE 2. SIL TY
SH 自 LE 2, SILTY
s H向 L E 2, SAN 口γ

SAN 口 3 Ecr-吋τy ' ' •• 500

Figure 11.24 Lithology deri"d from a statistic"l computer analysis of log data. Faciolog from Schlumberger. (From Wolf et 叫， 1982.)
 '

12 Facies and depositional

environments from logs

12.l Introduction

The use of well」og analysis in geolo.gieal disciplines is

not sufficiently well developed. Traditionally, logs are
used to correlate one well is compared to another and
hnes drawn between the two. This is a primitive
同 U CONTACT
approach, and logs have a far greater potential. 巳訂 -•brnpt

CAW 啊 m
uG 叫 HM
RTmka

VE
E」DH
＇＇＂＇＂＇＇＇們叫

R 釘 UU
CH ST C S

囝
A
The prev10us chapter dese1 ibes the use of logs to

一一一

叫起
construct Jitholog.y. This chapter takes geology a step

以
further and describes how logs can be used for fac1es
and sed1mentological analyses Modern subsurface SHAPE
geological analysis can and should employ a thorough moreasinQ up"' '
''"'"""'"' lι
m L CONTACT
L!_Jabrupt
and soplust1cated analysis of well-log data -stab e -grodono們，，
}'""'"'"

12.2 Facies

Log shapes in sand bodies: geometry Figure 12.2 Sand回body log shape The shape is de"nbed by purely
geometncal charactensti", Severn! independent elements can be
A basic scheme to classify sand bodies in the Gulf us巳d bes id田 ovei·all shape.

Coast area of the USA, apparently developed by Shell

(cf. Serra and Sulpice, 1975) was based on the shape of
the SP log (Figure 12.1). The scheme was intended to
give a classification of log shapes and types in order to
aid .correlation: it was essentially a geometncal
approach.
Smooth Se,rnted
Purely on geometncal considerations, a log through
a sand body can be characteri血d by a number of
factors (Figure 12.2). In a simple scheme, shape, curve
charactensti囚， the nature of the lower contact and the
nature of the upper contact can all be used for
classification At least eleven variables can be found to
describe the geometry. Even in this simple 品heme, a

- -
+ 一＋
classification with eleven variables become' com自
\ mV mV
phcated ; moreover, it has no geological explanation
BELL
Rather than classifying shap肘， an attempt should be
made to understand the origm of the shapes.

Log sh四pe: lithology and sedimentology

To understand a log shape, the log itself must be

understood. Although the SP log was at the origin of
CYLINDER
(BLOCK) the intere't in log shap°', it is the gamma ray log that IS
best used for examining shapes, the curve giv•臼 greater
vanety of shapes, shows greatei' detail and has more
‘chatacter', Many authors, in fact, regard the gamma
ray log as charactenst1c when illustrating shapes
Therefore, as the gamma ray log is j均quently an
FUNNEL indicator of clay (shale) content (but by no means
always-see Chapter 7), an explanation of gamma ray
log shape' can be related to clay content A bell-shaped
log (Figure 12.1), where the gamma ray value mcreas自
Figure 12.1 Log shape claS>ificatJon The basic geometrical shape> regularly upwards from a low value, should indicate
and description used to analyse SP log shapes. increa,ing clay content a funnel』shape, with the log
 •

J42 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

GAMMA RAY value decreasing regular句 upwards, should show the

5 µgr Ra eq 10 reverse, a decrease in clay content
A core cut through a Triassic fluviatile sand body in
AVERAGE GRAN 副 ZE mm
。 25 o 12 o.00mm SEDI 此，ENTOl.O Gγ the Sahara (Figure 12.3) shows a typical bell-shape on
the gamma ray log response (Serra and Sulpice, 1975).
The increase in gamma radiation corresponds to an
由al•
increase in clay content regularly upwards. The in <

crease in clay content is correlated to a decrease in the

MICRO CRC1'SBEDDED sand-grain size A sedimentolog1cal analysis of the coie
SANnSTONE shows a set of sedimentary structures typical of flu
viatile point bar deposits (Serra and Sulpice, 1975).' The
LAMlNATED bell-shape, therefore, can be interpreted as ind1cat1ve of
SANDSTONE a fining up, fluviatilc point bar sandstone (in this case).
This example shows the close relationship possible
between the gamma ray log and sandstone grain size
Shapes on the gamma ray log can be interpreted as
shale grain-size trends and, by serlimentological association,
出 cycles. A decrease in gamma ray values will indicate
TRIASSIC FLUVIATILE SAND BODY POINT BAR an increase in grain size: small gram sizes will cm-
respond to higher gamma ray values (Figure 12.4). The
Figure 12 3 Sedimentology of a bell shape A core cut through a
sand body with a typi胡l bell shape on the gamma ray log shows it to sedimentological implication of this relationship leads
be a fluviatile channel. Note the close corr"pondence between the to adl!'凹的orrelation between facies and log shape, not
gamma ray (giving clay content) and grain size. Triassic, Sahara JUSt for the bell-shape as described above but for a
(Redrawn from Serra and Sulpice, 1975.)
whole variety of shapes.
Numerous publications show the log shapes expec-
ted or found in various facies (Krueger, 1968 ;
Galloway, 1968 ; Fisher, 1969 ; Fons, 1969; Pirson,

~：~t：~： ：
1970 ; Goetz et al., 1977 ; Coleman and Prior, 1982,
Galloway and Hobday, 1983). They all depend on the
relationship between log shape and grain-size trends in
sandstone bodies A bell-shape md1cates a 且ning-up
sequence which may be an alluvial/fluvial channel but
DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL also a transgressive sand A funnel-shape IS a
coarsemng-up sequence which may be a deltaic pro
gradation or a shallow marine progradation
(Figure 12.5). The analogies may even be extended to
deep-sea deposits. In these cases the log shapes are
those of overall sequences rather than individual
主r 昕aln size bodies (Parker, 197ηThe shapes come from the
diminution in bed thickness associated with dimi-

11 ;, ':?
SAND BAR
nut10n in grain 刮目， rathe1 than the direct change in
grain size itself. However, the principles are similar
(Figure 12.5).
To add another dimension to log shapes, a simple,
theoretical scheme has been proposed (Sell句， 1976). to
differentiate between the various environments which
coal may give similar log shapes, based on the presence or
肌心﹔J﹔︱荒…踅「－戶 absence of glauconite and carbonaceous matter

ilj silt laminae

(Figure 12.6). Glauconite is the marine indicator, car-
bonaceous the non-marine. However, there is no
九－.－.－ •• -.-, ：：：，弓己 replacement for a serious and complete seduuentologi-
cal study of core material, when it is present (e.ι
DISTRIBUTARY CHANNEL Budding and Inglin, 1981), to confirm the origin of log
shapes (Figure 12.7). Moreover, the careful compi『
lation of sedimentological data shows that interpreting
Flgurc 12.4 Grain s白e gamma ray correlation a very close re ”
lationship is po<Sible between the two. (Modified from Simon gamma ray log shapes in terms of sedimentology is far
Brygoo, 1980.) too simplistic
 '
FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL EN 、 IRONMENTS FROM LOGS 143

DEL TAIC-FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENTS

A. CHANNEL-POINT BAR B. DEL TA BORDER PROGRADATION

alluvial or fluvial
grain size

「 IlI －L
~I
「EEEEEEEl －』 L

26 m
制守持＂＇
25 m

h巧子手仿
、：：－：結？：：
主持土完：瓦~erosion

GR 。r SP

MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

C. TRANSGRESSIVE MARINE SHELF D. PROGRADING MARINE SHELF

l
「BEBE－

2 sm
E－ hEEEEEL

FUm
旬，包

GR 。r SP

DEEP SEA ENVIRONMENTS

PROXIMAL DISTAL

1
巳 SLOPE CHANNEL F. INNER FAN G. MIDDLE FAN H. SUPRA-FAN I. BASIN
CHANNEL CHANNEL DEPOSITIONAL PLAIN
5m LOBES

Figu間 12.5 Fac1•自 indications from gamma ray (or SP) log shapes. The芯e are idealized exampl" both of log shape and sed1mentologic facies.
(Modified from Ser凹， 1972; Parker, 1977; Galloway and Hobday, 1983.)

Th他 gamma ray grain『size relatwnship a critical terpretation of gamma ray log shapes depends on the
exαmin α tion vanat1011s of logs with grain size. By inference, the
sedimentological mterpretation of log shapes will in
Neither the gamma ray nor the SP log varies because of turn depend on the extent of the relationship between
changes in grain s1間， they vary (often) because of clay content and gram size.
changes in clay content The sedimentolog1cal 111- There is no doubt that a grain-size/clay-content
 。

明…司

間一問
間

間
1…
1…
144 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 、￥ ELL LOGS

GL +C GL ~ 1• GL• c ︱
c
submarine edge of submarine fluvial or deltaic
fan { turbidite} marine bar channel ’ distributary
channel

--

llx
s[ nvr ma GL = glaucomte present
。

distal slope or
crevasse splay C= carbonace 。us matter present

Figure 12.6 Interpretation of bg shapes, A simple system interpreting the environment of sand bodies using a combination of log shape 創1d
detrital mineral components. (From Selley, 1976.)

relationship exists (e.g. Figure 12.3). However, it is by
no means a constant one. The textural analysis
(Figure 12.8) shows an alluvial molasse sandstone with
a consistent relationship, grain srze to clay content,
while the well winnowed marine sandstone shows no
relationship (Pettijohn et al, 1972). A similar variation
is expressed by the statrstrcal analysis of quartz content
in various grain-size fractions from different environ-
ments (cf. Davies and Ethridge, 1975) (Figure 12.9).
This latter analysis shows two contrastmg aspects. The
30
non-quartz con阻nt of sandston臼（re clay matrix, rock
fragments and feldspars) may vary linearly within one
sand body or even one environment, but, in contrast,
the vm iations of these same elements between different
environments show widely different patterns. In the
lluviatile environme訓， for example, the non-quartz
elements show a second-order polynomial vanation.
In fact, such are the differences in the variations
between the qu旺tz and non-quartz content of sand
st on的 that the differences themselves may be used to
identify environments (Davies and Ethridge, 1975).
That grain size shows a variable and complex
relationship to clay content is amply demοnstrated by

\: •
the correlation of c油re measured grain size to cor-
responding gamma ray log values (Figure 12.10). A
.. relatrvely good correspondence is found 111 the deltarc
（注N

A
&
‘
4
。V

X之＇＜！＇
20 aa
心

100
><
...
dp←z山HZ。ONL戶血〈

JUGF
‘ a 75

10
A 海｛－..：
20 DOGGERβ
A ~\
DO

.
... • _I
....、2
0 VF FINE MEDIUM C'E
。
30 40 50 70 100 200
一
心祥且于＝
GRAIN SIZE 。 10 。 20 030 040 。由 0 60 酬

(log median µ} QUARTZ MEAN SIZE

Figure 12.8 Textural analysis of the clay grain size relationship. Figure 12.9 Vanatlons in sandstone composition with gram size
Clay content compared !O grain size for an alluvial sandstoue (the and 叩Vll'onment. Tl詢問lationships are complex (non quar但 ele­
Mo las叫 and a marine ~~ndstone (Dagger p). (From Pett句。恤， et 吼， menls includefeldsp缸， reek fragments, clay and a四間 sories: they are
1972 ; modified from Fl也htbau肘， 1964) mostly rndioactive). (Data from Davies and Ethridge, 1975.)
 GAMMA RAY POROSITY% PERMEABILITY mHUda,cy w
API 10 2olo. 1 10 100 1000 8"

2840

AE
H

6
叫〉

》 Zv＠
a旬
hMmm

2850
〉Z 口口開 MMCE
口J

2860
三三三
已
Figure 12.7 Co間 analysis of log shapes. Detailed sedim間tological and petrographic study of cor曲 kadin車間扭扭alysis of log shapes
DZ 〉「開 Z 〈同阿NCZE目ZJ

a, medium ; b, fine; c, very fine sand, d, silt

『

.
ωZWDEFDEm

恥
之2、
 。

146 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

,,,( A. 100
也許〉UZ山DOUEhh
GAMMA RAY SANDSTONE BED THICKNESS (m)
作】e
0 5 1 0 5 0 10

MARINE
ENV 』 RONMENT

thlnnl開叩

'"'"'"" of
’。＂＇；＂＇ ''"
。 10 50 100
GAMMA RAY API

B. 100
,/
法〉 UZ山30山EHL

DELTAIC
圳，，，們l呵
ENVIRONMENT
押時 qo 叩開

(PRESUMED CHANNEL} of p<Oo"d;og

v. fl 叫 ddlefan
I
50 100
GAMMA RAY AP!

Figure 1210 Gamma ray value correlated with grain-size classes.

The marine sand.otone A shows "mfiar gamma my A PT "In的 rm
different grain size claS> 曲， i.e. there is overlap. The deltaic sandstone
叫 shows excellent separntion of classes. A vemge grain sizes from thin
seet<ons cse ~ coarse, me ~ medmm, fi ~fine, v fi ~ very fine
(From Simon-Brygoo, 1980.) F12nre 12.11 Gamma ray log not showinggrain sizechange>.Core
analysis oF a turbidite sequence showing considerable bed thickness
(and grain size) vanation which have little correlation with variations
m the gamma ray log. (From De'ath and Schuyleman, 1981)

example, but no correspondence in the marine sand
example. The effect of this on the logs is well de-
monstrated by an example showing a gamma ray log
through a probable turbidite sand sequence
(Figure 12.11) (De'ath and Schuyleman, 1981). While
cores show a great number of beds of different thick『
n臼8個 and (presumably) different grain sizes, the
gamma ray log shows little variat10n
The explanation for the differences in the relat10n-
ship between clay content and grain size is probably to
be found in the different hydraulic regimes in the
various environments. Thus, in the fluviatile environ-
me則， clays are dispersed throughout the sand mass so
that a fine-grained sand will entrap a greater amount of
clay than will a medium-gramed sand from a higher-
energy environment Hence the correspondence be-
tween clay and grain size in this type of depositional
environment, and the correspondence between log
shape and sedimentological cycles (e.g. Figure 12.3),
IVwith the probable exception of coarse sandstone
(Figure 12.9). In the marine environment, curren臼
have a tendency to wmnow, and sortmg 1s good Clay
will be sorted equally from the coarse and the fme
J
-
sands: clay content will have no correspondence to
grain size (e.g. Figure 12且， Dogger H; Figure 12.lOA).
-
Discussion to this point has assumed that the
gamma ray log and the SP log are reliable clay
indicators. Under the right conditions (see Chapter 5)
this is true for the SP log The gamma ray log, howe•er,
may react to any number of radioactive grams within
sandstones. in many cases it is not a good clay
indicator (see Chapter η
In conclusion, the attractive idea that log shapes
indicate sandstone depositional environments is too
simplistic. If a log shape ex扭扭 it is probably a reliable
indicator: the mere fact that it exists indicates an
environment where clay content and grain size cor-
relate If a particular shape does not exist, no con-
clusions can be made.
12.3 The sequential analysis of logs-a tool 伽 sedi­
mentological interpretation
The study oflog shapes has two other maior shortcom-
m軒， besides the drawbacks discussed above. Only one
log is considered and only sand bodies are mvolved
The sequential analysis of well logs, m contrast, is an
important tool avoidmg these problems, smce 1t de-
mands the use of all available logs, all available data
and a study of the complete well, not just the sand
 。
s？~~ 4i'.
10

son;c ν 間山m

（
-"<',
）： λ

EVZ
density~ ＇、
r

但已。旬
M〉

'
－－~
5"
'
U們回

一－－~
r一－－一一
30 也一一－
、『
一一－－
－一－－－/ 刁
t 一
』－
一一’，
40
1 }

宅主－
ι
mm〉Z 巴巴間可 CE→－

F>g叮·e 12.12 The da阻base for sequenti剖 analy,is, a full set of logs through mervoir and non re,ervoir. The fi血 grai由d section shows a
progradatio且al sequence from coal to org•阻ic shale to shale w吐出 an inc扭扭曲gq•臨rtz content: the sand, on 由e other hand, shows no well-defmed
trends. Note the varying reactions of the ind1、odual logs.
GZ 〉戶自 Z 〈阿戶。

。
ZE 間Z 叫切情mCEF 。白白

品
、斗
 。

148 THE GEOUJGICAL INTERPRETATION OF 可￥ELL LOGS

SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS

deoc"U"""I e >Im 月 me""·

foe 陷＂•
"""' °"
depo•lfl。＇＂ I
Figure 12.13 Flow chart for sequential analys1S. Numbers refer to steps d間＇＂＇ cd in the texi.

bodies or reservoirs. Sequential analysis is a systematic may or may not have geological significance These
approach to log interpretation, and was developed by characteristics (baselin阻， trends, shapes, abrupt
Elf in France (Serra, 1972, 1973; Serra and Sulpice, breaks, curve amplitude and frequency, and anomalies)
1975). The first principle of the system is that reservoirs 、＂ill be discussed individually below
and non-reservmrs are equally important. geology is
not r臼tricted to reservoirs. In a sand shale sequence,
for example, the environmental mformat1on contained
m the fine-grained, non-reservoir mtervals, equals or
。
even exceeds that m the reservoir zones. The second
principle is that no one log can characterize a for月
mation: each logging tool examines the same for-
mation but from different aspects, and all are equally
characteristic (Figure 12.12).
The essential steps of a proper sequential analysis
are laid out below in moderate detail. A house is built
from the foundations upwards: the roof comes last. 25
Sequential analysis must follow the constructive route;
the analysis to define facies, depositional environ-
ments, and depositional sequences, must come last
(Figure 12.13).

Step 1: Interpretation of lithology

50
Sequen世al analysis is ideally undertaken using a
document on which all well logs are plotted, depth-
correlated and at the same scale. Since modern log
acquisition is digital, a re-plot of all the logs and all the
runs of one well is a fairly simple affair. With the CSU
unit of Schlumberger, for example, a ‘merged' log of an
entire well is quickly made. This document is then
completed, with a detailed lithological interpretation, 75m
using the methods previously discussed (Chapter 11).
This lithological interpretation will come from an
examination of both log- and drill-derived data
(Figure 12.13).

Step 2 ：。 Electrofacies analysis

Fignre 12.14 T間nd lines. Large-scale, first』order log trend(on a deep
Once the lithology is established, the logs can be 111duction）目1closing smaller second-order trends in a prograding
examined for characteristics seen on the traces which carbonate shelf complex. lithology from log analysis and dnll cuttings

FACJES AND DEPOS!TIONAL ENVIRONMENTS FROM LOGS
GAMMA RAY
a API aol
。
25m
50m
75m
山z＝口 Z〈ω
100m
Figure 12.15 Complex trends The minimum gamma ray value (the
sand line)remainscanstant, the maximum values show a diminishing
trend upwards
Baselines A baseline hos both lithological and stratig-
raph1c signi日cance. It has a consistent value, either
maximum or mmimum, shown by a log over a certain
thickness. The use of baselines in interpreting the SP
log is described in Chapter 5. Gamma ray baselines are
described (Chapter 乃 as an aid to lithology interpre固
tation (Figure 7.21) but all logs may be subjected to a
baseline analysis and individually interpreted. While
baselines ate consistent there is no lithological change,
probably no fonnational change: the significance is
stratigraphic.
Baselines should be marked on the logs by a ruled
line.
Trend lines. A log trend is a persistent change in a log
value over a certain thickness. Trends may be over one
•
149
metre when they are related to bed ]Unctions, tens of
metres when they are most likely related to sedimen-
tary facics, or hundreds of metres when they are related
to basin-filling or large events. Trends over small
thicknesses may occur within longer trends as second
order variations (Figure 12.14).
Trend lines may be evtdent for only maximum values
or minimnm values For example, a shale baseline of
maximum gamma ray values may be consistent while
the minimum values show a decreasing t自nd. The
re,erse, of course, may also be seen (Figure 12.15).
Trends should be marked on each of the logs with
coloured lines, separate colours indicating decrease or
increase (e.g. red mcrease, blue decrease).
Shap臼. Log shapes in sandstones have already been
discussed ; where they exist, they are useful. However,
shapes may occur many lithology, on any log, in any
form and at any scale. The form, as it exis阻， should be
marked on the log in a distinct colour (distinct from the
trend colours, say green). If a form classification is
n耳目sa旬， it may be marked on the log
Shapes of logs over small thicknesses, as has been
described, may be related to sedimentary bodi臼－
Shapes which spread over several hundreds of metres
are more likely to indicate basin-wide conditions and
may be called either shapes or complex trends. These
strahgraphically自important shapes are most common
in fine-grained fadesσi直U自 12.16) and frequently
indicate regional even個
Abrupt breaJ.臼 This term applies to any sudden change
in log values ,‘the vertical extension of which does not
exc旭ed the spacing or diameter of the depth of in-
vestigation of the particular tool' (Serra and Sulpic池，
1975). The diameter or depth of investigation of the
gamma ray tool, for example, is about 50c血， an abrupt
change for this tool is therefore less than 50 cm
vertically. Abrupt change may apply also to baselines.
Abrupt breaks may fit logically into a lithological (and
depositional) pattern, such as the erosional base of a
sand bed over shale, or they may be enti阻ly unrelated
to the lithological sequence, such as a fault or an
unconformity. The followmg abrupt change迅 are
possible.
(1) Lithologically related Erosion
changes Transgression
Catastrophe
(2) Npn-lithologi叫l changes Fault
Unconformity
Diagenet1c change
Fluids change.
All sharp breaks should be marked on the litholog卜
cal log, firstly by a thick horizont叫 line. If later
examinat10n allows the 111terpretat10n of the break as a
fault, erosion surface, etc, the line should be replaced
by a symbol (Figure 12.17). The necessary principal
 '

150 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

Neutron φ Neutron φ Neutron φ

也斗笠→3。 45 30
L-L___」－」＇－－－」
45 30
＇－－－」島一__L__」一＿，

datum

、BIl
O
。

－－
ιMWE的
100m 100m

oil
－－ O
200m 2oom
~
g
ο
300m

40om

500m

Figure 12 16 Complex log shapes indicating depositional patterns. Log shapes in neutron logs are persistent over thick shale intervals which
represent at least 30 Ma of depcsition and basin filling. The shap" are caused principally by char>ges in quartz content, carbonate and 。 rganic
mntter they indicate basin filling conditions The two outside wells are o,er 50km apart.

symbols are fault, eros10n surface, transgression sur-
face and unconformity.
Cur凹 amplitude and frequency. These are simply
notional terms for each of the logs to indicate the
frequency and amplitude of changes They may in-
dicate a local facies or a lithological suite of basin-wide
significance. The notion is similar to the smooth v.
sem主ted log profile m the geometrical log-shape classi-
fication (Figure 12.1). Since each log has its own
reactwn limits, the character is relative to only one
particular log at a tune. Mtcrologs, for example, always
show much more vaiiatmn in frequency than do
laterologs (Figure 6.18).
The significance of log character has been em-
phasized by several authors (Shields and Gahan, 1974;
Wolff and Pelissier-Combescure, 1982). On a small
scale the criteria can indicate small-scale lithological
differences. A massive sand will give a smooth c閻明，
while a sand with shaly partings will give a serrated log.
On a larger scale, peaks through a shale sequence, for
example, may indicate carbonate beds or nodules
Their frequency may have strat1graph1c and environ-
mental significance
For sequential analysis, quantifying log amplitude
and frequency is not practicable. The features should
simply be noted and used for interpretation with all the
other data.
Anmnali剖， Log anomalies are important excessively
high or excessively low peaks (values) may have great
stratigraphic importance. The concentration of un-
usual rnmerals at unconforrnities, for instance, will
often create a large gamma ray peak, a density high,
and so on (cf. Figure 13 1) Anomalous values often
indicate unusual litholog1es or minerals wluch are
quite likely to be wrongly interpreted. They should be
noted by an asterisk on the log
Step 3: Interpretation for fαcies, depositional
envirom附nt and depositional sequence
Ha ving0 established a lithology and an analysis of the
electrofacies, the final preparation before undertaking
the overall interpretation is to add all relevant ·data to
the sequential analysis document from sample and
core examinations. for example, sedimentological ana-
lyses of cores, thin-section analyses, strat1graph1c ages,
enviromnental analyses of fauna, and dipmeter
interp1etat1ons
 •
FACll;S AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS FROM LOGS 151

1tJr門附呵︱ ~
NEUTRON
50 GAMMA RAY API DENSITY g/cm 3 2 ”75
-:0-τ－－－
。 <
k 』～－..＝－＝－
~－－一
< ,
10 φN 一－；；，，＿＿、 BREAK

r
已一－ _5-
－～三4 CHANNEL
---•
一－一~ EROSION
20 c
c一
i 一＿，－ 一－－－－－＂＇
~＼ 「－ 』～ξ

aom
B
NE~TRONφ
旦旦旦!Y_ g/cm3
density

LOG
BREAK

20 -
TRANS-
GRESSION
(LOCAL ?}

aom
c RESISTIVITYohm-m2/ml SONIC µJft 154 15
0 2 1,0 1 01155 9011 8 2.45
。1 ’，’，因

ILD 斗｛＿ SFL

10
(( BREAK

20 -
UNC。 N-
FORMITY
川

som
D
NEUTRON …
DENSITY g/c品3 2 6
7
、去d
nJJUCι
之JZC 〈
－、石’，H－

N
φ ！

10
丸
、
bRJf
’入一，戶
E

、
J

20·
丸，、
P主
K－

30m
Figure 12.17 Example> ofabrup{ breaks. Lithological related breaks: A, channel erosi 凹， B, cycle top trnnsgr"sion. Non-lithologically relaterl
b問aks: C, unconformity; D, fault.

Frequently an enormous amount of data ts available
which is not exploited. The entire suite, lithology
mterpretation, electrofacies analysis and sample ana-
lys!S data, can then be subjected to a sequential
analysis-from the base of the well upwatds. All the
data are used (Figure 12.13).
In this final step of the interpretation, the mtent is to
reconstruct a 、 ertical sequence of individual depo-
sitional envll"onmen阻， The evidence for the mterpre-
tation comes from each pre凹ding step, A particular
lithology, such as coal for example, indicates swamp ot
marsh, electrofacies analysis indicates a zone of clay to
 、品

v、

SHALLOW DENSITY
ENVS. BREAKS,
GAMMA RAY !RESISTIVITY
s。 NIC COMMENTS
HEmEEE

已佐山F
g__一~且

」戶〈巴
SEQUENCFS

」Z－
NEUTRON

ω」戶
…-…
551'＝一一一一－
""
doopooloc
自己〉們 HZ

ba"" """"'?
且言自

Ii!" slight strnot,catlo 叫

4

LJMIT
『〉」

25
H『

progressive
m 叮e
sea level rise?
man 間 d""'""'
! ~I TRANSGRESSION
l 川 EXTENT? SEQUENCE L!MIT?
川 fluv1alchannel
I in core
DZSd 〈出戶戶戶。

。－
g

50 λ erosion channel
de!t學 top/gcoot
m c。，.

ωω〈－止
F，
、
ha1
E111111
CU mat 。r

75
呵叫主／尸 ,‘‘ delta
pcogcadatioo
MAJ。R
PR。GRADATION
REGRESSION

佐山色已三
100m

eustatic sea level

rise
TRANSGRESS ！。N
SEQUENCE LIMIT
且H旦旦
~

Figure 12.18 A co血pleted sequ血口叫血alysis. Lithology, elec甘ofacies 祖d sampk data are brought together to give a vertical sequence of
depositional enviro且血闊的 and an 咽dication of the depositional sequences and 血ajor breaks.
'E且vironmentso I, d自P冒血缸ine; 2, shallow 血缸ine 汀， prodelta, 4, delta fro剖， 5, delta top; 6, channel; 7, beach-littoral, 8, continen阻］： cu
~co缸扭曲ng up, FU ~fining up.

FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS FROM LOGS
sand progradat1on ; a core analysis mdicatc' a sand to
be lluvrnl, fauna! analysis suggests a shale was de-
posited m a neritic env1ronme肘， and so on. The
resulting interpretation should be a sedimentologically
logical sequence of envITonments The breaks re
cognized from the logs and from fauna! analysis should
be added to the environmental interp間tation and the
pnncipal sequenc間 extracted (Figure 12.18). The en-
vironmental logic should only continue between the
m句orbr巴eaks. This document, as well as the detailed set
of envtronmen阻， may now show thick or d1stmctive
•
] 53
deposit10nal sequences which have a stratigraphic
1mportan臼（Figure 12.18)(see ‘Depositional sequences
and stratigraphy’, Chapter 13).
It is impossible to give the details of all the reasoning
used to construct this final document. Many geological
disciplines are involved. This section simply describes
the system of sequential analysis, and how the body of
data IS built up to form the interpretation tool To use
the tool one needs not just the data from this book, but
training and expenencc in all fields of oil geology

13 Stratigraphy and logs
13.1 Introduction
As an aid to stratigrapluc analysis, wircline Jogs are
invaluable. As a means of correlatton their use is
obvious However, they may also be used for more
sophisticated forms of stratigraphic analysts Th站
chapter des℃ribe8 the use of log' to define lithostratig-
raphy, various aspec峙。f the use oflogs for correlation,
and stratigraphic breaks and stratigraphic sequences
seen on logs. The latter are the common factor between
logs and seismic sections, and between sequential
analysis and seismic stratigraphy.
13.2 Lithostratigraphy
Type subsurface lithostratigraphy
The simplest use of well logs for stratigraphic analysis
is in the identification of lithostratigraphic units. Such
umts allow a well to be divided up into intervals which
may be identifiable m other wells or even on the
surface
The best use of the lithostratigraphic unit in the
subsurface is to define type sections Just as type
stratigraphic sections exist at outcrop, so type wells can
be designated in the subsurface for particular litho
stratigraphic formations. Well logs form the basis for
these definitions. The various lithological units of the
North Sea, fo1 example, have been defined by govern-
ment agencies of the countries concerned (Rh戶， 1975;
Deegan and Scull, 1977; NAM/RGD, 1980). Each
lithological unit has been designated a type well which
can be used as a reference for both lithological and log
characteristics (Figure 13.1).
On a different scale, the stratigraphy of a particular
field may be describ崎d using a type well and well logs
illustrating each lithostratigraphic interval (e.g.
Jamison et al., 1980). Names in fields are frequently
specific to the operating company. The illustration of
the named intervals using well logs enables them to be
identified outside the field and by other companies. It
,II avoids annoymg name confusion.
13.3 Some aspects of correlation
Correlatable tirr睡－constant horizοm
Tune constant horizons are rare. They are, by nec-
> reservotrs and therefore important, they should,
essi句， more or less instantaneous in terms of geological
time, and independent of environment To be useful,
moreover, they must be of wide geograplucal extent.
。
The most common horizons which fulfil th自C cnte
ria are those made of volcanic luff. Their origtn, as the
products of volcamc explosion, is independent of the
final depositional environment The dispersion of the
clements of the explosions can be very lar gc. The
Lower Tertiary tuffs of the North Sea and Norwegian
Sea are a fine example (J aιque and Thouven凹， 1975,
Knox and Morton, 1983). They arb found over a huge
area, a mmimum of 2000 km from north to south, from
the Lofoten Islands in Northern Norway to the coasts
of Holland. The tuff horizons can only be recognized
with difficulty in cuttings, exeept with a microscope,
but are easily seen on the well logs as they show a
characteristic low radioacttvity, high density and high
velocity (Figure 13.2). Their age is everywhere Upper
Palaeocene (Thanetian) and the main phase S田ms to
have lasted less than 1 million years (Knox and
Mort凹， 1983).
A second type of time honzon may be caused by
chemical chai屯的 in water masses due to changes in
ocean water circulation patterns. These changes may
create distinct horizons in sediments, especially those
from deeper” water environments The effects are rap拙，
of large extent and essentially independent of
environment
Mαrker hoγizons
The simplest and most evident form of log correlation
is by using log markers This marker may be a
distinctive peak, a distinctive shape or a distinctive
lithology The Jurassic of the Paris Basin, for example,
shows the behaviour of marker shapes over a stable,
intra-eratonic basin (Figure 13.3). Correlating th臼e
log shapes gives a r℃liable chrono-stratigraphy (Serra,
1972).
False correlations fac1es
In sand shale sequences, correlattons often become
extremely complex. It ts exceedingly easy to correlate
two similar looking sand bodies between two wells,
only to find that the liquids that they contain are
incompatible for the structur毯， and that, in reality, they
are not related The correlatton was of like facies. It is
自senttal to take account of the facies bemg correlated.
In sand-shale sequences, although sand bodies are the
nonetheless, nnt form the basis for correlation.
In contrast, m the example shown in Figme 13.4,
from sedimentological considerations, facies were
 .
STRA TIGRAl'HY AND I’。GS 155

TYPE SECTION TOP OF RED CHALK TO BASE OF CRETACEOUS

BURMAH 48/22-2 WELL

c。ordinates: 53 15' 34" N RTE 93 ft (28m } A MS L

”E
ιDOtox」〈ZO

。 1 22' 36 Drilled 11th November 1967 - 281h January 1968

,GAMMA RAY SONIC µJft

API
240 190 140
。 60 120 90
'675'

寸寸
RED CHALK FORMATION TTTT
(2oam}
Mudstone, calcareous to slightly
calcareous, red brown with
consistent small amounts of white

TT
to light grey mottling and lesser
dark orev mottllno 773 ’
SPEETON OLAY FORMATION (236m }
Mudst 。ne grading to shale with
depth, slightly calcareous t。ccas-
lonally very calcare。us), light brown
to grey becoming pred 。 mlnantly
greyish，。live g•een with depth, traces
ot glauconlte, some shell fragments.
900

Shale, slightly calcare。us

(occaslonally very calcareous),olive
grey to grey black, m。derately
且3。宜。

lndurated, shell fragments abundant

In places, sporadic bands of silty
sandstone, very frlable, abundant 且
phosphate n 。dules, brownish black,
near base with a thin siltstone,
dark green-grey. m
」」。ZUL

1200
E山罩。宜。

1300

1347'
SPILSBY SANDSTONE FORMATION { 411m>
Sandstone, very fine to medium,
。。1。urless to grey white, unc 。ns 。I -
<

ldated w此h some cemented bands,

γ－伽

14
。，齣自q

sub-angular to sub-rounded, thin

lnterbeds of shale, green to blue- t=’4 )
green, firm to fissile

Figure 13.1 Type section of an offshore formation illustrated by well logs, (Redrawn from Rhys, 1975,)

156 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LnGS
GAMMA RAY
120
。 1。 API
v
uzuo
25 v v
。凶〈」〈且
v
v v
缸uank2
50
Figure 13 2 Time-constant ho.-izcn. The main North Sea Tuff zone an effective 'time
v~ 曲sent』ally many thin, graded beds of tuff.
gtven an expected continuity and value for cOJ relation
Thick coals represent a relatively long period of time
and are usually persistent: they have a high correlation
value. The same can be said of lo且 patterns showing a
progradational upward increase in quartz: these too
are good for correlation Howe,er, the sandstone
bodies, as proved by fluid incompatibilities, cannot
easily be correlated This is an area of active deltaic
deposition reservotr correlation is exceedingly
complex
The rule of correlating only cert剖n factes ts um-
versa!. In general, the finer』grained the facies, the
better the corr巴elation value The deeper the environ-
ment of deposition, the more continuous the cor-
relation (with the exception of turbidites !).
Pa/aeonto/ogical/y-contro//ed corre/atwn
It is generally safer not to correlate well logs without
the corroboration of palaeontological datings Adding
palaeontologtcal datings gives to a correlation, a time
stratigraphtc value. It is a correlation which can be
interpreted in terms of regional and perhaps global
time indexed events.
> and, in thts case, limestone and reef development
The example (Figur℃ 13.5) shows the careful log
correlatton and dating of a series of Middle
Cretaceous rocks which cover a small pod like horst
(the Buchan Horst) in the central North Sea (Burnhill
and Ramsay, 1981). The lithostratigraphy shows some
continuity but also inexplicable discontinuities. The
datings, not fine enough for correlation, do however
add sufficient data to explain the discontinuities and to
corroborate the continuous log correlations The com-
bmed log and palaeontological correlations show a
mtd-Cretaceous, early Turonian unconformity over
•
26
H間， which can be correlated over huge areas
the horst itself, combined with a later Turonian onlap.
By correlating the unconformity with a regional
Turonian regressive phase which occurred throughout
north-west Europe and North America, the authors
show that the erosion was not the result of local
movement on the hors!, but the result of a global
change in a sea level (Burnhill and Ramsay, 1981). The
succeeding onlap had a stmtlar cause. Obvtously, this
sort of reasoning is not possible with undated log
correlations
Correlation and deposittona/ topography
The topography of the present-day surfaces of sedi-
ment deposition must be similar to those that existed in
the past The environmen 阻 of shelf, slope and basin
extsted in past geological time, as now Long-distance
correlations should reflect these topographic elements.
The Pennsylvaman to Permian deposits οf West
Texas were apparently laid down close to the shelf edge
(Van Siclen, 1958). Correlations over !Okm in these
beds across the palaeo-shelf edge show the depo-
sitional topography as it then was (Figure 13.6). The
topography is associated with changes in lithology
Limestones develop on the platform, reefs on the
platform edge and shales in the basin off the shelf slope.
To show depositional topography the choice of
datnm is critical In the example cited, the area has not
suffered too severe a tilting or differential subsidence
The present-day surface used as a datum still allows the
palaeotopography to be seen. This is not always the
case, and a chosen horizontal datum must correspond
to a facies which was deposited on a horizontal surface
For example coal beds were originally qutte flat:
unconformities were not.
N s
MCB LY2 M87 ME1 BH1 CSD7 CY1
BA? BAB BA6 MC1 MC?

PETROREP WELLS
stratigraphic marker: t。p of Greensand
Barremian Aptian transiti 。n (lithology)
回吋w
－〉斗目口肉〉
ν】

~
ZJ汽〉Z 口 Hi白
c白

丸，、
、斗

F<gure 13.3 Detailed corτ·elation of Io g 血arkers giving a reliable cbronostratigraphy. F缸is Bas咽， France. (From Seπ見 1972)
 ∞
"'
→且開口徊。門C血肉鬥〉戶室叫EEZ

AGES
…NSI。叫：~ c•o

Z〈z
〉吋EZO 司司開

Hernno Fm DATUM

﹛〉一V
－。但3」戶
』呵
FFFCE

一
一。（。
Z〈Z
－
Hidra Fm
Rφdby

Y 但也－
log c。 rrelat1 。n lines

〈EOZ凶。
hzg
~ BUCHAN HORST
Rodby Fm
’,

OHM
﹜一（－）
－ Z〈一且」〈
Figure 13.5 P叫aeontologically-<:ontrolled correlation. The mid-Cretaceous across the Buchan Field Horst, North Sea. Outside wells 6 km apart.
GR~ gamma ray AP! units Sonic~ Lit microseconds p缸 foot. M FZ ~ microfaunal zo血 PS~ Praegwbotmncona step加ni hiozone. RC
~Ro阻lipora cuslu叩ni biozane. HB ~ Hedbergella brittonen.,is biozo血 GB~ 也﹛obigeri即 !laid·自 bentone間的 biozone. (From Bumhill and
Ramsay, 1981)

、
 '

ι
STRATIGRAPHY AND LOGS 159

叫
一
w x c。al correlates
/

JZ y z

sand bodies
DO NOT correlate

Figure 13.4 Correlations in a deltaic complex. Incompatible fluids show that the sand brdi" are separated. Persistent correlations are based on
c'als and the fine-grained fades. MC~ marker c凹L M~mark凹， CYC~mark世 cide. Wto Z ts 3 5km.

Correlatwn and seismic sections
Using well logs to identify mapped seismic horizons is
common (see Chapter 8) but their use should go
beyond this. Log correlation and seismic mapping
should be undertaken together: the approach should
be iterative Horizons correlated using wireline logs
should he identified on seismic Mapped seismic
horizons should be identified on the logs Setsmic ties
and log correlations should obviously be parallel. The
examination of a seismic section before completing a
log correlation will indicate whether such a correlahon
is po阻ible.
The log tied to the seismic section in Figure 13.10,
fot example, shows a prominent progradattonal m-
terval surmounting a series of parallel sequences.
Nearby wells may be correlated to the lower parallel
sequenc自（supercycles Ta Tb Tc) but not at all
to the progradational interval (especially super
cycle Td). Such simple concepts need to be demon-
str ated by the simultaneous use of well logs and seismic
se氾！tons

SW PLACID MONNELL

. . •. •' . .
NE

－
•' •' •' ••
E岫
3一日

• s叫RAY PENT EX
HARDY KRIBBS
DAτUM

一 600

制ωω
Z 〈－ Z 巴 ua

z
a2d 呵。比

•auo
JO

J呵，－

一
豈

一 二二哥 n二二
2000

君臨
•
<o,
~
I<( I"
>lz 、一
－－－一←→－ "
〉戶時司
ω凹

主開」一一」~
叫一
＆川 0 日
....,....
1/2 3/
戶
1

1 5 km
ml 旭

varllonl aoa旭 exaggerated 4 llm•閱 horizontal

Figu峙的.6 Correlation and paleotopography in the Pern11an of West Texas. Lngs SP to the l晶， electrical su叮叮 to the right. (Redrawn from
Van S1clen, 1958.)

160 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS
3” 瓦而MA AV API
。 ca ice' 1QO 150
。
10m
20m ~
30m UNCONFORMITY
PEAK
40m
~15
som
F•gure 13.7 Anomalous garruna ray peak at an unconformity. The peak corrc.,ponds to gap of 15 Ma: its stratigraphic impcrtan間的 evid凹t The
radioactivity is probably due to ur胡ium concentrated in pho.•phatic nodules.
13.4 Stratigraphic breaks and stratigraphic sequences
U nconformzties and sequence limits
Modern stratigraphy is paying more and more atten-
tion to the breaks in the sedimentary and stratigraphy
records Such breaks can vary in their duration in time
and in their geographic extent and can be made up of
non』deposition or erosion (or both) (Sloss, 1984).
Channel downcuttmg forms an erosional break, short
in time and of very limited extent. A eusta!Ic sea-level
drop creates non-depos1t1on over huge areas and may
last several million years The termmology for such
breaks as ) et lacks definition, but it is clear that
angular unconform1ties such as that seen by Hutton at
Siccar Point, is but one type of stratigraphic break and
probably the least common
Major stratigraphic breaks are usually e師ily re-
cogmzable on wireline logs: there are dip changes, a
distinct faunal gap, a change of compaction, and there
may be anomalous log peaks. This sort of break
corresponds to an angular unconformity (cf.
Figure 13 7). But many important breaks are far more
subtle.
Current theory suggests that eustatic sea-leval chan-
ges are frequent and that drops are rapid while nses
are gradual (Vail et al., 1977). The effect of this on the
sednnentary I 配ord is not yet clear. What is clear,
however, is that any persistent sedimentary cycle,
however thick, must have been deposited between any
possible abrupt s聞自level changes A break in a cycle is
not proof of a change a continuous cycle 1s, however,
proof of no abrupt change. Depositional cycles are
often clearly marked on the well logs and their limit們
。
SONIC u/ft
90 40
l*c9~6 ma
become especially clear following sequential analysis
(Figure 12.18). Correlation of sequentially-analysed
well logs, both within basms and between basins, will
demοnstrate the continuity and importance of the log >
defined sequen自 limits. The common practice of tying
imprecise palaeontologic叫 limits to some distinct log
break may have a sound scientific basis: such breaks
can be related to eustatic even臼（Figure 13 8). Thi凹的 a
useful concept but not infallible, as is shown below.
Palaeontological limits and lithostratigraphic lim凹的
A palae的ntological boundary tied to a Iithostrat1g-
raphic limit assumes that an obvious lithological
change ha' time significance This is frequently true, as
discussed above, eRpecially when the htholog1cal
change represents a time gap However, there are cases
where a very distinctive log breaks does not correspond
to the major timιdefined break. A well-known example
illustrates the point.
The widespread ‘Late Cimmenan Unconformity',
identified over much of the North Sea, corresponds to
the limit between the Jurassic and the Cretaceous It is
ea,iJy identified on logs as the top of a black organic <
rich shale with very high gamma ray log values
(Figure 13.9). The same ‘unconformi 旬， has been iden >
tified on the basis of logs in 600一700 wells. It now
appears to be a Iithostratigraphic limit. Very 凶reful
datings of the top of the radioactive shale show that the
unconformity is not at the top of the shale but within a
carbonate-rich lithology above (Rawson and Riley,
1982). There is no distinctive marker on the logs at this
level (Figure 13.9). Because the lithological change was
confused with the unconformity, the former was con-
 •
STRATIGRAPHY AND LOGS 161

WELL RECORD
的口。一

的凶。〈

GAMMA
E山ι

E
RAY SONIC
µflt
['::
API
色
SEA LEVEL CHANGE AGES Ma
401 ~
4一一一一一一一一
nse 0︱一一一－
fall
的20山。〈←山丘。

寸~l
EOω 』
苟CMWωi
OD
Z〈－

CENOMANIAN
100
m」〈

ALB IAN
主34W一
O？

?
hSUU

//?
Z〈一口宜。

150
150
。－的的E

』。但緒。
L×o
〈2可

EE

舟，ι

AUAU
卡，自’
？」」〈。

三
I，Ill
－－

Ill

-
LIl 2 FOnu
--
su
Z〈－

lllE
h－p
ZO工←〈∞

MWU
‘iω
。

aEEEE
h一
3－

• qununu
Hh

EEEEEE

Figure 13 8 Eustatic se吼 l"el chang也S related tn log breaks Corr海lation of Jura8'ic and Cretaceous stratigraphy as seen in the well record, with
global sea Je,el changes (s間 level from Vail et 叫， 1977). PM 胃 Plenus Marl; GM~ Glaucnnite Marl; Kell~ Kellaways Beds; Corn
~ Cornbrash ; FM ~Forest Marble }

s1dered to be diachronous. However, the diachronous not always coincident with structural events, and vice
termination for such a dtstmct factes as 1s represented versa,
by the black shales is difficult to accept, since the
environmental condtttons under whtch they were de- Seismic stratigrαph配 sequences αnd log defined
>

posited were extreme. The careful dating work, in fact可 sequences

seems to show that the end of the black shale facies was
indeed tsochronous over a large area but that it does The correspondence between sedtmentary and stratig-
not always correspond to the unconformity (Rawson raphic units has been highlighted by the methods of
and Riley, 1982). seismtc stratigraphy Seismic sections may now be
This example illustrntes that a lithological break ts presented mterpteted into time-stratigraphic umts
 。

162 THP GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

1980 1975
STRATIGRAPHY ILITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

」oz←3
with supposed
from DINOCYS干S corresponding
GAMMA RAY
AND AMMONITES STRATIGRAPHY

Turornan Turornan
Coniac1an Coniacian

Albian-
Alb 』an
Aptian

一一
Early Aptian

Early Barremian Barrem1an

-Hauterivian

PRINCIPAL
UNCONFORMITY
Early Valanginlan
Erlst Valanginian
Latest flyazinian
Late Ryazinian
LATE
?Late Volgian CIMMERIAN
UNCONFORMITY

Middle
Kimmeridgian
Volglan

Kimmeridgian
Late Oxfordian

F•gurc 13.9 Careful dating around the 'Late Cimmerian Unconformity’。f the North Sea shows that the d叩ositional change, indicated by the
lo血， do" not precisely coincide w仙

(Sheriff, 1980) which are in fact ‘seismic sequenc間， A
time-stratigraphic umt is ‘a three-dimensional set or
facies deposited contemporaneously as parts of the
sam巳（sedimentary) system, genetically linked by de
positional process臼 and envrronmen妞，（Sherrff, 1980）。
For a seisrmc sequence to be equivalent to the tune-
stratrgraphrc un前， its hmits, like that of the time unit,
must be isochronous. In seismic stratigraphy, these
falls. For the seismic section to show an important
reflection, there is an important change in lithology. An
important change of lithology is inevitably marked
strongly on the well logs The replay of logs, especially
sonic and density logs, on a time回constant (instead of
depth-constant) scale (Chapter 8), allows logs to be
placed over a seisrrnc sectron and compared directly
(Figure 13.10). The sequential analysis of logs, de >

isochronous lrmits are sea-level falls, t ises being con
stdered as gradual『 falls as essentially instantaneous
(Vail et al., 1977). It is the ris目的pecially which give
rise to recognizable seismic sequences which are boun-
d吋 by rmpot tant seismic houzons create<l during the
scribed previously (Chapter 12), allows sedimentary
stratigraphic uni臼 to be ide11tified. These units are on
the same scale and should be identical to the tune-
stratigraphic units of the seismic section. Frgur℃ 13,10
shows a mega咕equence identt日ed on the well logs,
 華ao-

~
ihi
。2
山也

Figure 13.10 Depositional sequences defi旭edonati血e >cale sonic log and correlated to seism也 stratigraphic sequence也 The pro血祖ent
progradational cycle defined on the logs corresponds to progradation凶 on the seismic of supercycle T d. Supercycles 阻d see level chang" fro四
Vail et al, 1977.
ω」『肉〉『門口知
M〉 只
Z】

。
J〉 ZEM－－
cω

-
BM

164 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS
projected on to the sernrnic reco1 d and showing large
scale progradational forests. Sequential log analysis
and seismic stratigraphy should be complementary
13.5 Conclusrons
The bncf survey of this chapter covers only the
fundamentals of the ways in which well logs may be
used in stratigraphic analysis. The simple lithostratig
raphic unit is identifiable by well logs but has only
limited value Logs have always been used for cor
relation, but this chapter shows that they are capable of
considerable refinement in this task.
。
It rs m a more complete stratigraphic analysis that
the use of logs is capable of the most refinement. The
recognition of sedimentary sequences and depositional
and structural breaks from the logs was previously
described by the use of sequential analysis. This
chapter shows that this log derived information can be
turned into a powerful stratigraphic tool. Sequential
analysis leaves the log interpretation at a scale com”
parable to a stratigraphic analysis of seismic data. The
two can be integrated. Combined with seismic data, the
single data point represented by a well can be greatly
expanded in both geometry and geography: the seismic
data becomes annotated with geological meamng.
l' •

•
14 Concluding remarks

的ZD 一←〈主
14.1 The geologist's problem

〉OOJOZ←一」
SURFACE

已DEU←30
Fully half of this book is taken up with linking GAMMA RAY

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geophysical responses to geologically recognizable C.P.S.
parameters, for instance, what natural radioactivity 50 100 160 200
。
means m terms of shale content, how sonic velocity can
be interpreted m terms of shale compaction, what bulk
density means m terms of mmeral composition, and so

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4500'
on In other words, geoph;<tcs is translated into 1372m
geological terms. Thts is the central problem for the
geologist using well logs. There is a gap between what

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can be defined geophysically and what is significant
geologically.

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The following section illustrates an aspect of this

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problem by discussing lithology, both geophysically

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14.2 The lithology problem ZO
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In Chapter 1 it was snggested that the geologist nsing 4000'

logs can quickly identify a subsurface formation from
l臼 log characteristics, but when faced with an outcrop
of 自ts same formation, 1s at a loss to recogni由此 The
reverse of course is also true ; the field geologi剖開nnot
identify a formation usmg well logs. The two data se臼
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1219m
F;gure 14 I A gamma ray curve constructed from measurements
made at the outcrop. Missi8'ippian, Chamman Shale and
Pe泊nsylvanian, Ely Limestone, Nmthern White Pine Range,

are in quite diffe1℃nt terms Chapter 11 discussed
computer-derived lithology from log interpretation. It
was pomted out that an output from this interpre-
tatton, in terms of quartz, shale and porosity per-
centages, does not suggest lithology to the geologist.
Indeed, such percentages do not even define lithology
a greywacke may contain 50% shale and 50% quartz
but it is still a sandstone: a silt may have an 80%
quartz content but it is not a sandstone The geo-
logical definition of lithology is textural, composi > reason why this approach cannot be extended. Spectral
!tonal and structural. A fine-gramed, bioturbated
orthoquartzite is comprehensible to a geologist, he
needs to know how such aspects can be defined using
geophysical logs.
There are two approaches to the problem One is
empirical to confront the geophysical data set di-
rectly with the geological data set; the other is
mathematical to convert the geophysical data into a
quasi-geological format.
Throughout th站 book the geophysical data, the well
logs, have been shown compared to core data. This is
one method of defining the geological data in geophysi-
cal terms. by a direct comparison However, cores are
rare and generally found only in re<ervo1r zones. A far
more comprehensive comparison may be achieved by
geophysically logging outcrops. Here is where the
Nevada. Dashed line on lithology column indicates rubble or
covered outcrop. CPS~ counts per second. (Recirawn from
Chamberlain, 1984.)
geological data cannot be disputed, and here is where
the geophysical monitoring can be regulated for re-
quirements. The example shown here (Figure 14 1} is
of gross natural radioactivity measurements, but the
I間ul臼 are promising (Chamberlain, 1984). There is no
gamma ray, mduction and sonic-velocity tools can be
adapted for outcrop work The outcrop 明n then
be characterized in terms of geophysical response It
provides an empll'ical solution to the lithology pro-
blem, and must surely be one of the promising
dueetions for the future
The second approach to the lithology problem is to
refine the geophysical data set with geological prin自
cip!es in mind. The approach was briefly d目cribed in
Chapter 11. The logs are considered within themselves
and, de facto, grouped mto populat10ns with numeri-
cal similarity. The grouping commences with each
mdividual log but then brings them together into one
complex. The final groupings are therefot e defined m
terms of all the available logs. The groups are entirely
geophysical and, as such, have nnmerical Jim旬， but
 。

166 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS

they can be made to approach the level of homogeneity
used in lithological description. The geological validity
of these groupings is not yet fully understood
This numerical approach to the lithology problem rs
obviously attractive since rt can be applied rigorously
by the computer. It takes into account the natural
limitations of the geophysical me品uremcnts and uses
all the available data in the form of an interactive
complex. It is necessarily the tool for the future, but it
must be adapted to geologically meaningful con
strain ts.
14.3 The dipmetcr prnblem
This book is about the geological uses of well logs and
111 yet the one log that directly gives a geological charac』
ter, the dipmeter’的 not discussed. The omission is
deliberate but regrettable ; an explanation follows.
The dipmeter tool produces an apparent dip by
comp盯ing detailed micro resistivity curves from op-
posing sides of the borehole (e.g. Serra, 1979). The dip,
therefore, is that shown across the borehole at a
particular depth: the log is a plot of dip value and
azi位mth against depth In the older tools, before 1967,
three curves were measured and compared. Later
gen巳rations of tool used four or six curves, while the
pr凹e則， new generation uses eight curves. Data points,
that is dip侶， from the older tools were 3-4 every 10 m,
and these were increased in the four-curve tools to up to
three per metre. With the newer tools, however, dips
can be given accurately every 12.5 cm, that is 8 dips per
metre: an enormous mass of data (Figure 14.2). This
exponentral multiplication of data has caused a break”
down m dipmeter mterpretation
From the outset, dipmeter interpretation has suf-
fered by being subjected to all-embracing in阻rpre­
lj
(Sehl um berg缸， 1970). Refinemcn但 have been made to
this simple concept, but usually again in terms of
turnkey interpretation systems to be applied um 『
versally. As data quantity has increased, so these
systems have begun to show their inadequacy for
geological uses.
The problem with the dipmeter lo臣， strangely, is the
same as for the other wireline logs. The geophysical
language is not the same as the geological one The
> geologist has no field model of dip chang目 every 10cm
vertically, although he should have. The only way in
which the dipmeter may be reliably interpreted is by
the use offieldexamples. This is w)ly the dipmeter is not
included in this book: there 'is not enough field
evidence for its interpretation This is in no way a
criticism of the tool, only of the way in which it is used.
14.4 Not a cone!間ion an approach
In Chapter I the various wireline logging tools were
listed with their principal geological us目（Table 1.2).
The uses were specific to each tool. This approach,
through the individual tools, was made in order to
introduce the contents of the book. Chapters 11 13
toolζa different approach, that of a common problem
to which all the logs contribut疋d a part of the solution.
This approach was used in the discussion on lithology
above (this chapter) and is certainly the way in which
logs should be considered 品 an aid to geology.
To illustrate this, the common geological elements
which can be interpreted from the well logs are put into
five major groupings. They form part of the table
(Table 14.1) in which the relative contribution of each
geophysical tool to the interpretation of the geological
elements is given a subjective l咒rcentage value. In

tation systems based on theoretical models. Originally
it was considered that dipmeter logs should be 111-
terpreted in terms of three patterns; constant dip,
upwards-mcreasing dip and upwards-decreasmg dip,
the so-called green, blue and red patterns
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reality, the table indicates the extent to which each tool
is influenced by a particular geological element. But the
degree of in日uence indicates the degree to which the
tool may be used for its interpretation. The resistivity
tools, for example, are strongly inflnenced by texture
（ηand of conrse fluid content: they are used accord-

m耳ly for the interpretation of these (Table 14.1). The

3 CURVE 4 CURVE 8 CURVE
five geological groupings used for the table are detailed
DIPMETER DIPMETER DIPMETER
DIP---..
below (cf. Serra and Abbott, 1980).
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Figure 14.2 An illustration or tic increase in data density of the - ”

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dipmeter due to tool imp叩開ments. A 2-m mterval is shown; the

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increase in data is exponential.

 ’
CONCLUDING REMARKS 167

Table 14.l Relative contribution 咒。f geophysical output parameters to information on geological parameter groups (e.g.
rock resistivity contribut四 13咒。f the information on textm·cs, when the contribution from all the logging tools listed is
consider℃d).

Gcophj sical Geological paramete•· groups%

output
Chapter Tcol parameter' Composition Texture Suueture Strata Fluids
3 Caliper Hole diameter 3 6 6 3
4 Temperature Temperature 6 2 3 。3
5 SP Spontaneous 10 6 。6 6 13
potenti叫
6 R°'istivity Whole rock 10 13 6 10 30
resistivity
7 Gamma Natural 6 6 13
ray radiation
13
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7 Speetral Spectra of 17 6 6 0:
gamma natural 。
ray radiation
8 Some Sonic 6 13 10 13 6
9 Density Bu~~l~~Zity 13 13 6 10 10
10 Neutron Neutron porosity 1日 13 6 13 17
。 ther tools etc. (12) (22) (48) (16) (21)

chapter), is only one of the terms in the definition of Fluids

lithology.
Free hydt ocarbons come into this group Also in-
Texture
eluded are free formation water and as an extension,
chemically or physically” bound waters, such as in
This groupmg covers such elements as porosity, per-
water of crystallization
meabili旬， gram si間， sortmg and matrix distribution It
concerns all the ways in which grams, minerals or
For the construction of the table, the suggested
chemicals are distributed in a rock. In well logging this
degree to which a pat ttcular geolog1cal parameter will
also concerns verttcal variations in texture, such as
be explained by the geophysical output of a wireline
compaction or overpressure. Texture ts also intimately
logging tool, is entirely subjective It simply illustrates
concerned with diagenesis
which tools are beRt used to solve a particular geologi >

Structure cal problem.

Bedding is the principal element of this term. This may
be seen normally in laminations, lenses or beds but also
in the constructed geometries of sedimentary struc”
tures. On a larger scale, folding and faulting ate
structural elements: on a smaller scale, so are fractures,
stylolites and veins.
Strata
Thts ts a bulk term mtended to concern the more
complex geological aspec阻 of strata arrangement It
covers facies, log trends, correlation and strat1gra phtc
analysis. Also nnplied is the parallel use ofwireline logs
with seismic data The term has been given meanmg
principally for the construction of the table.
However, it also illustrates (and thi的 is its object) that
geological information comes from a complex of
w1reline geophysical logs: that geophysical infor-
mation should be pooled and used as an interactive set
This aspect was illustrated previously in the discussion
on computer-derived hthologies (this chapter). It is
without doubt the approach that will bring the
bigge't advances m the geological interpretation of
well logs.
In the future new tools will come mto service, new
uses 、￥ill be found for old tools, or old tools will be
sigm日cantly refined (e.g. Fertl, 1984). However, what
will remain unchanged is the huge amount of geologi-
cal mformatton, in numencal form, that is contained in
wir~line geophysical well logs. It is the阻 for the
mterpretation