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Chapter 9 Space weather

9.1 Activities of the Sun

The Sun

1. The Sun is a star, located at the centre of the solar system.

2. The Sun produces solar energy, which is the primary source of energy on Earth.
3. The living things on Earth rely on solar energy to maintain the continuity of life.

Structure of the Sun

1. The Sun is a ball of gas that is huge and very hot.

2. The main composition of the Sun are hydrogen and helium gases.

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 Structure of the Sun

Table 9.1 Characteristics of the structure of the Sun

Structure Characteristics
1) core Center of the sun
(inner layers) The inner-most layer of the solar interior
Energy is generated in this area through nuclear fusion, releasing heat
& light energy and other rays.
Energy is released in the form of photons (light particles)
Its temperature is about 15 million ˚C (extremely hot)
The extreme high temperature ionises the atoms and forms
plasma.
2) Radiation zone Collect energy from the core
The middle layer of the solar interior
(inner layers) Low temperature compared to the core since the energy here is
spread randomly from one atom to another in all direction
It transfers heat by radiation, from the core to the convective zone
3) Convection zone Transport energy to the lower surface of the Sun
(inner layers) Energy is transferred faster compared to the time taken in the
radiation zone.
The temperature drops quickly from 5 million ˚C to
2 million ˚C in the radiation zone.
The outermost layer of the solar interior
The gases in this zone circulate outer surface of the Sun
4) Photosphere The inner-most layer of the Sun’s atmosphere
(Sun’s atmospheric layer) Consists of layers of high-density gases
The surface of the Sun that gives out light energy
(the surface of the Sun that is visible from the Earth)
Its temperature is about 5500˚C
Creates the light we see
Thickness is approx. 499 km.
Seems turbulent because the gas from the convection zone is
freed here.

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5) Chromosphere Thin layer of gases above the photosphere
Very low-density gases
Approx. 9600 km thick
The middle layer of the Sun’s atmosphere
It has reddish colour
Its temperature is about 6000 – 20 000 ˚C
Only visible during full solar eclipse
6) corona Thin layer of gases above the chromosphere
The outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere (outermost layer of the Sun)
Extends as far as millions of km around the Sun
It is visible during total eclipse of the Sun
Its temperature is about 2 million ˚C
only visible during the full solar eclipse

Phenomena on the Surface of Sun

1. Besides being the source of light and heat, there are other phenomena that affect lives on
Earth.
2. The phenomena are
a) granule
b) solar prominence
c) solar flare
d) solar cycle
e) solar wind
f) sunspots
g) coronal mass ejection

3. Granule
Occurs in photosphere
Granules are small features (about 1000 km across) on the surface of the Sun
They are due to convection of gases in the convection zone.
Larger granules (about 3500 km across) are called supergranules.

4. Prominence.
Occurs in chromosphere
Prominence are projection of giant gases from the Sun.
They look like giant flames and travel at high speed
They form big arches when pulled toward the chromosphere by gravity of the Sun.

5. Solar flares.
Occurs in corona
Solar flares are sudden eruptions of gases near an active sunspot
They emit harmful UV and x-rays.

6. Sunspots.
Occurs in photosphere
Sunspots are dark areas on the Sun that are cooler and less bright than surrounding
areas.
Sunspots have dark region (umbras) surrounded by light regions (penumbras).
Sunspots are caused by strong magnetic field of the Sun.
Sunspots occurs in cycles, known as sunspot cycle or solar activity cycle.
Sunspots have lift cycle of several days, week, or months.

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 7. Solar activity (or sunspot cycles)
Occurs in photosphere.
Solar activity cycles are regular patterns that show the increasing and decreasing number
of sunspots
A complete solar activity cycle is about 11 years
The time when many large sunspots appear is called sunspot maximum.
The period between the sunspot maximums is called sunspot minimum.

8. Coronal mass ejections (CME)

Occurs in corona.
CMEs are emitted from the Sun during a sunspot maximum.
CMEs bring highly charged solar wind particles, UV light and X-rays from solar flares to
Earth that can cause disruptions to radio signals.

9. Solar winds.
Occurs in corona
Solar wind are continuous stream of plasma blowing away from the corona at a high
speed.
The plasma carries charged particles of protons and electrons.
Solar winds interact with the Earth’s magnetic field to form magnetosphere.

Earth’s magnetosphere and its importance

1. The Earth yields its own magnetic field that flows from North to South.
2. This creates a shield-like field called the magnetosphere.
3. The magnetic field around the Earth interacts with solar wind to form magnetosphere.
4. Earth’s magnetosphere looks like a comet-shaped – a compressed head with a stretched
long tail.
5. Most of the other planets also have a magnetosphere, but the Earth has the strongest.
6. The magnetic field will block the solar wind and cosmic rays from entering the Earth’s
atmosphere.
7. The shape of the magnetosphere is affected by the solar wind.
8. The area facing the Sun will be hit by the solar wind that is up to 6-10 times the radius of
the Earth.
9. Meanwhile, the outer sides of the magnetosphere will elongate the approximately 1000 X
the radius of the Earth.
10. The magnetosphere protects Earth from the high-energy charged particles of the Sun
brought by the solar wind.
11. These high-energy charged particles move at high speed in space and hit everything in
their path.
12. The magnetosphere acts to dismiss and divert the high-energy charged particles to
different directions.

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 13. The magnetosphere is very important to lives on Earth. Without it, we are exposed to the
charged particles, gamma rays, and X-rays, which can gause genetic mutation and
sunburn.
14. The importance of magnetosphere :
 Protects Earth from being hit by particles in the solar wind.
 Protects human from the radiation of solar wind that contain X-rays.
 It traps charged plasmas in the solar wind.

9.2 Space Weather

1. Space weather describes the conditions in the space environment between the Sun and
the Earth.
2. Space weather occurs anywhere, between the surface of the Sun and the surface of the
Earth.
3. Space weather can impact the technologies in orbit and on Earth.
4. The effects of space weather on Earth include :
 Formation of aurorae (singular : aurora )
 Interruption of navigation systems
 Disruption of telecommunication systems
 Failure of power grids.

Aurorae

1. During solar flares, the Sun produces cosmic rays

2. Cosmic rays are energetic protons and electrons.
3. When these particles (protons & electrons) enter the Earth’s atmosphere, they collide
with gas molecules in the atmosphere.
4. The collisions form aurorae that appears as glowing coloured lights in the sky.
5. Aurora Borealis (Northern Light) occurs in the northern hemisphere, whereas Aurora
Australis (Southern Light) in the southern hemisphere.

Navigation systems

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 1. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) can disturb the magnetosphere and cause a geomagnetic
storm on Earth.
2. Geomagnetic storms affect the satellites in low-earth orbit.
3. Consequently, satellites will produce inaccurate information and disrupt navigation
systems such as GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System).

Telecommunication systems

1. Geomagnetic storms also disturb ionosphere in the Earth’s atmosphere.

2. When the layer of ionosphere is disturbed, it can no longer reflect high-frequency radio
signals back to Earth.
3. Therefore, telecommunication systems such as radio and audio broadcasting services
will impair.

Power failure

1. Geomagnetic storms can produce electrical currents in power lines.

2. These currents can cause overheating in transformers in power grid.
3. Power outage will occur when transformers are damaged.

Chapter 10 space Exploration

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