Stuff from readings that can be
High: Softhearted, trusting, generous,
useful:
THE BIG FIVE TRAITS:
1.) Extraversion
- Having an objective or non-
personalized view of the world
- Sociability and impulsiveness,
jocularity, liveliness, quick wittedness,
optimism
- Introverts: subjective and individualized
view of the world
✓ Quiet, passive, unsociable,
careful, reserved, pessimistic
- Cortical Arousal Level: Introverts have
high CAL so they need little stimulation
to achieve satisfaction, whereas
extroverts have low CAL so they need
high amounts of stimulation to be
satisfied
2.) Neuroticism
- People with high N scores tend to
overreact emotionally
- Often complain about small physical
symptoms like headaches and back
aches and of vague psychological such
as worries and anxieties
- The higher the N score, the lower the
level of stress necessary to precipitate a
neurotic disorder
3.) Psychoticism
- High P scorers are often egocentric,
cold, nonconforming, impulsive,
hostile, aggressive, suspicious,
psychopathic, and antisocial
- High scorers have a high predisposition
to succumb to stress and develop a
psychotic illness
4.) Openness
- Creative, imaginative, curious, liberal,
prefers variety
- Low Scorers: uncreative, conventional,
down-to-earth, prefers routine,
conservative
5.) Agreeableness
-
good-natured
- Low: stingy, ruthless, critical, irritable,
suspicious
6.) Conscientiousness
- Hardworking, organized, punctual,
ambitious
ANTS:
1.) All or Nothing – black and white thinking
- Either I am perfect or a have failed
2.) Overgeneralization – seeing a pattern
based upon a single event or being overly
broad in the conclusions we draw
3.) Mental Filter – we only pat attention to
certain types of evidence
- Noticing our failures but not our
successes
4.) Disqualifying the Positive – discounting the
good things that have happened or that
you have done
- “Oh! Anyone can do that! “
5.) Jumping to Conclusions –
a.) Mind Reading – imagining we know
what others are thinking
b.) Fortune Telling – imagining that we can
accurately predict the future
6.) Magnification or Minimization – either
blowing things out of proportion or
inappropriately shrinking something to
make it seem less important
7.) Emotional Reasoning – we assume that
because we feel a certain way, what we
think must be true
- I feel scared when I’m on a plane so
therefore flying must be a dangerous
activity
8.) Should Statements – using critical words
like should and must can make us feel
guilty or defeated
9.) Labeling – we assign labels to ourselves
and others
- He’s just a jerk; I’m a loser
10.) Personalization – we blame
ourselves or take responsibility for
something that wasn’t completely our fault
NEURON:
- The basic cell that makes up the
nervous system and that receives and
sends messages within that system
PARTS:
1.) Dendrites: branchlike structures of a
neuron that receive messages from other
neurons
2.) Soma: cell body of a neuron responsible
for maintaining the life of the cell
3.) Cell Membrane: membrane that encloses
the neuron
4.) Axon: tube-like structure of neuron that
carries the neutral message from the cell
body to the axon terminals, for
communication with other cells
5.) Terminal Buttons: responsible for
communicating with other nerve cells
6.) Myelin Sheath: wraps around the shaft of
the axons, forming an insulating and
protective sheath
- Speeds up the neural message
travelling down the axon
OTHER PARTS:
➢ Nodes: small spaces in the axon not
covered by the myelin sheath
➢ Glial Cells: provide support for the
neurons to grow on and around, deliver
nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to
coat axons, clean up waste products and
dead neurons.
➢ Nerves: bundles of axons coated in myelin
that travel together in the body
Diffusion – process of molecules moving from
areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration
Resting Potential – the state of the neuron when
not firing a neural impulse
Action Potential – release of the neural impulse,
consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge
within the axon
Axon Hillock – electrical charge reversal will start
here, where it’s closest to the soma
All-or-none fashion – the neuron either fires
completely or doesn’t fire at all
Synaptic Vesicles – saclike structures found inside
the synaptic knob containing chemicals
Neurotransmitters – chemical found inside the
synaptic vesicles that, when released, influences
the next cell
Synapse or Synaptic Gap – microscopic, fluid-
filled space between the axon terminal of one cell
and the dendrites or soma of another cell
Receptor Sites – 3 dimensional proteins on the
surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the
muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only
certain neurotransmitters
Excitatory Synapse – synapse at which a
neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire
The Blow Dart Example:
The neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, stimulates the
skeletal muscles to contract. If ACh receptor sites
were somehow blocked, ACh cannot get into protection from the pain, which will
them. The human will be paralyzed. make them want more heroin.
Curare is a drug used by South American tribes in Reuptake – process by which neurotransmitters are
their blow darts. Curare’s molecules are similar taken back into the synaptic vesicles
enough to fit in a receptor site without actually
Enzymatic Degradation – the structure of a
stimulating it. Curare is an antagonist for Ach.
neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act
Antagonist: chemical substances that block or on a receptor
reduce the cell’s response to the action of other
chemicals or neurotransmitters
Agonist: chemical substances that mimic or
enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the
receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or
decreasing the activity of that cell
Glutamate – plays a role in learning and memory
and may also be involved in the development of
the nervous system and synaptic plasticity; too
much result in overactivation and neuronal
damage like Alzheimer’s
- Major excitatory neurotransmitter
Synaptic Plasticity – ability of the brain to change
connections among its neurons
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
DOPAMINE (DA) – too little will cause Parkinson’s
The Brain: core of the nervous system
Disease, too much will cause schizophrenia
Spinal Cord: long bundle of neurons that serves 2
- Movement and sensations of pleasure
vital functions:
SEROTONIN (5-HT) – associated with sleep,
mood, anxiety, and appetite. Low levels of this - Outer: whitish because of myelinated
axons; carry messages from the body
causes depression
up to the brain and from the brain
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) – major down to the body
inhibitory neurotransmitter; can help calm anxiety - Inner: cell bodies separated by glial
cells; primitive brain responsible for
- Alcohol increases GABA. Alcohol is an
reflexes
agonist for GABA.
- Involved in sleep and inhibits 3 TYPES OF NEURONS:
movement
1.) Afferent (Sensory) – carries information
Endorphins – inhibitory neural regulators; involved from the senses to the central nervous
in pain relief system
2.) Efferent (Motor) – carry messages from the
- Morphine and heroin make bodies
central nervous system to the muscles of
neglect to produce endorphins. Once
the body
the high wears off, they are left with no
3.) Interneurons – found in the center of the
spinal cord that receives information from
 the afferent neurons and sends commands - Returns the body to normal functioning
to the efferent neurons after a stressful situation
- Relaxes the heart, constricts pupils,
Reflex – involuntary response, one that is not
navigates digestion and excretion
under personal control or choice
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS:
Neuroplasticity – the ability of the brain to
constantly change both the structure and function ➢ Have no ducts and directly secrete their
of many cells in the brain in response to trauma or chemicals in the bloodstream
experience ➢ Endocrine communication is slower
because of the time the hormones take to
Neurogenesis – formation of new neurons; occurs
reach target organs
primarily during prenatal period
Hormones – chemicals released into the
- Normally in the hippocampus
bloodstream by endocrine glands
Stem Cells – special cells found in all tissues of
Pituitary Gland – located under the brain, just
the body that capable of becoming other cell
below the hypothalamus
types when those cells need to be replaced due to
damage or wear and tear - A master gland that controls all of the
other endocrine glands
Epigenetics – interaction between genes and
- Releases growth hormones as children
environmental factors that influence gene activity,
mature
environmental factors include diet, life
- Release sex hormones that stimulate
experiences, and physical surroundings
the gonads (ovaries and testes)
Peripheral Nervous System: (puberty)

➢ Nerves and neurons that are not contained Oxytocin – controls aspects of pregnancy
in the brain and spinal cord
- Hormone released by the posterior
1.) Somatic Nervous System – in charge of
pituitary gland that is involved in
voluntary muscles in the body
reproductive and parental behaviors
- Soma = Body
- Oxys = rapid ; tokos = childbirth
a.) Sensory Pathway: nerves coming from
(stimulates the contractions in the
the sensory organs to the CNS
uterus during childbirth)
consisting of afferent neurons
- Milk letdown reflex: contraction of the
b.) Motor Pathway: nerves coming from the
mammary gland cells to release milk
CNS to the voluntary muscles,
- Vasopressin: hormone that controls
consisting of efferent neurons
levels of water in our body; acts as a
2.) Autonomic Nervous System – involuntary
antidiuretic, helping the body conserve
muscles, organs, and glands
water
a.) Sympathetic Division: primarily located
at the middle of the spinal column Pineal Gland – located in the brain, near the
- Fight or Flight System back, directly above the brain stem
b.) Parasympathetic Division: eat-drink-
- Secretes melatonin which helps track
and-rest system
day length; regulates sleep-wake cycle
- Located at the top or bottom of the
spinal column Thyroid Gland – located inside the neck and
- Para = beside; next to secretes hormones that regulate growth and
metabolism
 - Thyroxin: regulates metabolism
Pancreas – controls level of blood sugar in the
body by secreting insulin and glucagon
- Too little insulin results to diabetes; too
much causes hypoglycemia or low
blood sugar
Gonads – sex glands; regulate sexual behavior
and reproduction
Adrenal Glands – everyone has 2, one on top of
each kidney
Medulla – located at the top of the spinal column;
- Renal = kidney; ad = to; adrenal = to
controls heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing
or on the kidney
- Each adrenal gland is divided into 2: Pons – just above the medulla; means bridge
adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
- Bridge between the cerebellum and the
- They release epinephrine and
upper sections of the brain
norepinephrine when people are under
- Coordinates the movements of the left
stress and aids in sympathetic arousal
and right side of the body
- Adrenal Cortex: releases 30 diff.
- Sleep, dreaming, and arousal
hormones called corticoids (steroids)
that regulate salt intake, help initiate Reticular Formation – network of neurons running
and control stress reactions through the middle of the medulla and pons
- Cortisol: released when the body
- Responsible for the ability to ignore
experiences stress, physical or
psychological; provide glucose to the constant, unchanging information and
become alert to changes in
bloodstream during stress to give
information, such as the air
muscles energy
conditioning noise stopping
THE BRAIN: - Reticular activating system (RAS):
stimulates the upper part of the brain to
PRIMARY DIVISIONS:
keep you awake and alert
1.) Forebrain: the cortex, basal ganglia, limbic
Cerebellum – little brain
system
2.) Midbrain: sensory and motor functions - Controls all rapid, involuntary, fine
3.) Hindbrain: medulla, pons, cerebellum motor movement
- Posture, muscle tone, and balance
Limbic System – limbus = margin; found between
the upper brain and brain stem
- Involved in emotions, motivation,
memory, and learning
1.) Thallamus: inner chamber; relay station for
incoming sensory information
- Processes some sensory information
before sending it to its proper area
 - Smell is the only sense that doesn’t
have to first pass the thalamus (it goes
to the olfactory bulbs)
2.) Hypothalamus: below the inner chamber;
regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature,
sleeping and waking, sexual activity, and
emotions
- Right above the pituitary gland;
controls pituitary gland
3.) Hippocampus: named after the Greek
word for seahorse
- Curved structure located within each
temporal lobe, responsible for the
formation of long-term declarative
memories
4.) Amygdala: almond; located near the
hippocampus, responsible for fear
responses and memory of fear
5.) Cingulate Cortex: outermost covering of
the brain consisting of densely packed
neurons, responsible for higher thought
processes and interpretation of sensory
input
Corticalization – increase in the wrinkling of the
brain as it increases in size and complexity
Cerebral Hemispheres – 2 sections of the cortex
on the left and right sides of the brain
Corpus Callosum – thick band of neurons that
connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres;
“hard body”
Occipital Lobes – processes visual information
from the eyes in the primary visual cortex
Parietal Lobes – contains centers for touch,
temperature, and body position
- Somatosensory Cortex: responsible for
processing information from the skin
and the internal body receptors for
touch, temperature, and body position
Temporal Lobes – contains the primary auditory
cortex and auditory association area
- Contains neurons responsible for the
sense of hearing and meaningful
speech
Frontal Lobes – planning, personality, memory
storage, complex decision making, and areas
devoted to language
- Also helps in controlling emotions
because of its connection to the limbic
system
- Motor Cortex: responsible for sending
motor commands to the muscles of the
somatic nervous system
- Mirror Neurons: fire when you perform
an action and also when you are
observing another person performing
the same action
Association Areas – areas within each lobe of the
cortex responsible for the coordination and
interpretation, as well as higher mental processing
Broca’s Area: in the left frontal lobe; allows a
person to speak smoothly and fluently
- Broca’s Aphasia: being unable to speak
fluently, to mispronounce words, and to
speak haltingly
Wernicke’s Area: involved in understanding the
meaning of words
- Wernicke’s Aphasia: unable to
understand or produce meaningful
language
Cerebrum – upper part of the brain consisting of WHOLE BRAIN THEORY:
the 2 hemispheres and the structures that connect
1.) Analytical
them
2.) Experimental
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere 3.) Practical
Right hand Left hand 4.) Relational
Spoken language Nonverbal
MORE STUFF:
Written language Visual-spatial
perception On ego:
Mathematical Music and artistic
calculations processing The tendency for people with high self-esteem to make
inflated assessments and predictions about themselves
Logical thought Emotional thought and
carries the risk of making commitments that exceed
processes recognition
capabilities, thus leading to failure. Ss chose their
Analysis of detail Processes the whole
performance contingencies in a framework where larger
Reading Pattern recognition
rewards were linked to a greater risk of failure. In the
Facial Recognition
absence of ego threat, Ss with high self-esteem showed
superior self-regulation: They set appropriate goals and
Handedness – tendency to use one hand for most performed effectively. Ego threat, however, caused Ss
fine motor skills with high self-esteem to set inappropriate, risky goals
that were beyond their performance capabilities so they
INTELLIGENCES: ended up with smaller rewards than Ss with low self-
esteem. The results indicate the danger of letting
1.) Logical-mathematical: left hemisphere; egotistical illusions interfere with self-regulation
ordering to reordering things, evaluating its processes.
quantity, understanding numerical symbols,
understanding quantities and the ability to On the dark side of high self-esteem:
solve problems in an organized, logical Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as
way an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is
2.) Linguistic: left hemisphere; ability of writing theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of
and the interaction through words evidence about aggression, crime, and violence
3.) Spatial: right hemisphere; ability of contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an
imagination important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most
commonly a result of threatened egotism—that is,
4.) Bodily-kinesthetic: left hemisphere; ability
highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some
to use your body in a skillful way
person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative
5.) Musical: right hemisphere; first emerges at beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to
the age of 3 encountering threats and hence to causing violence

A-B-C MODEL:

Antecedent – what happened

Belief – your explanation on why that happened

Consequence – the feelings and behaviors our belief

causes