Wah Engineering College, University of Wah

Wah Cantt

Laboratory Manual for

Engineering Mechanics (Civil Engineering-2nd Semester)

Developed by:

1. Dr. Anwar Khitab

(Assistant Professor)

2. Mr. Sabahat Hussain

(Lab Engr.)

3. Mr. Sajid Ali Shah

(Lab Assistant)

Department of Civil Engineering

 1. Parallelogram law of forces

7.1 Objective

The objective of this experiment is to test that when three non-parallel forces in the same plane
are in equilibrium, their lines of action meet at a point, and hence to show that the resultant of
two forces can be found using the Parallelogram of Forces.

7.2 Theory:
If two non-parallel forces F1 and F2 act at a point A, they have a combined effect equivalent to a
single force R acting at A. The single force R is called the resultant and it may be found as
follows.
Let F1 and F2 be represented in magnitude and direction by two sides of a parallelogram meeting
at A. Then R is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram from
A, as shown in Figure 1.1. This is an empirical result referred to as the parallelogram law.

Figure 1.1 Parallelogram law of forces

7.3 Apparatus
For apparatus please refer to Figure 1.2. Following is the list of apparatus required to verify the
Parallelogram law of forces.

1. Force board,
2. Weights,
3. Metal ring,
4. Cord,
5. Pulleys,
6. Drawing-paper, and
7. Drawing-pins.

7.4 Precautions
1. Pulleys should be frictionless.
 2. System of weights and hangers should be static.
3. The paper should be fixed.

Figure 1.2 Apparatus for Verification of Law of Parallelogram of forces

7.5 Procedure
1. Pin a sheet of drawing-paper to the board.
2. Fix the pulleys in any position and suspend weights so that the cords are at rest.
3. Note the values of the three weights.
4. Make a mark at the centre of the ring and one under each cord. (Care must be taken to
ensure that the eye is placed level with, and directly in front of, the point at which the mark is
being made.)
5. Remove the drawing-sheet.
6. Join the central mark (O) to each of the other three by straight lines. Put an arrowhead on
each line to show the sense of the force, and indicate beside the line the weight at the end of
the cord.
7. Choose a suitable scale, and mark a length along OA to represent the force which acted on
the corresponding cord. Repeat for line OB.
8. Complete the parallelogram AOBC, and join OC.
9. Using the chosen scale, find the force represented by OC. This is the resultant of
the forces in the cords OA and OB.

Conclusions
1. What is the magnitude of the resultant found by this method?
2. What is the direction of the resultant?
3. Are the resultant and the central weight equal in magnitude and opposite in direction?
4. State the theorem on which the method is based.
 8 Support Reactions for Simply Supported Beam
8.1 Objectives

The aim of this experiment is (1) to experimental determine the support reactions of a simply
supported beam under various loadings, and (2) to validate the principle of equilibrium of
vertical forces.

8.2 Apparatus

Simply Supported Beam Apparatus is shown in the Figure 2-1. This apparatus is designed for
simple experiments and demonstrations on simply supported beams. Two scales act as supports
and enable reactions to be read directly. Three movable load hangers allow loads to be put in a
number of positions.

Spring Balance

Beam

Weights

Figure 8-1 Laboratory Beam Apparatus

8.3 Theory

A horizontal length of material with a vertical load system is called a beam. It is one of the most
basic engineering ways of supporting a load. External forces such as the applied loads and the
beam support reactions have to be in equilibrium. Given a loading system, the support reactions
can be calculated from force and moment equations. The apparatus is set up as shown
diagrammatically in Figure 2-2.
 W1 W2 W3

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

R1 R2
L

Figure 8-2 Simply Supported Beam subjected to three point loads

Applying the conditions of equilibrium to find out the support reactions, we proceed as follows:
∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 0,
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 ,

𝑅2 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 − 𝑅1 (2.1)

Taking moments about R2, we have:

3𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅1 𝐿 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 ,
4 2 4
3 1 1
𝑅1 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 (2.2)
4 2 4

The value of R1 as determined by equation (2.2) is inserted in equation (2.1), which eventually gives the
value of support reaction R2.

8.4 Equipment Required

Two spring balances, three hangers, set of weights, one beam.

8.5 Procedure
1. Decide the span of the beam.
2. In the test apparatus, fix the reaction balances at the beam ends.
3. Add stirrups and load hangers at a pre-selected distances.
4. To bring the pointer to zero on the balances use the zero adjustment.
5. This is an artificial way of nullifying the self weight of the beam, stirrup and load hanger
so that the balances will read only the reaction for any added load.
6. Add loads W1, W2, and W3.
7. Record the two support reaction values R1 and R2 for each set of values of W1, W2, and
W3.
8. The sum of the reactions should be equal to the sum of the loads (i.e. W1+ W2+ W3), in
accordance with the principle of equilibrium.
9. The results are recorded in the table shown below.

8.6 Results and Calculations

1. During the test, fill the first and fourth columns of the table as shown in the following
figure.
2. Compute and insert the value of the quantities named in other columns of the table.
3. The percentage error is calculated as follows:
 ∆= (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) − (𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊2 )
∆
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊2 )

W1 W2 W3 X1 X2 X3 R1 R2 R1+R2  %
(gm) (gm) (gm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (gm) (gm) (gm) Error

8.7 Discussion
1. Comment on the experimental results obtained.
2. Calculate the theoretical reactions for one of the readings and compare it with the
experimental results.
3. Suggest ways or methods to improve the experimental results, i.e, how to reduce the
percentage errors in the experimental values.
 9 To verify polygon law of forces
9.1 Objectives
The aim of this experiment is to verify the polygon law of forces graphically.

9.2 Apparatus
Following is the list of apparatus required to verify the Polygon law of forces.

1. Force board,
2. Weights,
3. Metal ring,
4. Cord,
5. Pulleys,
6. Drawing-paper, and
7. Drawing-pins.

9.3 Theory
In the design of pin jointed plane structures such as girders, bridges and roof trusses it is
necessary to find forces acting in each member so that the frame can be made strong enough to
withstand maximum dead and live loads exerted upon it. The polygon law of forces is frequently
employed to find such forces and deals with each joint in turn. This experiment can be regarded
as one such joint on that structure. The polygon law of forces is an extension of Triangle law of
forces.

9.4 Procedure
1. Pin a sheet of drawing-paper to the board so that center of board coincides with center of
sheet.
2. Fix five pulleys in any position on the board .Pass cords over pulleys and attach hook and
hangers.
3. Add weights to the cords through hangers so that ring should again rest at the center of
board. At this stage equilibrium state is achieved.
4. Mark center on sheet with pencil. Also carefully mark points under each cord.
5. Remove drawing sheet.
6. Note magnitude and directions of forces applied. The magnitude is noted directly and direction is
determined by joining points marked on the sheet.
7. Select suitable scale and draw polygon of these forces. As system is in equilibrium so it should be
a closed polygon. If not note error according to selected scale.

9.5 Precautions

1. Drawing sheet will be fixed properly before marking points.

2. Loads should be static before taking observations.
3. Points should be marked carefully.
9.6 Results and Conclusions
2. Comment on the experimental results obtained.
3. What are the sources of errors if any? Suggest ways to minimize these errors.
 4. To verify Principle of moments

4.1 APPARATUS:

A disk frees to rotate about its axis, pulleys, set square, hangers and weights.

4.2 THEORY:

Principle of Moments:

If a number of coplanar concurrent forces acting on a body keep it in equilibrium and

their moments are taken about any point in the plane, then the sum of clockwise moments is
equal to anti-clock wise moments.

4.3 PROCEDURE:

Apply a number of forces say Fl, F2, F3, F4, F5 on the disk at various points, then find the
perpendicular distance from the center of the disk C from the line of action of the respective
forces. Calculate the moment of each force and sum up the clockwise moments and also the
anti-clock wise moments. Check their difference.

4.4 SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The rotatory disk or pulleys may not be frictionless.

2. The threads may not be in plane proper position and may be distorted due to
which perpendicular distance changes.

4.5 COMMENTS

It has been noted that the difference between moments may not be equal to zero. This is due
to condition of apparatus and human error otherwise must be equal to zero.

4.6 RESULTS:

∑Clock wise moments = ∑Anti-Clock wise moments

4.7 Applications
 Lifting heavy loads by cranes.
 Analysis of structure.
4.8 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE NO 1:

CLOCK WISE MOMENTS ANTI-CLOCK WISE MOMENTS

Force (N) Distance Moments Force (N) Distance Moments

TABLE NO 2:
No. of obs Sum of clock wise moments Sum of Anti-clock wise moments Difference

[
 5. To determine the tension in various parts of a rope loaded at various
points

5.1 APPARATUS:
A hanging rope fitted with spring balances and weights.

5.2 THEORY

If a body is in equilibrium under several forces then the free vectors must geometrically
forces a closed polygon i.e Sum of all x-directed forces and y-directed forces will be zero.

∑Fx =∑Fy=0

5.3 PROCEDURE:

First of all note the initial readings of spring balances then apply W1. W2.W3 at B. C. D. Now
on a vertical board draw a normal line through A by means of a plumb line and find the angle
θ1 between the vertical members and the member AB. Similarly find the angle θ2. Note the
reading at spring balances.

Now on a convenient scale take a vertical l i n e FGHT to represent the total load W1. W2.W3
such FG = Wl. GH =W2 and HI = W3.Now draw FJ and IJ such that <IFJ = θ1 and <FIJ=θ2. Join
GH and HJ.

5.4 SOURCE OF ERROR:

• Zero error may not be corrected

• Plumb line may not be exactly marked
• Weights may be touch the round

5.5 APPLICATIONS:

Using the procedure, we can calculate the forces acting on a hanging bridge.
5.6 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

TABLE NO 1:

No Load(N) Force in AB SI Force in BC S2 Force in CD S3 Force in DE S4

of
ob
s
W W W By By By By By By By By
1 2 3 diagra experime diagra experime diagra experime diagra experime
m nt m nt m nt m nt

ANGLES:

No of obs By Diagram By Experiment

DIFFERENCE B/W EXPERIMENTAL ANDTHEORATICAL READINGS:

No. of
obs
AB BC CD DE
6 Triangle of forces apparatus used to verify triangle law of forces
6.1 Objectives
 To resolve by experiment any suitable combination by three static co-planer forces.
• To compare results with graphical solution, obtained by drawing a triangle of forces
diagram.

6.2 APPARATUS:

Triangle of forces apparatus, threads, weights and hangers.

6.3 THEORY:

Three non-parallels, co-planer forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, if the:: line of action
intersects at a single point, leading to the fact that the graphical representation of these forces by
the free vector diagram will be a triangle.

6.3 PROCEDURE:

Set up the apparatus on horizontal plane. Let P. Q, R be the three forces and OP. OQ and OR be
their respective lines of forces and 0 be the central peg of the plate of apparatus. Let OP with the
position zero of the protector. Place loads at P, Q and R and balance the system. The ring must
float centrally on the center peg to achieve equilibrium and the directed results. Record the loads
and their angular directions in the table. Make a different arrangement to obtain further results.

6.4 COMMENTS:

In graphical representation, if the force vectors do not produce a true triangle then there must
be some error of direction or magnitude. This error must be removed to actually get good results.

6.5 RESULTS:

For each set of results, three diagrams are necessary.

• Graphical representation of forces

• Constructed triangle of forces
• Vector diagram to show magnitude and direction of resultant

6.6 APPLICATIONS:

• Hanging chains
• Toggle joints
• Foundry crane
 6. Determination of coefficient of friction on horizontal plane
7.1 Objective:

To determine coefficient of static friction between different materials on a horizontal plane.

7.2 Apparatus:

• Horizontal hardwood plane,

• Wooden Blocks with metal sheet on the bottom
• Wooden Blocks with glass sheet on the bottom
• Wooden Blocks with plastic sheet on the bottom
• Standard weights with thread and hangers
• Pulley

7.3 Theory:

The smoothest solid surfaces are still uneven (microscopically or otherwise). Therefore, it takes
some force to move bodies across each other when they are in contact, either because particles
are being broken off (wear), or because the bodies are being separated slightly because of the
projections on the surfaces. This is friction.
Frictional resistance between surfaces is:
1. Proportional to the force pressing the bodies together,
2. Dependent on the nature of the surface,
3. Independent of contact area, and
4. Independent (within limits) of the relative speed between the surfaces.
Hence, for any given surface, the coefficient of kinetic friction is:

𝐹𝑓
𝜇=
𝑁
Force Ff is parallel to the surfaces in contact and the normal force N is perpendicular to the
surfaces in contact. Thus, friction force Ff is perpendicular to normal force N.
Ff = mw
N = W’
7.4 Procedure:
1. Weigh the blocks that you will use to slide on the board and record the masses on the data
table.
2. With the plane horizontal and secured, attach a weight (mw) to a block lying on the board with
a string.
3. Place the string across the pulley so that the weight can hang freely from the end of the board.
4. Vary hanging weight so that block just starts to move. Note that weight.
5. Do several trials for loads of 0, 100, 200, 300, and 400g weights on the block, and determine
friction coefficient for each load.
6. Repeat the procedure with a block with different materials at bottom.

7.5 Observations and Calculations:

Plane-Board Block W’ mw Ff N μ
grams grams
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Metal
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Glass
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Plastic
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g

7.6 Conclusions:

Why is the pulley necessary?

Graph μ = f(W’) for each case. Show values for μ on the vertical axis and values for W’ on the
horizontal axis

Graph μ = f(mw) for each case. Show values for μ on the vertical axis and values for mw on the
horizontal axis
 7. Determination of coefficient of friction on inclined plane

8.1 Objective:
To determine coefficient of static friction between different materials on an inclined plane.

8.2 Apparatus:
• Iron frame with variable inclination and a fixed pulley
• Wooden Blocks with metal sheet on the bottom
• Wooden Blocks with glass sheet on the bottom
• Wooden Blocks with plastic sheet on the bottom
• Standard weights with thread and hangers

8.3 Theory:
When two rough surfaces are made to slide over one another, the minute, uneven surface
particles resist the sliding and are sometimes torn away. This resistance to sliding is called
friction. Even so-called "smooth" surfaces have microscopic roughness which causes friction
and the friction force must be overcome before sliding can take place.
When a block rests on a horizontal plane its WHOLE weight presses on the plane and the
pressure between the surfaces sets up a resistance to movement which is called friction. If the
plane is vertical no pressure takes place between the surfaces because the whole weight is
acting downwards parallel to the plane and the block will slide down the plane.
Therefore, when the plane is inclined at an angle between the horizontal and vertical, PART of
the block weight acts parallel to the plane and PART of the weight produces pressure between
the surfaces.

From equations of equilibrium

N = W cosθ
Fs = -W sinθ + P
μ = Fs/N
8.4 Procedure:
1. Weigh the blocks that you will use to slide on the board and record the masses on the data
table.
2. With the plane inclined and secured, attach a weight (mw) to a block lying on the board with a
string.
3. Place the string across the pulley so that the weight can hang freely from the end of the board.
4. Vary hanging weight so that block just starts to move. Note that weight.
5. Do several trials for loads of 0, 100, 200, 300, and 400g weights on the block, and determine
friction coefficient for each load.
6. Repeat the procedure with a block with different materials at bottom.

8.5 Observations and Calculations:

Plane-Board Block θ W P Ff N μ
grams grams
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Metal
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Glass
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g
Wood-Plastic
Wood+___ g
Wood+___ g

8.6 Conclusion:
Comment on the results obtained.