Orifice plate - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

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Orifice plate
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting flow (in
the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be
determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a
Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure
of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.

Contents
Description
Application
Pressure tappings
Plate
Pipe

Theory
Incompressible flow
Compressible flow

Computation according to ISO 5167

Coefficient of discharge
Expansibility factor
Overall pressure loss

See also
References
External links

Description
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed
in a pipe. When a fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the
orifice, its pressure builds up slightly upstream of the orifice[1]:85–86
but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the hole, the
velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases. A little downstream
of the orifice the flow reaches its point of maximum convergence, the
vena contracta (see drawing to the right) where the velocity reaches its
maximum and the pressure reaches its minimum. Beyond that, the
Orifice plate showing
flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increases. By vena contracta
measuring the difference in fluid pressure across tappings upstream
and downstream of the plate, the flow rate can be obtained from

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Bernoulli's equation using coefficients established from extensive research. [2]:7.1–7.3

In general, the mass flow rate measured in kg/s across an orifice can be described as

[3]

where:
= coefficient of discharge, dimensionless, typically between 0.6 and
0.85, depending on the orifice geometry and tappings
= diameter ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter ,
dimensionless
= expansibility factor, 1 for incompressible gases and most liquids,
and decreasing with pressure ratio across the orifice, dimensionless
= internal orifice diameter under operating conditions, m
= fluid density in plane of upstream tapping, kg/m³
= differential pressure measured across the orifice, Pa
The overall pressure loss in the pipe due to an orifice plate is lower than the measured pressure, typically
by a factor of .

Application
Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes, when the fluid is single-phase
(rather than being a mixture of gases and liquids, or of liquids and solids) and well-mixed, the flow is
continuous rather than pulsating, the fluid occupies the entire pipe (precluding silt or trapped gas), the
flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid and flow rate meet certain other conditions. Under
these circumstances and when the orifice plate is constructed and installed according to appropriate
standards, the flow rate can easily be determined using published formulae based on substantial research
and published in industry, national and international standards. [2]

An orifice plate is called a calibrated orifice if it has been calibrated with an appropriate fluid flow and a
traceable flow measurement device.

Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed concentric with the pipe and
with pressure tappings at one of three standard pairs of distances upstream and downstream of the plate;
these types are covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards. There are many other possibilities. The
edges may be rounded or conical, the plate may have an orifice the same size as the pipe except for a
segment at top or bottom which is obstructed, the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the
pressure tappings may be at other positions. Variations on these possibilities are covered in various
standards and handbooks. Each combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge which can be
predicted so long as various conditions are met, conditions which differ from one type to another. [2]

Once the orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be indicated with an acceptably low
uncertainty simply by taking the square root of the differential pressure across the orifice's pressure

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tappings and applying an appropriate constant. Even compressible flows of gases that vary in pressure and
temperature may be measured with acceptable uncertainty by merely taking the square roots of the
absolute pressure and/or temperature, depending on the purpose of the measurement and the costs of
ancillary instrumentation.

Orifice plates are also used to reduce pressure or restrict flow, in which case they are often called
restriction plates.[4][5]

Pressure tappings
There are three standard positions for pressure tappings (also called taps), commonly named as follows:

Corner taps placed immediately upstream and downstream of the plate; convenient when
the plate is provided with an orifice carrier incorporating tappings
D and D/2 taps or radius taps placed one pipe diameter upstream and half a pipe
diameter downstream of the plate; these can be installed by welding bosses to the pipe
Flange taps placed 25.4 mm (1 inch) upstream and downstream of the plate, normally
within specialised pipe flanges.
These types are covered by ISO 5167 and other major standards. Other types include

2½D and 8D taps or recovery taps placed 2.5 pipe diameters upstream and 8 diameters
downstream, at which point the measured differential is equal to the unrecoverable
pressure loss caused by the orifice
Vena contracta tappings placed one pipe diameter upstream and at a position 0.3 to 0.9
diameters downstream, depending on the orifice type and size relative to the pipe, in the
plane of minimum fluid pressure.
The measured differential pressure differs for each combination and so the coefficient of discharge used in
flow calculations depends partly on the tapping positions.

The simplest installations use single tappings upstream and downstream, but in some circumstances these
may be unreliable; they might be blocked by solids or gas-bubbles, or the flow profile might be uneven so
that the pressures at the tappings are higher or lower than the average in those planes. In these situations
multiple tappings can be used, arranged circumferentially around the pipe and joined by a piezometer ring,
or (in the case of corner taps) annular slots running completely round the internal circumference of the
orifice carrier.

Plate
Standards and handbooks are mainly concerned with sharp-edged thin plates. In these, the leading edge is
sharp and free of burrs and the cylindrical section of the orifice is short, either because the entire plate is
thin or because the downstream edge of the plate is bevelled. Exceptions include the quarter-circle or
quadrant-edge orifice, which has a fully rounded leading edge and no cylindrical section, and the conical
inlet or conical entrance plate which has a bevelled leading edge and a very short cylindrical section. The
orifices are normally concentric with the pipe (the eccentric orifice is a specific exception) and circular
(except in the specific case of the segmental or chord orifice, in which the plate obstructs just a segment of
the pipe). Standards and handbooks stipulate that the upstream surface of the plate is particularly flat and

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smooth. Sometimes a small drain or vent hole is drilled through the plate where it meets the pipe, to allow
condensate or gas bubbles to pass along the pipe.

Pipe
Standards and handbooks stipulate a well-developed flow profile; velocities will be lower at the pipe wall
than in the centre but not eccentric or jetting. Similarly the flow downstream of the plate must be
unobstructed, otherwise the downstream pressure will be affected. To achieve this, the pipe must be
acceptably circular, smooth and straight for stipulated distances. Sometimes when it is impossible to
provide enough straight pipe, flow conditioners such as tube bundles or plates with multiple holes are
inserted into the pipe to straighten and develop the flow profile, but even these require a further length of
straight pipe before the orifice itself. Some standards and handbooks also provide for flows from or into
large spaces rather than pipes, stipulating that the region before or after the plate is free of obstruction and
abnormalities in the flow.

Theory

Incompressible flow
By assuming steady-state, incompressible (constant fluid density), inviscid, laminar flow in a horizontal
pipe (no change in elevation) with negligible frictional losses, Bernoulli's equation reduces to an equation
relating the conservation of energy between two points on the same streamline:

or:

By continuity equation:

or and :

Solving for :

and:

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The above expression for gives the theoretical volume flow rate. Introducing the beta factor as
well as the discharge coefficient :

And finally introducing the meter coefficient which is defined as to obtain the final

equation for the volumetric flow of the fluid through the orifice:

Multiplying by the density of the fluid to obtain the equation for the mass flow rate at any section in the
pipe:[6][7][8][9]

where:
= volumetric flow rate (at any cross-section), m³/s
= mass flow rate (at any cross-section), kg/s
= coefficient of discharge, dimensionless
= orifice flow coefficient, dimensionless
= cross-sectional area of the pipe, m²
= cross-sectional area of the orifice hole, m²
= diameter of the pipe, m
= diameter of the orifice hole, m
= ratio of orifice hole diameter to pipe diameter, dimensionless
= upstream fluid velocity, m/s
= fluid velocity through the orifice hole, m/s
= fluid upstream pressure, Pa   with dimensions of kg/(m·s² )
= fluid downstream pressure, Pa   with dimensions of kg/(m·s² )
= fluid density, kg/m³
Deriving the above equations used the cross-section of the orifice opening and is not as realistic as using
the minimum cross-section at the vena contracta. In addition, frictional losses may not be negligible and
viscosity and turbulence effects may be present. For that reason, the coefficient of discharge is
introduced. Methods exist for determining the coefficient of discharge as a function of the Reynolds
number.[7]

The parameter is often referred to as the velocity of approach factor[6] and multiplying the

coefficient of discharge by that parameter (as was done above) produces the flow coefficient . Methods

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also exist for determining the flow coefficient as a function of the beta function and the location of the
downstream pressure sensing tap. For rough approximations, the flow coefficient may be assumed to be
between 0.60 and 0.75. For a first approximation, a flow coefficient of 0.62 can be used as this
approximates to fully developed flow.

An orifice only works well when supplied with a fully developed flow profile. This is achieved by a long
upstream length (20 to 40 pipe diameters, depending on Reynolds number) or the use of a flow
conditioner. Orifice plates are small and inexpensive but do not recover the pressure drop as well as a
venturi, nozzle, or venturi-nozzle does. Venturis also require much less straight pipe upstream. A venturi
meter is more efficient, but usually more expensive and less accurate (unless calibrated in a laboratory)
than an orifice plate.

Compressible flow
In general, equation (2) is applicable only for incompressible flows. It can be modified by introducing the
expansibility factor, (also called the expansion factor) to account for the compressibility of gasses.

is 1.0 for incompressible fluids and it can be calculated for compressible gases [7] using empirically
determined formulae as shown below in computation.

For smaller values of β (such as restriction plates with β less than 0.25 and discharge from tanks), if the
fluid is compressible, the rate of flow depends on whether the flow has become choked. If it is, then the
flow may be calculated as shown at choked flow (although the flow of real gases through thin-plate orifices
never becomes fully choked[12]). By using a mechanical energy balance, compressible fluid flow in un-
choked conditions may be calculated as: [8] [9] [13]

or

Under choked flow conditions, the fluid flow rate becomes: [8]

or

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where:
= heat capacity ratio ( ), dimensionless ( for air)
, = mass and volumetric flow rate, respectively, kg/s and m³/s
= real gas density under upstream conditions, kg/m³
and other symbols are defined as above

Computation according to ISO 5167

Flow rates through an orifice plate can be calculated without specifically calibrating the individual
flowmeter so long as the construction and installation of the device complies with the stipulations of the
relevant standard or handbook. The calculation takes account of the fluid and fluid conditions, the pipe
size, the orifice size and the measured differential pressure; it also takes account of the coefficient of
discharge of the orifice plate, which depends upon the orifice type and the positions of the pressure
tappings. With local pressure tappings (corner, flange and D+D/2), sharp-edged orifices have coefficients
around 0.6 to 0.63,[14] while the coefficients for conical entrance plates are in the range 0.73 to 0.734 and
for quarter-circle plates 0.77 to 0.85.[2] The coefficients of sharp-edged orifices vary more with fluids and
flow rates than the coefficients of conical-entrance and quarter-circle plates, especially at low flows and
high viscosities.

For compressible flows such as flows of gases or steam, an expansibility factor or expansion factor is also
calculated. This factor is primarily a function of the ratio of the measured differential pressure to the fluid
pressure and so can vary significantly as the flow rate varies, especially at high differential pressures and
low static pressures.

The equations provided in American and European national and industry standards and the various
coefficients used to differ from each other even to the extent of using different combinations of correction
factors, but many are now closely aligned and give identical results; in particular, they use the same
Reader-Harris/Gallagher (1998) equation for the coefficient of discharge for sharp-edged orifice plates.
The equations below largely follow the notation of the international standard ISO 5167 and use SI units.
[3][15]

Volume flow rate:

Mass flow rate:

[3]

Coefficient of discharge
Coefficient of discharge for sharp-edged orifice plates with corner, flange or D and D/2 tappings and no

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drain or vent hole (Reader-Harris/Gallagher equation):

and if D < 71.2mm in which case this further term is added to C:

[15][16]

In the equation for C,

and only the three following pairs of values for L 1 and L'2 are valid:
corner tappings:

flange tappings: [16]

D and D/2 tappings:

Expansibility factor
Expansibility factor, also called expansion factor, for sharp-edged orifice plates with corner, flange or D
and D/2 tappings:

if [15]:5.3.2.2 (at least - standards vary)[17]

[15]

but for incompressible fluids, including most liquids

where:
= coefficient of discharge, dimensionless
= internal orifice diameter under operating conditions, m
= internal pipe diameter under operating conditions, m
= fluid absolute static pressure in plane of upstream tapping, Pa
= fluid absolute static pressure in plane of downstream tapping, Pa
= mass flow rate, kg/s
= volume flow rate, m3/s

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= pipe Reynolds number, , dimensionless

= diameter ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter, ,

dimensionless
= differential pressure, Pa
= expansibility factor, also called expansion factor, dimensionless
= isentropic exponent, often approximated by specific heat ratio,
dimensionless
= dynamic viscosity of the fluid, Pa.s
= fluid density in plane of upstream tapping, kg/m³

Overall pressure loss

The overall pressure loss caused by an orifice plate is less than the differential pressure measured across
tappings near the plate. For sharp-edged plates such as corner, flange or D and D/2 tappings, it can be
approximated by the equation

[15]:13

or

[15]:13

where
= overall pressure loss, Pa
and other symbols are as above

See also
Accidental release source terms
Choked flow
De Laval nozzle
Flowmeter
Pitot tube
Restrictive flow orifice
Rocket engine nozzle
Venturi effect
Advantages and disadvantages of orifice meter and venturi meter

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References
1. Linford, A (1961). Flow Measurement & Meters (2nd ed.). London: E. & F. N. Spon.
2. Miller, Richard W (1996). Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook. New York: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-042366-4.
3. ISO 5167-1:2003 Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices
inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full - Part 1: General principles and
requirements. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1 March 2003.
4. "Orifice Plates for Flow Measurement & Flow Restriction" (http://www.wermac.org/specials
/orificeplate.html). Retrieved 1 February 2014.
5. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe. Ipswich: Crane. 1988. pp. 2–14.
6. Lecture, University of Sydney (http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/cvanalysis
/node3.shtml#node43) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070529161758/http:
//www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/cvanalysis/node3.shtml) 2007-05-29 at the Wayback
Machine.
7. Perry, Robert H. & Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (Sixth
ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-049479-4.
8. Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures, Appendix B, Federal Emergency
Management Agency, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, and U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1989. Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis, Appendix B (http://nepis.epa.gov
/Exe/ZyNET.exe/10003MK5.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&
Index=1986+Thru+1990&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&
TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=pubnumber%5E%22OSWERHCHAP%22&
QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&UseQField=pubnumber&IntQFieldOp=1&
ExtQFieldOp=1&XmlQuery=&File=D
%3A%5Czyfiles%5CIndex%20Data%5C86thru90%5CTXT%5C00000003%5C10003MK5.TX
T&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h%7C-&
MaximumDocuments=10&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16
/i425&Display=p%7Cf&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&
BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1&SeekPage=x) Click on PDF
icon, wait and then scroll down to page 394 of 520 PDF pages.
9. Risk Management Program Guidance For Offsite Consequence Analysis, U.S. EPA
publication EPA-550-B-99-009, April 1999.  Guidance for Offsite Consequence Analysis
(http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/vwResourcesByFilename/oca-all.pdf/$file
/oca-all.pdf?OpenElement) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060224010711/http:
//yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/vwResourcesByFilename/oca-all.pdf/$file/oca-
all.pdf?OpenElement) 2006-02-24 at the Wayback Machine.
10. Cunningham, R.G., "Orifice Meters with Supercritical Compressible Flow", Trans. ASME,
Vol. 73, pp. 625-638, 1951
11. Section 3 -- Choked Flow (http://www.engsoft.co.kr/download_e/steam_flow_e.htm)
12. Cunningham (1951) first drew attention to the fact that choked flow will not occur across
a standard, thin, square-edged orifice.[10] The mass flow rate through the orifice
continues to increase as the downstream pressure is lowered to a perfect vacuum,
though the mass flow rate increases slowly as the downstream pressure is reduced below
the critical pressure.[11]

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13. Methods For The Calculation Of Physical Effects Due To Releases Of Hazardous
Substances (Liquids and Gases), PGS2 CPR 14E, Chapter 2, The Netherlands Organization
Of Applied Scientific Research, The Hague, 2005. PGS2 CPR 14E (http://vrom.nl
/pagina.html?id=20725) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070809204358/http:
//www.vrom.nl/pagina.html?id=20725) 2007-08-09 at the Wayback Machine.
14. Bean, Howard S., ed. (April 1983). Fluid Meters (2nd printing with editorial changes of 6th
ed.). The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
15. ISO 5167-2:2003 Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices
inserted in circular cross-section conduits running full - Part 2: Orifice plates. International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1 March 2003.
16. ISO 5167-2 uses the terms (2.8-D/25.4) and (25.4/D) - which both convert D into inches -
because in that one clause of the standard, 5.3.2.1, D is in millimetres. This article
presents D in metres throughout, so the terms are (2.8-D/0.0254) and (0.0254/D).
17. ASME MFC-3M-2004 Sec. 2-4.3.2.2 stipulates a minimum of 0.8

External links
Tierling Orifice flow calculators (http://tierling.home.texas.net/)

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