PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH

BREAD USING SCALDED RYE

MAURICIO S. ESTELLER and SUZANA C.S. LANNES1

Biochemical-Pharmaceutical Technology Department

Pharmaceutical Sciences Faculty
São Paulo Univ. Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 580, B-16 – Cidade Univ.
São Paulo/SP, CEP 05508-900, Brazil

Accepted for Publication November 5, 2007

ABSTRACT

In this work, flatbed scanning, instrumental texture analysis, spectropho-

tometric color determination (L*, a*, b*), moisture and specific volume mea-
surements were used to evaluate the effects of the addition of rye flour or rye
flakes, yeast and boiling water in different amounts in sponge-dough rye bread
production. The treatments changed significantly (P < 0.05) the crumb cell
area (mm2), cell diameter (mm), cell perimeter (mm), texture parameters and
light reflectance (L*, a*, b*). Scalding process could be used to produce new
textures and color of baked products.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Fermented foods contribute to about one-third of the diet worldwide.

Fermentation causes changes in texture, flavor, appearance, nutrition and
safety of food. Many cereal products start with heat treatment to change
protein and starch properties, removal of antinutrients, natural toxicants and
mycotoxins, before fermentation. The study of microstructure can be used to
increase understanding of the changes that occur during processing of food
and the role of different ingredients, allowing a better control of the structure
and regulation of texture. Designing texturally appealing foods presents a new
challenge to companies.

KEYWORDS

Baked products color, bread microstructure, flatbed scanning, image

analysis, rye bread texture, scalded dough
1
Corresponding author. TEL: +055-11-3091-3650; FAX: +055-11-3091-3650; EMAIL: scslan@usp.br

Journal of Texture Studies 39 (2008) 56–67. All Rights Reserved.

56 © 2008, The Author(s)
Journal compilation © 2008, Blackwell Publishing
 PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH BREAD 57

INTRODUCTION

Scald means to burn with hot liquid or steam by contact, or immersion in,
any hot fluid. Scalded flours or cereals have references mostly in artisan or
homemade sourdough bread production. A paste was made with flour and cold
water to which boiling water or milk was added while stirring until the mixture
thickens. Such mixtures were frequently used in the making of heavily malted
brown bread. Scalding serves to kill potentially harmful bacteria, to facilitate
peeling, to inactivate enzymes that degrade lipids into substances that impart
off-flavors, speed the cooking process, help melt fat, and dissolve sugar more
easily (Daniel 1971). Besides these effects, the scalding process enhances the
flavor (in situ flavor generation) (Petersen et al. 2005), changes the color of
grains and flour, dough viscosity, Maillard and caramelization reactions,
moisture, texture and prolong the shelf life of bread.
Structure design concepts include search for new textures in baked produ-
cts (Esteller et al. 2005). All properties are the result of certain physical,
chemical or biological effects in the product, which are determined by the
choice of ingredients and processing conditions (Schubert et al. 2003). Rela-
tionship between food texture perception and food structure is of increasing
importance for companies wishing to produce texturally attractive food produ-
cts (Wilkinson et al. 2000).
Grains can be exploited in different ways leading to the design of new
cereal foods or cereal ingredients that can target specific populations
(Charalampopoulos et al. 2002). Heat (dry or steam) treatments of grains,
flours and brans have been studied for breakfast cereals production (Doehlert
1997; Stapley et al. 1999; Horrobin et al. 2003) and baked goods (Kock et al.
1999; Prakash and Rao 1999; Gélinas et al. 2001).
The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effects of scalding
process on bread crumb porosity, texture, color, specific volume and moisture
content of sponge-dough rye bread produced with addition of different
amounts of rye flour or flakes, yeast and boiling water.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Scalding and Bread Preparation

Experimental formulas of scalded rye breads and control bread without
scalding process were prepared in triplicate using a Central Composite Design,
five-level, three-factor, 20 runs. A commercially wheat flour, 14% moisture
and 30% wet gluten (Bung, São Paulo, Brazil), wet gluten extracted from the
same flour batch (Esteller et al. 2005), fresh compressed yeast and water were
58 M.S. ESTELLER and S.C.S. LANNES

weighed and mixed at 60 rpm for 1 min, and 4 min at 120 rpm (sponge) in a
planetary mixer 20-LA (Irmãos Amádio Ltda, São Paulo, Brazil) as summa-
rized in Table 1. The dough obtained was fermented during 4 h when the yeast
gradually became fully active. Rye flour and rye flakes (12% moisture, 21%
total fiber), salt, sucrose, hydrogenated vegetable fat and boiling water were
mixed into a hot paste and cooled to 25 °C, mixed to the sponge and kneaded
for 5 min by 120 rpm, and rested in bulk for 30 min. Subsequently, the dough
was hand-divided into pieces of 700 g. Each piece was rounded by hand in a
ball shape and rested again for 30 min. The next action consisted of sheeting
the dough and rolling the sheet into a cylinder, which was put into teflon-
coated pans of a dimension of 300 mm ¥ 115 mm ¥ 100 mm without cover
and proofed in an incubator (45 °C, 75% relative humidity, 1 h). At the end of
the final proof, the risen dough was put into a stationary oven 4,000 W/220 V
(Flexa de Ouro Ltda, São Paulo, Brazil) and baked for 25 minutes (220 °C).
After baking, the loaves were allowed to cool down to room temperature for
120 min on cooling racks. Individual loaves were packed in polyethylene
plastic bags and stored in an incubator at 25 °C. Testing started the following
day (Esteller et al. 2004).

Image Acquisition and Analysis

The crumb grain of the loaves was assessed using a flatbed scanner (HP
ScanJet 2400, Hewlett-Packard Company, Palo Alto, CA). Each slice of bread
was placed centrally on the flat deck and covered with a black polyethylene
plastic film to avoid external light and crumb damage. A single 50 mm ¥ 50 mm
square field of view of both sides of two central slices (25 mm) of each of three
loaves were imaged, thereby yelding 12 digital images per batch, 200 dpi. The
smallest point of the image (1 pixel) corresponds to 10.6 mm of the sample. The
scanned images as 24 bit (true color) were stored and processed using software
Image-Pro Plus 4.5 (Media Cybernetics, Silver Spring, MD). The instrument
was calibrated to convert pixels to millimeters and the crumb features chosen
were: cell area (mm2), cell diameter (mm) and cell perimeter (mm).

Texture Analysis
Texture analysis was carried out on 12 central slices (25 mm thick) of
three loaves from the same formula on the TA-XT2 texturometer (Stable Micro
Systems, Surrey, UK). Each sample was placed on the texturometer base and
squeezed twice with the probe. Instrument settings were: measure force in
compression; cycle until count; pretest speed 2.0 mm/s; distance 6.2 mm,
trigger-type auto; force, 10 g; acquisition, 200 pps, TA-3 1-inch acrylic cylin-
der probe. The texture parameters were: firmness, springiness, cohesiveness
and chewiness.
 TABLE 1.
FORMULAS USED FOR RYE FLOUR AND RYE FLAKES BREAD

Formula Control 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15–20

Ingredient (g)
Sponge
Wheat flour 700 800 600 800 600 800 600 800 600 700 700 700 700 868 530 700
Wet gluten 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Yeast 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Water 350 400 300 400 300 400 400 300 400 350 350 350 350 434 250 350
Dough
Rye flour/flakes 300 200 400 200 400 200 400 200 400 300 300 300 300 132 470 300
Sucrose 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Fat 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Salt 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Yeast 0 20 20 40 40 20 20 40 40 30 50 13 47 30 30 30
Water 140 140 140 140 140 180 180 180 180 126 194 160 160 160 160 160
PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH BREAD
59
60 M.S. ESTELLER and S.C.S. LANNES

Color Evaluation
Bread was sliced using a slice regulator and bread knife to obtain uniform
slices of 25 mm thickness. Three loaves of each formula were used for
evaluations. Crust and crumb color was measured using a spectrophotometer
(UltraScanXE; HunterLab Company, Reston, VA) and the Universal Software
4.10 (Universal Inc., Reston, VA), adjusting for reflectance, illuminant D65,
and an angle of 10o. After calibration using white and green ceramic plates,
each slice of bread was placed with the central part of its crust and crumb
against the 1-inch port door. The International Commission on Illumination
(CIE) color values L*, a* and b* (lightness, redness and yellowness) were
recorded (CIE 1978). The results represent the mean of 10 samples.

Physical Properties
Samples were weighed (g) and loaf volume (mL) was measured using the
rapeseed displacement method. Specific volume (mL/g) was calculated. Mois-
ture content of samples were determined by the American Association of
Cereal Chemists (AACC) standard method 44-15A. The data reported are the
average of four replicates of each formula (Esteller et al. 2005).

Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed on the data using Statistica 7.0/2005
(StatSoft, Tulsa, OK). Tukey HSD at 5% significance level was used to define
differences among formulas.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Bread Crumb Porosity

The nonuniform structure of bread crumb comprises a wide distribution
of cell sizes with regions having large numbers of small cells while others have
only a few large cells (Fig. 1). The scalding process influences the pore size,
shape and pore size distribution. The center cells tend to be larger and more
round, while near the edge of the slice cells are small, elongated and became
crushed. According to Sapirstein et al. (1994), large cells were defined as
possessing cell areas bigger than 4.0 mm2. Results from this study support the
findings of Kassama (2003) defining a porous material as a network array of
capillary vessels separated by random empty spaces of various sizes and
shapes. The interconnected pores influence heat and contribute to the transport
of fluid across the porous medium during the cooking process. Changes in
bread porosity affects the bulk density, water-holding capacity and modifies
spreads and liquid uptake.
 PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH BREAD 61

FIG. 1. BREAD CRUMB DIGITAL IMAGE (200 dpi)

(A) Control bread. (B) Scalded rye flour. (C) Scalded rye flakes.

TABLE 2.
SCALDED FLOUR AND FLAKES BREAD CRUMB POROSITY PARAMETERS

Maximum cell area (mm2)* Mean cell area (mm2)*

Control From To Control From To

Flour 50.07 ⫾ 19.90 26.99 ⫾ 12.24 132.53 ⫾ 107.12 0.37 ⫾ 0.03 0.27 ⫾ 0.01 0.47 ⫾ 0.03a
a a a a a

Flakes 81.30 ⫾ 17.51b 53.83 ⫾ 20.53b 166.70 ⫾ 61.50b 0.45 ⫾ 0.03b 0.53 ⫾ 0.02b 0.37 ⫾ 0.03b

Maximum cell diameter (mm)* Mean cell diameter (mm)*

Control From To Control From To

Flour 9.36 ⫾ 2.34a 6.06 ⫾ 0.80a 13.98 ⫾ 6.11a 0.35 ⫾ 0.01a 0.32 ⫾ 0.02a 0.39 ⫾ 0.01a
Flakes 13.01 ⫾ 2.74b 7.71 ⫾ 1..4b 17.02 ⫾ 4.14b 0.36 ⫾ 0.01a 0.31 ⫾ 0.02a 0.39 ⫾ 0.02a

Maximum cell perimeter (mm)* Mean cell perimeter (mm)*

Control From To Control From To

Flour 78.69 ⫾ 20.54a 53.34 ⫾ 4.46a 119.66 ⫾ 59.52a 1.27 ⫾ 0.04a 1.07 ⫾ 0.16a 1.66 ⫾ 0.37a
Flakes 90.65 ⫾ 11.93b 68.97 ⫾ 15.62b 152.78 ⫾ 23.52b 1.33 ⫾ 0.08b 1.36 ⫾ 0.09b 1.94 ⫾ 0.03b

Different letters in the same row denote (P < 0.05) difference among treatments Tukey HSD.
* Maximum and minimum crumb grain dimensions obtained in different treatments.

In this analysis, the software was used to trace over any slightly broken
sections in the structure to ensure that cell walls were continuous so that the
program could measure discrete, separated cells (Table 2). For all formulas,
equal values of minimum cell area (0.016 mm2), minimum cell diameter
(0.06 mm) and minimum cell perimeter (0.13 mm) were obtained because of
the range detection of the software (results not shown).
62 M.S. ESTELLER and S.C.S. LANNES

The large granule fraction (rye flakes) caused cell coalescence and gave
a more open grain with larger cells and thicker cell walls, and small granule
fractions (rye flour) caused loaves to exhibit a more regular grain with smaller
cells and thinner cell walls.
Comparing with the control (60.07 and 0.37 mm2), an increase in the
proportion of the scalded rye flour (formula 14) decreased the maximum cell
area (26.99 mm2) and the cell mean area (0.27 mm2). Minimal proportion of
scalded rye flour in relation to white flour (formula 13) and the addition of
more water and yeast compared to the control, increased porosity, leading
maximum cell area to 132.53 mm2 and mean cell area to 0.47 mm2. The results
showed that fibers from rye exerted a deleterious effect over dough structure,
breaking gluten bonds, which allowed loss of carbon dioxide and volatiles
during the fermentation process and decreased the cell dimensions. The same
could be observed for the other porosity parameters: maximum cell diameter
(6.06 to 13.98 mm), mean cell diameter (0.32 to 0.39 mm), maximum cell
perimeter (53.34 to 119.66 mm) and mean cell perimeter (1.07 to 1.66 mm).
When scalded rye flour changes to scalded rye flakes, the same pattern
could be observed in relation to fiber amount, but large particles caused
significant changes that opened the grain: maximum cell area (53.83 to
166.70 mm2), mean area (0.37 to 0.55 mm2), maximum diameter (7.71 to
17.02 mm), mean diameter (0.31 to 0.39 mm), maximum perimeter (68.97
to 152.78 mm) and mean perimeter (1.36 to 1.94 mm).

Texture Profile Analysis

Bourne (2002) reported that there is a large number of complaints about
a broken or crumbled product and there is room for considerable improvement
in textural properties of foods that are presently marketed. Instrumental evalu-
ation of bread texture parameters, which are analogous to the subjective
method by touch or mouthfeel, have been shown to correlate well to sensory
measurements (Esteller et al. 2004). Texture parameters varied widely. Scald-
ing promoted large differences on the texture properties when compared with
the control bread produced with water at room temperature (Table 3).
Scalding rye flour and rye flakes increased bread firmness from 0.61 to
14.83 N and 0.81 to 18.46 N, respectively, showing that heat treatment affects
gluten strength.
Cohesiveness or the extent to which bread remains intact during handling
and chewing increased in relation to the control bread, but only slightly
between rye flour and rye flakes. Chewiness values had been determined as
being 0.49 up to 7.48 (flour) and 0.65 up to 9.84 (flakes). Some factors
contribute to these changes, whose parameter is related to the energy spent for
chewing:
 PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH BREAD 63

TABLE 3.
SCALDED FLOUR AND FLAKES BREAD TEXTURE PARAMETERS

Firmness (N)* Cohesiveness*

Control Scalded Control Scalded

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Flour 2.32 ⫾ 0.22a 0.61 ⫾ 0.06a 14.83 ⫾ 1.92a 0.73 ⫾ 0.02a 0.64 ⫾ 0.02a 0.82 ⫾ 0.02a
Flakes 2.83 ⫾ 0.25b 0.81 ⫾ 0.09b 18.46 ⫾ 1.82b 0.76 ⫾ 0.02a 0.66 ⫾ 0.03a 0.81 ⫾ 0.02a

Chewiness (N.m)* Springiness

Control Scalded Control Scalded

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Flour 1.46 ⫾ 0.14a 0.49 ⫾ 0.06a 7.48 ⫾ 1.16a 0.87 ⫾ 0.03a 0.78 ⫾ 0.03a 0.98 ⫾ 0.01a
Flakes 1.39 ⫾ 0.18a 0.65 ⫾ 0.06b 9.84 ⫾ 0.82b 0.91 ⫾ 0.03b 0.81 ⫾ 0.02b 0.99 ⫾ 0.01a

Different letters in the same row denote (P < 0.05) difference among treatments Tukey HSD.
* Minimum and maximum values obtained in different treatments.

(1) amount of water in each treatment – that it exerts lubricative effect on the
dough;
(2) particle size – larger particles are mechanically more difficult to treat;
(3) competition between starch granules and fibers for the water;
(4) changes in proteins – occurring polymerization processes, leaving the
dough more plasticized, shining and a little “rubbery” to the teeth.
Springiness, the percentage recovery, is important during slicing, han-
dling and storage. Values from 0.78 to 0.98 (scalded flour) and from 0.81 to
0.99 (scalded flakes) were not significantly different when compared to the
control, indicating that the thermal treatment exerted little influence in this
parameter.

Bread Color
Color is an important characteristic of baked products which, together
with texture and aroma, contributes to consumer preference. Color depends on
the physicochemical characteristics of dough and process (e.g., sugars, amino
acids content, oven temperature and relative humidity). Chemical reactions,
which cause browning of baked products during baking, include Maillard
reactions and caramelization. Maillard reactions are favored with an interme-
diate moisture content, temperatures above 50 °C and pH 4–7. During heating,
the percentage of water quickly decreases on the dough surface providing
64 M.S. ESTELLER and S.C.S. LANNES

optimum conditions for the formation of Maillard reaction products and

intense brown color. Inside the dough, the temperature is lower and the water
activity remains relatively high. Caramelization requires temperatures above
120 °C, pH < 3 or pH > 9. The point to be considered is that browning cause
by the scalding process could avoid the use of natural (or other) colorants in a
rye bread formulation. On the other hand, the amount of air incorporated into
the dough during the process (mixing and fermentation) and further expansion
into the oven, reduces the darkening effect and affects the final crust and crumb
color. More-scalded rye or flakes decrease crust L* values (results not shown).
Color results can suffer significant variation depending on the sample position
in the oven and external temperature (200–220 °C). Crumb color results – L*
52.68 to 65.22, a* 1.49 to 6.61 and b* 14.30 to 20.87 (scalded rye flour); and
L* 62.89 to 69.23, a* 1.11 to 5.37 and b* 13.87 to 18.45 (scalded rye flakes)
– are affected mostly by internal temperature (98 °C), scalded ingredients and
air incorporation (Table 4).

Specific Volume
Loaf-specific volume ranged from 1.61 to 5.74 mL/g (scalded rye flour)
and 2.08 to 7.50 mL/g (scalded rye flakes) (Table 5). Addition of rye flour or
flakes promoted a disruption of the gluten protein matrix, thus changing gas
retention.

TABLE 4.
COLOR OF RYE FLOUR AND FLAKES BREAD CRUMB

Control

L* a* b*
Flour 58.65 ⫾ 1.00a 5.42 ⫾ 0.16a 20.21 ⫾ 0.25a
Flakes 66.52 ⫾ 1.36b 3.10 ⫾ 0.45b 15.60 ⫾ 0.49b
Scalded
Minimum†
L* a* b*
Flour 52.68 ⫾ 1.19a 1.49 ⫾ 0.16a 14.30 ⫾ 0.46a
Flakes 62.89 ⫾ 1.52b 1.11 ⫾ 0.30b 13.87 ⫾ 0.66a
Scalded
Maximum†
L* a* b*
Flour 65.22 ⫾ 1.61a 6.61 ⫾ 0.13a 20.87 ⫾ 0.26a
Flakes 69.23 ⫾ 1.52b 5.37 ⫾ 0.29b 18.45 ⫾ 0.20b

CIE color values L*, a* and b* (lightness, redness and yellowness).

Different letters in the same row denote (P < 0.05) difference among
treatments Tukey HSD.
† Minimum and maximum values obtained in different treatments.
 PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SPONGE-DOUGH BREAD 65

TABLE 5.
SCALDED RYE FLOUR AND FLAKES BREAD SPECIFIC VOLUME /MOISTURE

Specific volume (mL/g) Moisture (%)

Control Scalded Control Scalded

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Flour 2.45 ⫾ 0.23a 1.61 ⫾ 0.04a 5.74 ⫾ 0.45a 41.22 ⫾ 0.29a 38.51 ⫾ 0.37a 48.15 ⫾ 0.30a
Flakes 5.37 ⫾ 0.40b 2.08 ⫾ 0.07b 7.50 ⫾ 0.04b 41.82 ⫾ 0.33b 36.62 ⫾ 0.92b 45.79 ⫾ 0.66b

Different letters in the same line denote (P < 0.05) difference among formulas Tukey HSD.

Figure 1 shows clearly the effect of scalding over the dough causing
opened grain structure especially when using scalded flakes, leaving the dough
more porous, resulting in increased specific volume.

Moisture
Moisture transfer between bread components occurs as bread ages. Dif-
ferences in vapor pressures between the crust and the internal region of the loaf
result in moisture migration from the crumb to the crust. The amount of water
lost could be correlated to porosity as a function of time. Rye fiber addition and
scalding modified the water absorption, increasing interactions between fiber
hydroxyl groups and hydrogen bonding (Table 5). From the results, we can see
that the use of rye flour increases water uptake and the moisture remains higher
than that of rye flakes bread.
The moisture ranged from 38.51 to 48.15% (scalded flour) and from
36.62 to 45.79% (scalded flakes). It can be concluded that breads produced
with small particles (flour) absorb more water than the large ones (flakes).

CONCLUSIONS

The results from the present study have shown that scalding rye flour
and flakes could change appearance, color, moisture, specific volume of breads
and could be used to create new textures. Scalded rye changed significantly
(P < 0.05) the cell area (mm2), cell diameter (mm) and cell perimeter (mm),
causing less reflectance of light and increased a* and b* values.

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