Netra Thesis PDF

TUNGABHADRA
Hampi
ANALOGISING MUSIC AND ARCHITECTURE AS

PRODUCTS OF A COMMON CULTURAL MILIEU
A case of Karnatic Music and the Temple architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire
Undergraduate Research Thesis by Sai Netra Ramesh
Guided by Prof. A Srivathsan
Bachelors of Architecture, CEPT University
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My deepest gratitude shall be for my family, without whose support, this
journey would have been painstaking and impossible.
This thesis is dedicated to my Nana, for engrossing us since our childhood

in stories of mythology and philosophy, seeding the very foundation and
understanding of this thesis, and providing the unconditional love
that has kept me going.
My parents, for nurturing all my dreams with unwavering belief and support
and helping me realise them throughout. I owe every success to them.
I am deeply indebted to them and my grandmother--Puffa, who are responsible
for my introduction and involvement in the Sacred world of Karnatic music.
Namrata, for the invaluable discussions on music that have shaped the direction
of this thesis, for the timely help, and just for being there.
I am forever indebted to my best friend, confidante and well-wisher, Nusaiba

for her undeterred belief in my ideas, and constant encouragement through all
sorts of ups and downs during these years.
I would like to thank Abhishek, for inspiring me to take this topic up as a thesis,
for his patience with my ideas, ambitions, and my moody self. Thank you for
standing by me through the ebbs and flows of this semester and all these years in
college, for being my rock. Thank you for everything.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to Meet, Aayushi and Tosha for making this
semester’s journey memorable.
Most importantly, I would like to thank my research guide, Dr. A Srivathsan

for steering me through this journey and helping me bring it to fruition. His
patience and wisdom have been key in helping me make a thesis out of a vastness
of ambiguous thoughts and ideas.
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INDEX
1. Introduction ...6
Topic of Research
Purpose of the study
Research questions
The study
Method of study
Brief description of the context
Scope and limitation
2. Philosophical, architectural and social pretext of The Hindu temple ...13

The Temple as an embodiment of philosophical ideas
The Temple enabling the practice of Worship
The Temple as contemplative and representative of the cosmos
The human body as a basis for conception of a temple and its experience
The Temple as a manifestation in a built form through design

3. Philosophical, compositional and social milieu of Indian classical music ...25
Music as an embodiment of philosophical ideas
The goal and purpose of music
Music as contemplative of cosmic and metaphysical philosophy
The human body as a vehicle and basis of musical composition
Manifestation of philosophical principles in a composition through design
4. The aesthetics of Indian art, based on the Indian aesthetic theory ...38
Overview
The meaning and purpose of art
Manifestation of the purpose of art: the process of creation and communication
The appreciation of art
5. The Case Study—The context of the Vijayanagara Empire ...48

The empire
Patronage towards art
Temple architecture of Vijayanagara
The music of Vijayanagara
6. Analogy of the philosophical relationships between Music and architecture ...55

Common philosophical underpinnings
A means of obtaining moksha through Devotion:
Bhakti and its 9 forms enabled through music and architecture
Cosmic significance
Relationship with the human body
Commonalities in the design paradigm
Axiality
7. Conclusion ...75
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
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Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Premise of the research
Architecture and Music, particularly the Indian classical music and temple
architecture are often compared on the basis of formal relationships such
as rhythm and harmonic proportions . Studies have frequently pointed to
the common intrinsic principles between the two. This is only a partial
picture and an incomplete description. The question still remains, as to
why such connections exist between one form which is auricular, and the
other form which is primarily visual.
What animates temple architecture and classical music? What causes the
formal relations between the two? This thesis attempts to probe further and
look at how these ‘art forms’ emerged alongside one another. It attempts
at arriving at a wholesome picture and a more detailed explanation of the
interrelationship between the two art-forms.
Purpose of the study

The comparison of two creative forms-architecture and music-on the basis
of formal relationships such as rhythm and harmonic proportions is well
known. Studies have often pointed to the common intrinsic principles
between the two. This is only a partial picture and an incomplete
description. The question still remains, as to why such connections exist
between one form which is auricular, and the other form which is primarily
visual.
Research questions
The study seeks to understand the relationship between the temple and
karnatic music on three grounds - the philopshcal paradigm, the design
paradigm and the aesthetic paradigm. Within each of this analytical
categories, it seeks to answer the following questions:
The Philosophical Paradigm: Do both art forms share a similar

world view and philosophical underpinnings? What were the intents
behind their conception? What were the devotional links and how
were they represented? What was the purpose of conception and
creation of these creative forms?
The Design Paradigm: What commonalities connect the making
of the two types of compositions? If the practice in both cases was
rule-based, what scope of innovations did they offer? How are they
evidenced in the respective art form?
The Aesthetic Paradigm: What are the aesthetic principles that
these creative forms uphold? How does it impact one’s mind? do
they evoke comparble emotions or are they different?
The study
This thesis will focus on establishing a relationship between Music
and architecture, by ascertaining commonalities in the philosophical
underpinnings and cultural premise that caused the conception and
creation of both these ‘creative forms’ in the specific context of the
Vijayanagara’s temples and Karnatic music between the 14th to 16th
centuries AD. The study will look at the built form of a temple and a musical
oeuvres as ‘compositions’—a temple as a composition of integrands such
as architectural building elements, materiality,
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Introduction
conceptualisation and contextual response; and musical pieces of Karnatic

music as compositions of attributes such as literature, shruti, raaga, laya
and Bhava. These philosophical underpinnings account for the purpose
of these compositions, and the ultimate goal that it provides for through
their manifestation in compositions of the creative forms. This study will
also briefly incorporate certain commonalities in the process of ‘design’ of
these compositions of Vijayanagara’s architecture and Karnatic music.The
study has chosen to focus on the Vijayanagara Empire which flourished
between the 14th to 16th centuries AD its historic significance and iconic
cultural influences both in architecture and music. Large scale temple
building activities; and patronage and advancement of the arts were an
important achievement of the empire. More about the choice of this case
for the study of relationships between music and architecture will be
discussed later in this chapter.
The findings from these studies and establishment of commonalities
will then be demonstrated through examples of temples from the city of
Vijayanagara and lyrics, compositions or compositional styles of Karnatic
music under the Vijayanagara empire, both from the time period chosen
for this study.
Further, relationships between the temple architecture of Vijayanagara and
Karnatic music from the time would be established using basic principles
from the Indian aesthetic theory such as Rasa, Bhava, Dhvani and Siddhi.
Lastly, the thesis will lead up to an understanding of how the philosophical,
design and aesthetic paradigms of Karnatic music and temple architecture
co-exist and inform one another.
Method of study
Following method would be used in this study:
The Philosophical Paradigm: The study takes up textual analysis

of selected scholarly work to map the overlapping concepts between
philosophical underpinnings and cultural grounds of Vijayanagara’s
temple architecture and Karnatic music. The relationship between
the two creative forms would be elucidated on grounds of concepts
such as the Bhakti ideology, practices of worship, common
relatedness to cosmology.
The Design Paradigm: Through visual and diagrammatic analysis
and comparison, establishment of the relationship between music
and architecture will be attempted. Concepts such as harmony,
rhythm, composition, Talamana would be used to see the reation
betwen the two. The framework will be developed based on
secondary sources on music and architecture. Specific concepts
such as Talamana used in iconography, Padavinayasa in architecture
and ideas of tala and raga in music would be incorporated.
The Aesthetic Paradigm: Literary analysis and theoretical readings
will form the basis for deducing the effect of aesthetic experience
conveyed through art-forms. Specific attention will be paid to
theories of Rasa, Dhvani and Bhava. The source of such experience
in Karnatic Music and temple architecture will be pointed at through
textual analysis and applicable diagrammatic study.
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Introduction
PURPOSE
or
GOAL
Experience
Temple Karnatic
ARCHITECTURE Formal MUSIC music
architecture
manifestations
Aesthetic
Philosophical underpinnings
common culture
Vijayanagara
Empire
Fig. 1.1
Understanding the relationships between
Music and Architecture in the given context
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Introduction
formal
MUSIC ARCHITECTURE
relationships
proportion harmony/balance
rhythm texture
Fig. 1.2
The established formal relationships
between Music and Architecture
music
formal
CULTURE manifestation ARTS
architecture
Fig. 1.3
The arts as a product of culture
PURPOSE
or EXPERIENCE
GOAL
music
formal
CULTURE manifestation ARTS
architecture
PHILOSOPHY AESTHETICS
Fig. 1.4
The complex inter-relationship of culture, purpose, experience,
aesthetics, philosophy and formal manifestations with the arts
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Introduction
Vijayanagara-The context of the study

To explore these questions, the study has chosen to focus on the
Vijayanagara Empire which flourished between the 14th to 16th
centuries AD for three important reasons. Firstly, Vijayanagara empire
was at the cusp of historic events and iconic cultural influences both in
architecture and music. These developments made their way through
society and had a lasting influence. Secondly, it was also the time when
large temple building activities were taken up in Hampi and other cities
in the south of India. The South Indian architectural style got a fillip
during this time. Thirdly, This was the time when streamlining and
restructuring of musical styles alongside a movement of regrouping of
traditional existing temple architecture styles was undertaken.
Similar to the art of the times, the institution of the Hindu temple
influenced society through multiple layers. The element of transcendence
and the concept of ‘Here and Now,’ wherein one made an attempt towards
channelising all creation and actions in the service of god, in order to
ultimately attain an elevated spiritual experience, had got ingrained in
the minds of the people and the beliefs of the society.
As Vijayanagara expanded and prospered quickly, many great musicians

and musicologists like Matanga and Sarngadeva from the times of
the Yadava Dynasty and its contemporaries came and settled down in
Hampi. They, however, had their own ideas of how music should be
sung. The mutual contradictions were so great that around 1550 AD, the
Vijayanagara King Achutharaya commissioned scholars of the time to
write a series of treatises reconciling the contradictions and streamlining
this form of music into a regimen and framework that everyone could
understand and learn from.
The architecture of many temples in the era were influenced by ancient
scriptures such as Vastupurushopanishad and Mayamata, which paid
great emphasis on concepts like Rasa and Bhava. These concepts
are reflected immensely in the arts such as the music, sculpture and
dance- forms of the times. Also, Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant
combination of its predecessors, the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and
Chola styles, and contributed greatly to what we know as the ‘Dravidian’
Style of Architecture today.
Given the extensive patronage, restructuring of art-forms and flourishing
aegis towards the creative arts, the Vijayanagara period offers a good
ground to examine the relation between Music and architecture.
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Introduction
Fig. 1.2
(India in 1525AD)
Vijayanagara Empire’s rule in South India
Source: Internet
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Scope and Limitations of research
The above stated relationships between music and architecture may be
seen in various other instances such as buildings of other religious faiths
and even contemporary architecture all around the world. However, this
thesis will focus primarily on the relationship of Karnatic music with
the Hindu temple architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire. In terms of
scope, this thesis does not exhaustively cover the whole of Vijayanagara’s
architecture or Karnatic music. Given the fact that Vijayanagara was a
widespread rule in South India, the thesis is limited to specific temples
in Vijayanagara City, the capital of the empire, and will focus on certain
targeted musical compositions and compositional styles of the time in the
Karnatic classical music genre for the purpose of analysis and study. The
examples are taken as representative of the period.
The thesis would touch upon the philosophical, design and the aesthetic
paradigms of both the art forms. However, each of these aspects are
immensely vast in themselves, and it would be impossible to dwell deep
into all the aspects with equal thoroughness and detail. Hence, this study
has chosen to focus on the philosophical underpinnings of both temple
architecture and Karnatic music to form the basis of the relationship
between the two creative forms.
This thesis does not focus on arriving at a new method of formally
analysing the relationship between music and architecture. Instead, it will
use the existing methods that examine the relationship between music
and architectural forms as a lens to look into the cultural and philosophical
aspects of why these formal relationships exist, and what they are able to
achieve as art-forms.
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Chapter 2
THE PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGM:
The Hindu Temple
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Philosophical paradigm: The Hindu temple
PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE

Philosophical, architectural and social pretext of the Hindu temple
The temple as an embodiment of philosophical ideas

Hinduism as a religion is a synthesis of many different beliefs and
practices, an amalgamation of varied modes of living and thinking. These
differences are bound together by cultural continuity and cohesive forces
that have characterised Indian civilisation.
The Sanatana Dharma has provided a wide framework of lifestyle choices
and spiritual practices to suit the temperaments and competencies of
people from different backgrounds ranging from the everyday agricultural
life of the village to the transcendental speculations of a philosopher.
This is reflected in the concept of the 4 purusharthas--Dharma, Artha,
Kama, Moksha.
An individual’s supreme aim is to realise oneself by balancing and
fulfilling these four objectives
Dharma: Righteous living

Artha: The pursuit of material comforts and wealth
Kama: Desire of various forms: sexual, monetary, for success,
fame, etcetera
Moksha: Spiritual liberation or salvation and the ultimate
realisation of self
As the great saint Sri Adi Shankaracharya opines, the world we live in
is similar to a dream, it is an illusion wherein every soul is trapped in
samara, the endless cycle of births and deaths.The place for worship
of Hindu faith, the Hindu temple is also based on the faith that it is a
reflection of the Universe, which follows a cyclic process of creation and
destruction.
“The soul grows by reincarnation in

bodies provided by nature, more complex,
more powerful, as the soul unfolds greater
and greater faculties. And so the soul
climbs upward into the light eternal.
And there is no fear for any child of man,
for inevitably he climbs towards God”
(Annie Besant)
The design of The Hindu temple displays movement from unity to

multiplicity and at the same time, convergence back to singularity. The
process and evolution of a temple is thus filled with stages of fusion,
divergence, differentiation and unification. These dynamics of the
temple’s gestures are simultaneously conflicting and complimentary,
but form a harmonious composition in the form of the final design of
the temple. This has also been compared to the emergence from the
singularity of one seed to the profusion of a tree with several branches,
fruits and multiple seeds.
Fig. 2.1
Depictions of merging of singularity and
multiplicity in the Hindu temple
(Reference: Snodgrass, 1990)
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Space is the primary condition for the manifestation of creation. Being a

quality of ether—akasha, it consists of the five elements that constitutes
existence. Space doesn’t anchor itself to anything else, substantially
existent, and thus space is the absolute reality. Architectural space is thus
manifested in the form of cosmic diagrams, in which Brahman, in human
form resides. In Hindu philosophy according to the upanishads, existence
happens in two ways, physical and metaphysical. The drive to create is said
to be the absolute Brahman corresponding to the macrocosmic equivalent
of the Brahmanda, the God himself. The microcosmic reflection of this
is in the Atman, a realisation of the Brahman in the individual. This
relationship between the Atman and the Brahman is the basis of Hindu
philosophy, and is manifested through the making and conception of the
temple. Thus, the union of the Atman and Brahman is the ultimate goal,
facilitated through the architecture of a temple.
This holistic understanding is reflected clearly in the artistic exploration and
works of Hindu India. The traditional Hindu society makes no allowance
of an individual pursuit of self expression through art. Art, was viewed as
a means to express the values of the society, a reflection of the times. An
artist was merely an instrument through which ideas and concepts higher
and greater than himself find expression, and thus, it can be observed that
many piece of art or architecture traditionally holds no signature in it, and
is left anonymous. An artist is said to be guided by a larger, supreme force,
and functions simply as an executor of a larger ‘plan’. In Hindu society,
the temple was a centre of intellect and a nucleus around which all artistic
activity was concentrated.
The temple enabling the Practice of Worship

The purpose of worship or Upasana is the attainment of one-pointed
concentration, so that the mind can be made still and capable of attaining
self realisation. The Mahanirvana Tantra (14.123) defines worship as
‘the union of the Jiva (individual) with Atman (God)’. This union for
the purpose of the ultimate realisation is made possible through the
practice of various external and internal spiritual practices or the worship
of idols. This practice is not about worshiping the material of the idol,
stone or wood. Instead, it is about worshiping the Brahman/God who has
manifested in the form of a deity in that idol. It functions as a symbolic
object that helps a devotee to connect, to perceive the essence of the deity,
who otherwise is intangible and beyond human sensory perception. Thus,
an idol can be seen as an image or object that gives the devotee a glimpse
of the God, a reflection, similar to how a picture of a person helps one
remember him/her.
The temple as a symbol, coincides in meaning with the immanent cause and
principal substance, nada, the principal vibration. The world is made from
this vibration, which can be seen in the rhythmical plan and structure of
the temple. Also, the archetypal measure of the temple, or mana is known
as prana, the immanent breath or energy that drives life. In Hinduism,
spiritual perfection is attained through a long journey consisting of many
stages of progression toward a higher consciousness.
Consistent devotional effort—Sadhana partaken with sincerity, discipline
and repeated worship can be considered as the path towards gaining
virtues and earning liberation or moksha ultimately.
The temple is not only a place of worship or a carrier towards self
realisation, it is also considered the abode of the god, adding significance
to the temple itself as an object of worship, and being an embodiment
of divinity in itself. The temple thus, becomes an object of meditation,
and plays an instrumental and substantive role in uplifting the devotee’s
devotion.
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The temple as contemplative and representative of the cosmos

In Hindu cosmology, at the centre of the universe lies the sacred
mountain, Meru. This mountain is the home of all gods, ruled over by
the God King, Indra. The temple becomes an architectural manifestation
of the sacred places of the gods, providing for the worshiper, the merit
Space
that could be achieved through an actual visit to these mountains.
Also, it can be noted that the earth is represented by the foundation of Air
the temple, the water by the walls of the sanctum, fire by the tower over
the temple, air by the Vimana’s final tier and lastly, space, represented by
everything above the temple. Thus, a constellation of five elements that
serve as the basic building blocks of all existence in Hindu cosmology, Fire
manifest themselves in the structure of a temple.
The universe is a reality which is a combination of the space continuum
and time continuum manifested through an infinite series of universes
in the Brahmanda (Cosmos).
The Hindu scriptures indicate that the entire Brahmanda(cosmos) is Water
divided into 14 lokas(worlds)--seven Vyahrtis(the higher ones) and
seven Pātālas (the lower ones).
The Vayu Purana, Chapter 39 mentions that the shell of this cosmic Earth
‘egg’ is at the cusp of the two types of lokas, and is the site of the Pura
Fig. 2.2
(Shiva’s city) and his divine abode, Manomaya (consisting of the mind).
The Vimana representing the five ele-
The Vyahrtis are as follows: ments of the universe
Satyaloka: Brahma’s world, Abode of Truth or of Brahma, Satya-

Loka is where the spirit is released from the cycle
necessity of birth.
Tapaloka: This Loka is the abode of tapas or of other deities.
Janaloka: The sons of Lord Brahma reside in this Loka.
Maharloka: The Sapta-rishis and other enlightened being reside
in this Loka.
Svarloka: In this Loka, lies the ‘Heaven’ ruled by the King of gods North
Indra. Indra, along with the Devatas, Gandharvas and Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Pisces
Apsaras live here. In the figure illustrated alongside, Thigh Knees Lower legs Feet
we can see the Mount Meru. This mountain is said Scorpio Aries
to be wide at the top, and is also flat. Mount Meru West

Genitals Skull
East
stands as the center. The flat peak of Mount Meru Libra Taurus
is the sitting place of Lord Brahma, the creator of Abdomen Face
this Universe. A representation of this heaven can be Virgo Leo Cancer Gemini
observed in the Vastupurushamandala, which will be Waist Stomach Chest Hands
discussed later in this chapter. As illustrated in the South
attached figure, the centre of the mandala, the flat Fig. 2.3
peak of Mount Meru is occupied by Brahma. Directions; symbolisms of the Human
body and astrology in the
Vastupurushamandala
These lokas are also associated with ‘Manvantaras’,
or millennia which have spatio-cosmological and
temporal significance. Divided into two series of
seven manvantaras each, the spatial ordering of
the series of the upper and lower worlds are mirror
Fig. 2.4
images of one another, as depicted in the illustration. Diagrammatic representation of Mount
Also, surrounding this centre are the places for each Meru and the 14 worlds
one of the dikpalas or deities of the eight directions
to be seated, namely: Zenith Zenith
Indra (east) West 7 Svargas

Varuna (west) South
West 7 Svargas
(Past) (Past)
Kubera (north)
South
Yama (south)
Mount Meru
Mount Meru
(Present)
Ishana (northeast)
(Present)
Agni (southeast) East North 7 Patalas

(Future) North 7 Patalas
Niruthi (southwest) East (Future)
Vayu (northwest)
Nadir
Nadir
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Bhuvarloka: Sun, planets, stars. This world consists of the space

between the celestial bodies. Bhur
Bhooloka: Our earth
The temple is also said to be an embodiment of “Bhur-Bhuvah-Svah,” an

intermingling of the physical, mental and spiritual realm.
Bhuvah
This cosmic aspect of the Hinduism is incorporated in the making and Svah
functioning of a temple, the Temple representing a microcosm of the
Brahmanda in the scale of the Human and what can be perceived by a
Fig. 2.5
human at a human scale. The ground plan and layout of the temple is a Bhur-Bhuvah-Svah: the Shiva Lingam
symbolic representation, or a miniature of the cosmos. Let us look at the as a manifestation of the three realms
example of the temple of Srirangam:
The Srivaishnavas of Srirangam associated the site’s island

formation to a profound imagery of ‘Vaikuntha’. This led to the
temple being chosen to have ‘saptaprakara,’ and the entire landscape
of the temple was seen as the site of a Srivashnava microcosm, and
perceived as sacred. The Saptaprakara was the symbol denoting the
cosmos and Lord Vishnu residing in the centre of it in a Shayana
form (sleeping posture).
The seven enclosures of the temple are said to represent the seven
Vyahrtis or the higher worlds. They are as follows:
Bhuloka : Madaveethi
Bhuvarloka : Trivikrama Chola enclosure
Suvarloka : Kili Chola/Akalankaveethi enclosure
Maharloka : Tirumangai Mannan enclosure
Janoloka : Kulasekara enclosure
Tapoloka : Rajamahendra enclosure
Fig. 2.6
Satyaloka : Dharmavarma Chola enclosure (near the Garbhagrha) The seven enclosures of the Srirangam
The Adaiyavalainjan enclosure surrounds all the enclosures Temple
Sahasrasara
Cosmic energy or the life energy is Sahasrasara
synonymous to prana, the immanent breath.

This cosmic energy is responsible for life and
balance in the entire cosmos. The human
mind can tap on this cosmic energy while at
peace with oneself. Most practices of worship,
prayer, meditation and yoga seek to attain
internal peace and channelize the energy of
the chakras. The chakras or energy centres
within our body represent a manifestation of
our cosmos, and the temple is a manifestation
of these cosmic energies through each space
in the temple being symbolic of one of the
chakras. Ajna Visudha Anahata Manipura Swadisthana Muladhara
Ajna Visudha Anahata Fig. 2.7
Manipura Swadisthana Muladhara
The Hindu temple’s congruency with
The seven Chakras
The material of which the temple is constructed is of great significance.

Brick as a material is viewed as one of the most pious materials to build a
temple with. Through the process of firing, a sacrificial essence is embedded
into each brick, which is the feminine nature of the earth, Bhoomi. Each
brick made of soil thus shares this nature of ‘Bhoomi’. Each layer of
steadiness and firmness maintained through the process of construction
is required to make the monument stand at each layer and similar to the
many symbolisms of Hindu philosophy, the temple is believed to be a
representation of a mountain (Meru). Each of the horizontal tiers created
in the building of the temple constitute bhoomi, and hence reinforce the
nature of a mountain in the structure so formed.
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The existence of one brick is never independent of its surroundings. Each

brick anticipates the nature and action of the next brick, and when the
bricks are laid along the recital of a rhythmic formula (mantra), speech
and breath is invoked in each unit, and hence are assumed to embody
metaphysical knowledge.
Since the temple is a representation of the universe, every representation
of the temple would affect its immediate universe—the society, its people
and their well being. Hence, it was believed that if the proportions of the
temple are perfect, the universe around it would be perfect too! The care
and finesse in the design and construction of the temple, hence, is said
to have had a influence on the well being and livelihood of the people of
the community.
The human body as a basis for the conception and

experience of a temple
Along with being a place of worship, a symbol and an object of worship,
the temple is also a representation of the human form. The symbolism
of various parts of the temple in plan correspond to various parts of
the human body, starting from Garbhagrha representing the head to the
Gopuram representing the feet of a man, and other parts of the temple
representing various other parts of the body, as represented in the figure
alongside.
Fig. 2.8
Vastupurushamandala at play in the Brihadeeshwara
temple, Tanjore
Temple as a symbolism of the human body
Shikha Stupi
Mukham Shikharam
Bahumulam Kantham
Karakaram Prastaram
It can also be observed that the form of the Purusha is

not related only to the ground plan and elevation, but Padavargam
also to the elevation of the Vimana. The correspondence Janumandalam
between the elevation of the Vimana and the body of the

deity is described in the diagram alongside. The image of Adhishtanam Adhishthanam
the deity in the Garbhagrha, thus, consecrates the soul. Charanam Upapeetham
The temple in totality, is an image of the Cosmic man.
Fig. 2.9
The temple Vimana and the body of the deity
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Fig. 2.10
The Brihadeeshwara temple and the
Vastupurusha
The temple as a manifestation in a built form through design

The science of building, Vastu shastra, revolves around the belief that the
Earth is a living organism, throbbing with the energy of life. That living
energy is symbolised as a human being, the Vastu Purusha and the site for
the proposed construction is his field, the Vastu Purusha Mandala. The
site plan, Vastu Purusha Mandala is in fact, treated as his body.
The Vastupurushamandala can be described as a hierarchically organised,
regulatory guide, that does not provide instructions on the specific
dimensions of the built form, thus allowing for topological and __
flexibility of the design of the temple. A grid herein, serves the purpose of
providing a rigid structure to the Vastupurushamandala, and also hiding
it from the eyes of the inauspicious forces. Padavinyasa or Vastumandala
vinyasa is the process of drawing the Mandala, and is essential for both,
the construction of the main temple and also for deciding upon the size
of the sanctum, location, orientation and the placement of the deities that
would reside in it.
“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form

of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and
in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him,
comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-
purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being
and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite
knowledge attain the best results in temple building.”
(Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. I)
This Vastpurushamandala is the intellectual foundation of the temple,

a forecast of its progression, its ascent, and a symbol for the temple’s
significance in this universe and its projection on earth.
The Vastupurushamandala also warrants for the stability and coherence
of the temple’s built form. The gods are settled on the Vastupurusha,
wherein the fight between the gods and demons are settled conjointly. Every
building activity and change to this would mean disintegration and then
restitution of this integrity so that the gods and supernatural forces at play
can be a part of this ‘body’ which is at peace with itself.
The temple is made up of certain elements that one progresses through
along the temple’s journey:
20
Garbhagrha: The Garbhagrha, the core of the

temple, is independent of time and place, a space for
ultimate realisation, human body and is symbolic
of the inception of life. The Garbhagrha is also a
reminiscence of a cave, an embryo in a cosmic sense,
the centre of creation and conception. The Garbhagrha
is the site for complete concentration, oneness with Pradakshinapatha
the God and the space where self-realisation occurs. Garbhagriha
This is achieved by providing a complexity of visual Muladhara
experience--from the complexity of ornamentation Antarala

and detailing on the outside of the temple, to that of
the simple, unostentatious inside of the Garbhagrha. Navaranga
Also, at the same time, the contrasts between the
movement from a well lit space, to that of complete
darkness, is the symbolism of light and dark, wherein Sanapana Mantapa
neither can triumph against one another, and instead,
are co-existent and are always related to and are Mukha mantapa
dependent on their counterparts.
Pradakshinapatha: A circumambulatory path

surrounding the garbhagrha, makes a devotee
engaged in the meditative thought of God through
Dipasthamba
the repetitive ritual of pradakshina. Balipeetha
Antarala-sukanas or ardhamantapa: A narrow Dhwajasthamba
pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the next

space described--the navaranga--This space is usually
adorned by niches with idols of secondary deities on
the northern and southern walls
The Navaranga or Nrttamantapa is a hall-like space Gopura
that is used for devotional congregation for activities Fig. 2.11 (a)
such as Bhajan, kirtan, small concerts, dancing, Sequence of elements of the Hindu temple
recitation of hymns and mythological tales or for in the Brihadeeshwara Temple
religious pravachana.
This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a space that

is used mainly for religious ceremonies.
The Mukha mantapa serves as the opening pavilion.
The Dwajasthamba (flag post) that varies in its

sequential position from temple to temple, is another
common feature. It represents the flag post that
symbolises the God as the ‘King of kings’.
The Balipitha (pedestal) is meant for ritual and

sacrificial offerings and consists of a lotus or the
footprints of the deity.
Antaramandala
A Dipastambha or the lamp post is situated either Garbha

ahead of the Balipitha or outside the main gate of
the temple. At the top of this post is a bud shaped
chamber where a lamp is placed. Antarahara
Madhyahara
The whole temple complex is fortified by a high
wall—prakara with one primary and three secondary
Gopura
gates, which open to the four cardinal directions. Maryada

A Gopura (high tower) adorns these gateways.
Mahamaryada
Fig. 2.11 (b)
Prakaras in a temple
21
This arrangement of spaces can be modified according to the requirements

and functions of the temple. Sometimes, the prakara in its many layers
provides for a number of minor temples or shrines for the deities, a
yagashaala (a hall for religious sacrificial yajna), kalyana-mantapa (a space
for community’s activities such as marriages, brahmin thread ceremonies
etc.), the Asthana-mantapa(the space where the processional diety
resides), the Vahana-mantapa (the space used to store the Ratha and other
objects used during the procession of the diety), the Alankara-mantapa,
(The space where the processional diety is decorated for the purpose of
the procession), the Vasanta-mantapa was a space in the midst of the
temple’s waterbody which was used for festivities and Utsava mantapa, as
the name suggests was a grand hall used on festive occasions. Temples also
have a treasury, a kitchen (paka-sala), a store room (ugrana), and a dining
hall depending on the size of the temple and the community using it. A
waterbody—puskarini(tank) was another important feature of the temple.
Also, some temples or shrines have only the garbhagrha and the antarala
as part of the spaces within the temple. There also are instances of temples
contenting more than one sanctum, since multiple deities are given
primary importance in that particular temple.
The experience of the Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of different

experiences—visual, aural and through the sense of enclosure and
intimacy. As a devotee engages with each of these elements, by gradually
approaching the inner sanctum, entering through a Gopura, engaging with
the sculpture and paintings that adorn the temple, it is an experience of
accessing parts of the whole.
The light in the spaces inside a temple is arranged such that the temple
entrance starts with the maximum light in the mukha-mantapa and
sequentially progresses to ultimately reach the Garbhagrha, in which the
deity resides in complete darkness. There is also a gradual movement
from the highly decorated and ornamented outsides of the temple, to the
Garbhagrha that has extremely modest sculptures or embellishments.
Also, the Vastushastra states that every unit of a time vibration produces
a corresponding unit of a space measure which then informs one of the
congruence between space and time. According to the Vastu, spatial units
are derived from elements like the hair, kneecap and toe nails, each of
which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body. These
systems of measurements and calculations also are used for the sculpture
of the deity as well.
It can be observed that a line drawn at an angle of 22 ½ degrees from the

point between the brows of the idol of the deity usually touches the tip of
the Dwajasthamba. The height of the Dwajasthamba thus is related to the
to the height of the idol and some scholars opine that this relates to the
axis of the earth which tilts at an angle of 22 ½ degrees with respect to the
vertical. If the directions and measurements are followed correctly the sun
rays should fall into the mantapa for at least six hours everyday.
Similarly, the lengths, the breadths and the heights of various elements of
the temple too are related to each other by certain ratios. These proportions
when followed provide aesthetic appeal and stability to the structure of
the temple.
22.5o
Gopura
Fig. 2.12
Axis of light between the Dhwajasthamba and the idol of the deity
22
Axiality
The temple is also a place for transit in an allusive sense, passageways
within the temple symbolising the transit from the temporal to the
eternal.
As mentioned above, a dynamic ritual associated with this understanding

of the significance of a deity in a temple is that of circumambulation,
or Pradakshina, which the temple provides for through the ambulatory
passageways around the main Sanctum Sanctorum. This ritual is a
representation of encircling the universe itself in Hindu and Buddhist
thought. Fig. 2.13 (c)
The 4 cardinal directions as axes
The ascent through the temple on the vertical axis is by repetition and
coalescence. The churning in mythology bears significance in the vertical
ascent and cosmic axis. This axis always passes through the centre from
the highest point of the temple to the centre of the Sanctum Sanctorum,
or Garbhagrha. This inner sanctum with a portico allows for the entry of
only one person at a time and is a point of power, or a crossing between
the divine and created world, and also a way of transformation of a
devotee.
Plan of a temple, expanded along the path of human approach, defines
the horizontal axis of the temple. In the east-west axis, a devotee moves
through a series of increasingly sacred spaces and finally reaches the
Garbhagrha. The Linear order meant for the approach of Humans toward
the Gods.
Fig. 2.13 (e)
Vertical axis between the Shikhara
This also warrants for the visual and aural connect between the deity and the finial
and the people who would perform art-forms in praise of the Gods. This
was also a measure to initiate and kindle community participation with
the institution of the temple. The temple’s architecture is centralised,
symmetrical and has an order in which one reaches the space where the
deity resides.
Fig. 2.13 (f) Fig. 2.13 (d)

Vertical axis of ascent to reach the Axis of approach and circumambulation Fig. 2.13(b)
Garbhagriha (Michell,1999) Axiality in a large temple complex
Fig. 2.13(a)
Axiality in the temple premise
23
The shapes and their significance in Hindu temples

The Vastupurushamandala, usually takes the form of a square, signifying
the cardinal directions that define and bind it. In the ordered site, the Vastu
is the extent of existence, and the Purusha is the source of this existence.
The Square is the perfect shape in the hierarchy of Indian symbolism and
is viewed as more significant than a circle. The square is the essential
and perfect form, as it presupposes and results from the circle. Circle and
curves are said to belong to life’s growth and movement, whereas the
square is the symbol of certainty, a mark of order and perfection beyond
the cycle of life and death.
Also, in certain Hindu symbolisms, the circle is a symbol of the unending
dynamism and life on the earth and the square is representative of
permanence and perpetuity of heaven. Using this logic, the temple is
considered to be a ‘marriage’ of the square and circle, symbolic of heaven
and earth, whose concurrence causes the world to exist. This union can
also be seen as the conjuncture of space and time.
The Square is also metaphoric of the level of the earth, the graph of opposites
marked by the rising and setting sun. These successive movements are
given permanence by the symbolism of a square. Proportion of a square is
also emblematic of the human form when visualised as ‘as high as broad’-
-the figure of man in its perfection is identical to that of a square. (As
observed in the Vastupurushamandala)
The Vedi, or the Sacrificial altar is a representation of the extent of the
earth. A square vedi makes the ground sacred, as circular aspect of
appearance and movement of earth is left behind, to undertake perfection
of the heavenly world. The vedi is symbolic of a womb (the centre of which
signifies the nabhi-the naval), a cube which beholds the manifestation of
this universe, its under surface being this world, lower part of the sides
are air and the upper is the sky. As mentioned above, these symbolisms of
the womb and the naval are images of generation and continuity. In the
construction of the vedi, a method of starting a square with 4 bricks and
then enlarging it to one of 16 bricks , etc., is employed, which was later
made famous in the West by Aristotle as the Pythagorean ‘gnomon’.
The temple in society

Alongside its religious and cosmic significance, the temple had a
multidimensional role in society as well, and was able to assert
commendable amount of control over a large section of the population-
-one of the major reasons for this being the fact that the temple was a
major source and facilitator of the livelihood and employment within
the community. Through the ages, the temple became not just a place
for worship, but also a place for congregation and gathering. The temple
served as a place for propagation of ideas, knowledge, societal ideas and
aspirations, a place for learning, the house of entertainment. In times of
difficulty such as a natural calamity or famine, the temple also served as a
place for refuge and safe-guarding.
Temples became the nuclei of urban centres, and the activities of merchant
guilds began to be concentrated in this region.
Since stone and brick were commonly available for use and decision of
royal patronage, Hindu temple history can majorly be seen to follow a
dynastic history, despite there being cases of many individuals being
responsible for the construction and development of temples. Temples
were built on land provided through Devadana, a culture of the wealthy
and affluent members of society donating land for the purpose of building
and flourishing of a temple.
In the context of temple building activity in the south of India, the fertile
Kaveri Valley, best suited for paddy cultivation, was the breeding ground
for temple building activities as well as the culture of saints singing about
the deities inside these temples.
24
The Bhakti movement being a part of the temple building culture of

South India along with devadana, happened to propagate an ideology
of non cultivating uppercases wielding power over the actual agrarian
population. This was the basis of Indian Feudalism, and it made its way
into South India from North India, from the Gupta times.
This can also be seen as a force that went on to further establish the
Varnasrama code and Jati system of castes.
The temples, being sites of the Bhakti movement, were a reflection of the
society and its attitude. Both the institutions in their ideology aimed at
equality and oneness of the soul in the pursuit of realisation of self, the
God and thus divine moksha, however they were never directly subversive
of the caste system. Despite the Bhakti movement being an egalitarian
movement that tried to discourage caste distinctions and meaningless
rituals, the fact that the patronage to this movement, and the sites of
its propagation being the temple did make the reach and effect of the
movement freely accessible to only a few parts of the society.
In the evolution of temples and the worship of the gods, alongside the
strengthening of the caste system, one can observe the beginnings of
many festivals and customs that brought the deity outside into the
streets of the town, giving people denied access to the temples, a chance
to attain sacred Darshana.
It can be noted that more effort meant more religious merit, which in turn
was reflected in the height and majesty of the temple itself. The temple’s
construction and its stature in society therefore was a means for ultimate
salvation, exaggerated religious merit and undoubtedly, a reputation in
society and public eye. The temple was built with the fervour of Bhakti,
or devotion as a work of offering and pious liberality, and in pursuit of
religious merit for themselves and their loved ones.
Since stone and brick were an effect of royal patronage, Hindu architecture
follows a dynastic history.
25
Chapter 3
THE PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGM:
Indian Classical Music
26
Philosophical paradigm: Indian classical music
PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGM OF INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC

Philosophical, compositional and social milieu of Indian classical Music
Music as an embodiment of Philosophical Ideas

Indian music is a manifestation of intangible human dimensions such as
aspiration, reflection, achievement, concentration, focus and intensity.
Karnatic music is the classical form of south Indian music that has
flourished since about 15 centuries and continues to be revered to this
day. Axiomatically, the treasures of Karnatic music are beyond time, race,
religion, caste or region and ideally accessible to all seekers of critical
knowledge and excellence.
However, similar to any other aspect of Indian history, it is fairly difficult
to pin-point the historical beginning of an art form such as music, since
mythology begins to get woven with history itself, especially in the
context of music, that has had major connections with Hindu philosophy
and mythology. Indian music is said to have originated from the Riks of
the Sama Vedas, from around 2000 BC, and then later improved upon by
the Vedangas, the Shiksha branch of Vedas. From this point, religion has
become part and parcel of our music.
As sung by Rabindranath Tagore,
“It was in thy holy sky that the first dawn (of human consciousness and culture)
announced its majestic appearance. It was in thy gay gardens of penance and
godliness that the musical notes of Sama veda first filled the skies”
(Rabindranath Tagore)
The earliest treatise that has been traced which talks about music is
the Natya Shastra of Bharata. History later on provides us great works
on the topic of music after Bharata’s Natyashastra such as Illango’s
Silappakadiram, Matanga’s Brihaddesi, Sarṅgadeva’s Sangeeta Ratnakara,
Sangeeta Sudhakara by Haripala, Swaramelakalanidhi by Ramamatya, to
name a few. These valuable treatises provide us with knowledge on the
technicalities of South-Indian classical music, and also give us a key to its
history and its development over the centuries.
Sangitaratnakara speaks of nada, the sound as the cause of the universe,
and identifies it with the Brahmana of the upanishads. Nada is the
combination of air and fire, and Nadopasana, the perusal of this Nada is
considered a path to enlightenment and a method to serve the Supreme.
This exercise kindles an impulse for new expression in the brain, stirs
the mind, mind kindles the heat in the body, thus giving rise to divine
energy in one. Words (vaka) are manifested through nada, language from
vaka and Vyavahara through language. The world is thus dependent on
this primordial sound, and it is this nada that manifests itself in the
human body. (sangitaratnakara. I-II; 1-4)
“Our music has its roots and

tries to evoke spiritual emotions
and is used mainly as a means for uplifting
the human spirit towards God head”
(Vidhwan Balsubrahmanyam)
27
Time forms the basis of music. A temporal artform, music is said to be

dependant on time—Kaala, which is a creative dimension that drives all
processes. Time as kala symbolises various meanings. In the process of
Sadhana, Laya falls into a rhythmic pattern thus immersing the music into
eternity.
Hindu religion is a way of life, and not a mere set of documents for
intellectual exercise, and as rightly so, South Indian music has majorly
been a reflection of Hindu philosophy, reflecting the society around it,
the ideals that people upheld at the time, and popular sentiments and
beliefs. Music is the finest of the arts, and has the unique capability of
combining intuition and expression. Music is free, and an incarnate of
freedom. Omkara, considered to be the source of all sound, makes music
an Adhyatma Vidya, a means of self realisation and beatitude. Sound
and life are inseparable from one another, just like the paramaatma and
jeevaatma being two facets of a soul. The spirituality that we derive from
the music is by itself a journey of bliss. Karnatic music is definitely an art
that gives us emotional and intellectual satisfaction.
Natya-Shastra describes music and dance as the fifth Veda that would be
accessible to all the four castes (1:12). It is an amalgamation of the ideas
of all the four vedas. The text or the padya in a musical composition and
the method of its articulation is symbolic of the Rig Veda, the notion of
practice, ritual and the body-language(sadhana, abhinaya) derive their
inspiration from the Yajur Veda, The primordial musical sound—nada,
the song-notes and the origin of classical music itself is said to be from
the Sama Veda, and lastly, the imbibition of the relationship between the
mind and the body and its expression through the medium of music for
conveying various bhavas through grace, ornamentation and charm, are
values reflected from the Atharva Veda (Natya-Shastra – 1:17-19)
The Padya and the meaning of musical compositions worship and aim
to please the Vedic gods such as Indra, Varuna and Vayu (not just the
gods and deities celebrated in Puranas). This can be seen as a symbolism
and imagery of a sacrificial ritual of the Vedic Yajna, and thus projects
the world-view wherein the formless(Arupa) gets manifested into a
multiplicity forms (rupa prati rupa) and ultimately reaches the point of
unity with the form beyond the physical realm(Para rupa).
Music itself is a religion to some.
“If religion is a system of faith and worship, that is

what music is to me. It is possibly something that I
have all my faith on, something that I do and think
about most of the time”
(Bombay Jayshree Ramnath)
“Naada is music, which itselfis God(Janardhana)

Naada is the supreme energy, this music is Shiva himself ”
(Matanga)
28
The Goal and purpose of music

Swami Prajnananda, in his book A History of Indian Music: Ancient
period, is very right and faithful to Indian tradition of classical music
when he observes that “Here the philosophy of music is looked upon
as a spiritual ‘Sadhana’, which elevates and animates the level of man’s
consciousness, and kindles in the cave of his heart the perpetual light of
the Divine knowledge, and makes him free from the den of delusions for
ever,” (Swami prajnananda- p.419)
The motive of most South Indian music, especially, has majorly been
to please the supreme. The art forms of historical nature from India
tend to possess a quality wherein, the art form speaks of all kinds of
emotions-love, detachment, eroticism, friendship, despair-all directed in
the service of God.
As mentioned in the Vishnu Purana, Lord Vishnu informs Narada that
music that conforms to technique has an immediate, universal appeal.
However, technique is only a means to achieve expertise. The aim of all
music is exaltation of mind and illumination of soul. Nevertheless, the
charm of music lies more in the flush of its sweetness and soulfulness
than in meticulous technique. That is its absolute vital, its impetus, and
the force that shapes it into the divine forms of ragas. (Vishnu puranam:
as cited by Rangaramanuja ayyangar)
However, Attitude of Hindus towards music was

uplifting and unique, they tried to sublimate it
in every way and associate it with sounds from
nature. Musical compositions and structures have
been formed in such a way that they had close
connections to the nature around them, the living
and the non-living beings. It can be observed that
ragas are associated with various times of the day,
moods, seasons and for pleasing certain specific
types of Gods.
Alongside all these qualities of the art-forms,
there is one major intention behind the perusal of
music, that underlies all pursuit of humankind, The
ultimate goal of Moksha, spiritual deliverance from
ignorance of one’s own self and from the consequent
bondage of finitude and separative and limiting
ego-consciousness. There is Music in moksha and
moksha in music too. The path of music is a zest
for truth and self realisation, a Spiritual experience.
Fig. 3.1
Music and the different times of the day
(Kapila Vatsyayan, 1983)
Another aspect of music that is quintessential to the ultimate goal of

moksha, is the idea of sadhana. The compiler of Natya-Shastra calls
it a prayoga Shastra—A framework of principles of practice. Bharata
makes a significant opening statement: “I am creating a theory and text
of performance; of practice and experimentation” . He also underlines
the fact that the efficacy of its formulation lies in practice (prayoga).He
who makes a sincere, ceaseless and devotional effort toward learning
and practicing music, with the blessings of his guru, is able to achieve
moksha, which is the end of all disciplines and purushartha-man’s real
nature, to liberate infinity and reverberations within the self. The pursuit
of musical knowledge (Sangitajnana) and the knowledge of religion
(Brahmajnana) are somewhat similar. The seeker or Sadhaka of music
as well as religion has to properly appreciate, assess and live it. It has
simply to be reckoned and realised through a devotional, tireless and
loving discipline as taught by the Master or guru.
29
The Sadhana or discipline in both the cases is quite different but the goal
for both the disciplines is the same, Moksha-prapti. When the seeker
follows with faith, devotion, and restraint the discipline of sadhana and
pursuit towards the realisation of knowledge, the gateway to dharma,
leading to moksha is immediately opened.
(Sangita Shastra)
The Sangita Shastra is a theory that lays down concepts and rules to be
brought into practice; and it is also allowed for the practice to remodel the
theory. It was a two-way mode of progression. The Shastra was not merely
a theory but it was also a tool (upaya) for perfecting the Sangita Vidya. The
theory (lakshana) had to have a purpose or a target (lakshya). The test of
a theory was in its application, Viniyoga.
Absolute control of mind is needed and this concentration in a prerequisite

of salvation. Hence, from history, Artists who followed a strict discipline
of mind and body, and commanded respect for their moral rectitude and a
high sense of their art and technique. The act of discipline, rigorous and
sincere ‘sadhana’ is what leads one to the ultimate goal.
eg. In Manasu nilpa (Abhogi), Tyagaraja notes the futility of mere worship
or any type of pooja, if one is not able to control his own mind. All his kritis
related to the concept of mind reveal the importance of mental confinement
or mental concentration. Among the fine arts, music is considered as the
finest device to get mental concentration. It has meditational power and
is itself considered as meditation. He reminds one that such a mental
condition with bhakti and devotion at its high stage is truly the zenith of
bhakti.
The Bhakti Movement And The Nine Forms Of Bhakti

In medieval South India, from the 7th to the 14th centuries AD, there was
a fervour of several far-reaching transformations in the milieu in terms of
culture, education, literature, art, kingship, ritual and philosophy. A com-
mon factor through this time frame, was the Bhakti movement, a path of
devotion, participation and leading of everyday life in the service of the
divine. The Bhakti movement in the South India is a representative of a re-
ligious phenomenon with a social content. The central motive of Bhakti is
to obtain an overwhelming consciousness of god and his own soul, a reali-
sation of the self that would absorb one into the greater consciousness and
rid one of the material and worldly interest, in order to attain the ultimate
goal of liberation or ‘Moksha’. The concept of Prapai or total immersion in
the devotion towards the divine, is the backbone of the ideology of Bhakti.
The supreme divine was seen as accessible to all, and people from all walks
of life and society had the opportunity of attaining moksha through the
adoption and practice of the ‘Bhakti marga.’ It is made clear that rituals
and sacrifices without a sense of devotion, purity of mind and inner peace,
would lead a devotee to no result. This movement was facilitated by great
saints who spread the message of Bhakti to the masses. The saints not
only composed poems in regional languages but also offered reflections on
the social, and historical milieu in which they lived, making their message
extremely relatable to the masses and in turn, driving the emotions and
sentiments of the common people to the rest of the community and the
rulers of the land.
The message of Bhakti was simple enough to be liveable, it displayed rich-
ness and variety, enough to be lucrative, and the message was tradition-
al enough to be societally and culturally acceptable. The strategy of this
propagation was driven by the fact that the ideals of Bhakti had to be deep
enough to be inexhaustible and always challenging, substantial enough to
give meaning to all experiences, powerful, yet simple enough to endow
kings with legitimacy and simultaneously uplift the lowest villager, with
heartfelt sincerity and trustworthy touchstone. (William Jackson, 1998)
30
“That I consider the best lesson, worthy to be learnt, if man could practice devotion to the
Lord, characterised by nine forms; listening to the Lord’s song and glory, singing of the
Lord, contemplation of the Lord, worshipping His feet especially, saluting and serving
Him like a servant, moving with him as a friend and offering one self to Him.”
(Prahalada: Bhagavata)
A devotee has the liberty of taking up any of the nine paths of Bhakti in
order to attain divine illumination.
SRAVANA (listening)
Being surrounded by the thoughts, sights and sounds of divinity and wis-
dom is a path toward salvation. By doing so, a devotee is absorbed in
the thoughts of divinity, which helps one channelise their consciousness
toward one’s inner self and the goal of self realisation.
In the Bhagavata Mahatmya it is told that the best Dharma in this world
is to hear Lord’s glories. For, thereby, one attains to the Divine Abode.
“The company of the wise, even for a moment, becomes the boat to
cross across the ocean of Samsara (wordly life)”
(Vidhwan Balsubrahmanyam)
In the Bhagavata Mahatmya it is told that the best Dharma in this world
is to hear Lord’s glories. For, thereby, one attains to the Divine Abode.
KIRTANA (reciting)
In an outcome of a pure heart and true devotion, a devotee sings, dances
and spreads the thought go god in one and all. The devotee is ecstatic in
his devotion and urges everyone around him to get a taste of this fulfil-
ment.This is the easiest of all modes of approach to God.
“In the Kali Yuga, iron age, Kirtana alone is the best Yoga”
“This is the prescribed method of devotion for this age.
This ensures the mind is ever immersed in purity, and one
surpasses his own limitations of his ego.”
(Kalau Kesavakirtanam)
This also benefits the beings around him by helping them eliminate their
sorrowful thoughts and allowing for their Sravana bhakti. Eknatha ob-
serves in his Abhanga, that kirtana is important for cittasuddi (purifica-
tion of mind)
“Kirtana is the meditation of God Himself, There is no merit on earth

equal to that of the kirtana.
Believe me, says Tuka, God stands up where kirtana is being performed
A man who performs the kirtana not only saves himself, but also others.
Without doubt, says Tuka, one can meet God by performing a kirtana.”
(Sant Tukarama)
This also benefits the beings around him by helping them eliminate their
sorrowful thoughts and allowing for their Sravana bhakti. Eknatha ob-
serves in his Abhanga, that kirtana is important for cittasuddi (purifica-
tion of mind)
31
SMARANA (Meditative thought)

A stylised mental exercise of a devotee focusing their mind on a particular
object of divinity-the almighty, in order to attain a subjective, yet height-
ening experience of bliss, consciousness and calmness, thus allowing the
mind a sense of alertness, concentration and consciousness of their inner
self. This meditative remembrance of God is one of the most difficult forms
of Sadhana. It is nearly impossible to meditate upon the thought of god
at all times. The mind, Chanchala or restless, will repeatedly attempt to
distract the person, and dissuade the mind into thoughts of wordiness and
material pleasures. Smarana is a method of swimming against the forceful
current of the river of Maya and Moha. However, once achieved, Smarana
leads to exclusive meditation on God, as is done in Raja Yoga, and a blissful
sense of calmness, and self realization.
PADASEVANA (Serving)-service, assistance, help

Service in the ‘feet of the lord’ is termed as Padasevana. For the mortal
human beings, this can be done wither by serving the image or idol of god
through service of the temple and its ways or better still, service humanity
itself, considering each living being and person as a manifestation of god
himself. Service of the poor, the sick, the disabled, and humanity at large
constitutes padasevana.
ARCHANA (worshipping)-praise, appeasing, impressing
“Those who perform the worship of Vishnu in this world,

Attain the immortal and blissful state of Moksha.”
(Vishnu Rahasyam)
Archana is worship of the Lord. Worship can be done through an image,

idol or even a mental image of the lord, an image or object that the wor-
shipper finds appealing, inseparable towards, and significant of divinity.
Worship can be done either through external procedure, materials or mere-
ly through internal methods of bhakti Bhava, purity of mind and sanctity
of thought. The latter, is an advanced form of worship that takes immense
practice, discipline, and which only devotees of purified intellect are capa-
ble of executing. The purpose of worship is to appease the almighty, and in
turn purify the heart through sacrifice of one’s ego.
Worshipping of saints, any living being or any object of devotion can also
be considered as worship of the ‘Virat-Svarupa’ of God. God appears in all
forms, he is everything, he is everywhere. Consideration of all things, be-
ings and forces around oneself as god, and worshipping and treating it with
respect and devotion is the highest form of worship.
VANDANA (praying)-faith, reverence, devotion

Prayer and prostration towards the God with reverence and faith, before a
form of God, and getting absorbed in the Divine Love of the Lord is termed.
The ego or Ahankara is faded out completely through the process of devout
and sincere prayer. The Divine Grace is said to descend upon the devotee
and man ultimately becomes one with God. Vandana constitutes devotion
and reverence towards all living and non-living things, since all existence
are forms of the One God.
“The sky, air, fire, water, earth, stars, planets, the cardinal points
(directions), trees, rivers, seas and all living beings constitute the
body of Sri Hari. The devotee should bow before everything in
absolute devotion, thinking that he is bowing before God Himself.”
(Bhagavata)
“Giving no attention to those who laugh in ridicule, forgetting the

body and insensible to shame, one should prostrate and bow down to
all beings, even to the dog, the ass, the Chandala and the cow. All is
Myself, and nothing is but Myself.”
(Lord Krishna to Uddhava)
32
DASYA (Subservience)
Dasya-Bhakti is the devotion and love of God through subservience. To
serve God and carry out His wishes, realising His virtues, nature, mystery
and glory, considering oneself as a slave of God, is considered a privilege
and the opportunity to do so leads one to liberation and self-realisation.
Selfless service with a pure heart and a diminished ego towards the
temple, the God, saints, learned and wise people, poor and the sick can
be termed as Dasya Bhakti too, alongside Padasevana.
To follow the words of the scriptures, to act according to the injunctions of
the Vedas, considering them to be direct words of God, is also considered
Dasya-Bhakti. Even association with and service of sincere devotees is a
form of Dasya-Bhakti.
SAKHYA (befriending)
Sakhya-Bhava is the sentiment of friendship, care, affection and love
towards the God, wherein the almighty is seen as the beloved.
“Oh, how wonderful is the fortune of the people of

Vraja, of cowherd Nanda whose dear friend is the
perfect, eternal Brahman of Absolute Bliss!”
(Bhagavata)
This also causes for a devotee to treat every living being in this world as one
of their own, and thus respects, cares and a senses belonging towards one
and all. This form of Bhakti ensures that a devotee is free from selfishness,
hate, jealousy. God is looked upon as a shelter, home, a caring presence that
exists to protect, heal and nourish the devotee.
The thought and presence of god in one’s mind thus becomes imperative,
calming and ecstatic. This form of Bhakti advocates that God is the
innermost and the dearest of friends, a forgiving, loving and caring force.
Even if the world was to turn against a person, God would never desert his
devotee. He would love and care for his devotees even if they dismiss or
question him.
“Lord dwells not in Vaikuntha, nor in the sun, nor even

in the hearts of yogins, but where His devotees sing”:
(Narada, Bhagavata)
Physical love is manifested as spiritual love in this context, and the
mundane is transformed into the eternal. This, is one of the significant
ways of bringing the notion of God close to the human mind, and giving a
sense of closeness and access to the idea of God and salvation itself.
ATMA-NIVEDANA (Self-surrender)
This form of Bhakti points toward self-surrender and renunciation.
“The heart of one who has taken refuge in Vasudeva, who is wholly devoted to
Vasudeva, gets entirely purified, and he attains Brahman, the Eternal”
(Vishnu Sahasranama)
The devotee submits everything in his control to the divine-his mind, body,
soul, ego, ‘self ’ and existence itself. The devotee hence, becomes a part of
the God himself, and is taken care of by him. The devotee even treats grief,
sorrow and misery, pleasure or pain, all as parts of the master-plan of the
God and detaches himself from the emotions attached to it.
33
Music as contemplative of cosmic and metaphysical philosophy

Sangitaratnakara speaks of nada, the sound as the cause of the universe,
and identifies it with the Brahmana of the upanishads. Nada, the principal
vibration, is the combination of air and fire. The entire space and time
continuum that the Brahmanda consists of is represented in music through
the rhythm, the art itself and its Bhava Artha.
Om, the divine Naadabrahma, is said to be the cause of all sound, and
hence all music. One traditional belief in the realm of the cosmos states
that in the beginning of time, there was complete void, neither light nor
darkness, neither energy nor matter but a vast formless state. It was then
that the aadishakti (primeval energy) emerged with the radiance of a
hundred suns and with the uproar of her laughter, the sound Om gave
birth to the cosmos.
Another Indian philosophic thought holds that Om, a soporific sound
was flashed forth in the mind of Brahma while he was absorbed in
meditation and this rhythmic sound Om had exhorted the Almighty to
create the world. The sound of Om embodies the three powers-the power
of Creation, the power of Destruction and the power of Sustenance and
Evolution. Hence, Om is considered the original primordial sound when
the creation had started, and thus Om should be treated as sound or nada,
and a signature of Brahma, or naadabrahma.
Indian music is basically constituted of 7 notes-Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da,
Ni. Forms of these notes, or swaras, when brought together in various
permutations and combinations give rise to ragas, and these 7 notes are
what are the cause of all of music. The importance of the number 7 as a
number that encompasses entirety is seen as a consistent idea in Hindu
philosophy, similar to the idea of 7 lokas constituting the higher worlds
and 7 Lokas consisting the netherworlds.
The Shruti, which is basically the frequency or pitch that music is set
to. Shrutis in Karnatic music too, are divided into 7 basic Shrutis from
which the 22 Shrutis are derived according to the Chandogya Upanishad.
Sarṅgadeva (13th century) in his Sangitaratnakara (I.III.10-22) tells us of
how the seven notes can be produced on two twenty-two stringed veenas.
One of the veenas is kept invariable and the other one is used in a variable
mode. He shows how the notes that are one sruti apart merge. It is thus
established that 22 clearly audible pitch differences can be noted. A Sruti
by itself might appear insipid and etiolated, but gets vivified the moment
it is coupled with Svara, Taala and Saahitya.
The ragas are divided and grouped into a regulated scheme of organisation,
called the Melakarta scheme-originally proposed in the 17th century by
Venkatamakhin in his Chaturdanda Prakasikha-wherein there are 72
parent (janaka) ragas and various derived (janya) ragas. The melakarta
scheme accounts for about 2500 ragas that compositions in Karnatic
music are set to. Some mythological and cultural references point to the
connection that this Melakarta scheme’s divisions are on the basis of the
12 zodiac signs. Each of the 12 svarathanas of karnatic music is associated
with a zodiac sign and planet as well.
The Vedic concept “bhoor-bhuva-suvaha,” the physical, mental and

spiritual realms of creation are represented symbolically in music. Karnatic
music is constructed on a three-octave ranges—sthayis: mandra (lower),
madhya (medium) and tara (upper), and this range is said to represent the
three realms of the cosmos.
34
Prati Shuddha
Madhyama Madhyama
ragas ragas
Fig. 3.2
The Melakarta system of Ragas
The human body as a vehicle and basis of musical composition

(Sangitaratnakara .I.II.106) Indian music repeatedly stresses on an
understanding of human as an organism and its potential for psychic
expression.
The human body is deemed by a lover and practitioner of music as
‘Shariri veena’ for, vocal music emanates from the very body itself, as
mentioned by Bharata in his Natyashastra. This view is also shared by
the saint Kabir, who says that this body of man is like a Tanpura, a ‘city
of songs,’ which he observes, needs to be screwed or disciplined in such
a way that the divine Music which is potentially lying dormant inside in
finds a spontaneous, sublime manifestation. His body becomes a temple
of nadopasana, much in the same way in which the yogis’ body becomes
a fit spiritual laboratory of yogopasana. In this temple of music, the body,
the ragas and shrutis gain ascendancy and manifestation on the throne Fig. 3.3
of one’s heart. Relationship of swaras and the chakras
Thus, the human body’s form and constitution forms a basis for it. Each Sahasrara
of the 7 notes that constitute all of music, are seen in correspondence to NI
various parts of the human body. DA Ajna
Shadja-soul
Rishabha-head PA Vishuddha
Gaandhara-arms
Madhyama-chest MA Anahata
Panchama-throat
Dhaivata-hips
Manipura
Nishada-feet GA
(Naaradasamhita 2.53.54) RI Swadhisthana

These 7 elements also correspond to the seven elements
Muladhara
of the physical form of the human body, the chakras in an alternative SA
interpretation.
35
Manifestation of philosophical principles in a composition through design
“The sky, air, fire, water, earth, stars, planets, the cardinal points
(directions), trees, rivers, seas and all living beings constitute the
body of Sri Hari. The devotee should bow before everything in
absolute devotion, thinking that he is bowing before God Himself.”
(Helmholtz)
According to popular belief, Is not science opposed to religion? In Karnatic

music however, they have always coexisted and grown together. The
technique of music explores mathematical possibilities, breaks sound into
primary units and then goes on to combine them in various mathematical
combinations, to produce configurations that can produce emotions or
Bhava.
There four elements that constitute a composition in Indian classical

music, as described by Abhinavagupta, are as follows:
The Svaras are the notes that musical compositions are set
to. The selection of these Svaras in order to form a framework
of harmonious tunes are what we understand as ragas today.
These Svaras are employed at fixed intervals of Sruti and these
Sruti intervals are well defined. For instance, the Shadja Grama,
Ri was on the third Sruti above Sa; Ga was on the second Sruti
above Ri and so on. However, in some genres of Indian classical
music, such rigidity was not needed (Kim ca antarāla niyamo….
gāndharve’vaśya-samvedhaḥ | na tv evaṃ gāne). Abhinavagupta,
while explaining this aspect clarifies that he is accounting for the
practices that were prevailing(pratita) during those times(uktam
api pratītam anucitrīyate).
There are 7 svaras that constitute all of music—Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da
and Ni. Of these, there are two types of svaras. The Prakrti Svaras—
Sa and Pa—which remain constant and the Vikkruti Svaras—Ri, Ga,
Ma, Da, Ni—which consists of different variations.
The Vikkruti Svaras are as follows:

Ri (Rishabha): Shuddha, Chatushruti, Shatshruti
Ga (Gandhara): Shuddha, Sadharana, Antara
Ma (Madhyama): Shuddha, Prathi
Da (Daivata): Shuddha, Chatushruti, Shatshruti
Ni (Nishaada): Shuddha, Kaishaki, Kaakali
This creates sixteen svaras that come into existence from the 12 svarasthanas
that exist in an octave.
The Taala, which is time that is measured through a fixed number

of demarcations, is governed by rigid rules. Its main aim of the
Taala is to establish Saamya or balance and equipoise in a musical
composition. However, the Taala occupies a secondary position
(angāngibhāva) to the Svara. Depending on the type of composition
or the purpose of it, the flexibility with respect to the Taala varied
immensely. For instance, the Taala in a play could be improvised
aesthetically in order to suit the dramatic situations and the purpose
of entertainment through the means of colourful rhythmic play.
The Pada (Padya) are the words that musical compositions are
set to. It is also called Sahitya. The Pada has varied importance
in different genres and types of composition within the realm of
Indian classical music. For instance, in the Gandharva genre, the
Svara, Taala and the proficiency of musical craft had predominance
over the Sahitya. However, in the Gana, the Pada warrants for much
greater attention as the prominence given to words and meaning of
the composition itself.
36
In Indian classical music the Phala, or the fruit of the practice or

perusal of musical knowledge is profound. However, the Phala
of different genres of music varies as well. Again, let us cite
the examples of the Gandharva and Gana genres of music. The
Gandharva is a virtuous and pleasant form, and bestows merit
(punya). However, Gana is used only for its aesthetic effect and
not for its devotional and spiritual merit.
The Raaga, is a pivotal concept in Indian classical music, and provides a

framework for the arrangement and coming together of the 12 different
svaras (as mentioned above) in order to produce an effect of varying
moods, meaning, purpose, seasons and tone of a composition. Prior to
the concept of Ragas, Jaatis were used for a similar purpose.
“A group of svaras that provide a sense of pleasure to the ear can be called Raga”
(Ahobala)
A profound system of classification of the Ragas, was created by the great

Venkatamakhin, called the Melakarta system, which we follow even to
this day.
Swami Prajnananda observes in his book, “The ancient seers saw in

their ecstatic vision the divine forms of the ‘ragas’, realised them, and
transmitted them to humanity. That is why a ‘raga’ is, to the Indian
musicologist, not merely ‘an inert structure of tones and tunes’, but a
psycho-material object that spiritualises both the body and mind, and,
helps man to transcend both matter and mind, so as to get the luminous
apperception of the Absolute”
Indian classical music also warrants for the subtle variants of each note
that exists in between the notes that are prescribed within the pretext
of several ragas. This also gives an artist the liberty to innovate and add
nuances to the existing compositions, thus softening its rigidity and
making it a pleasing and fruitful art form both for the performer and
the listener. This is done in several ways. A note gains better appeal
when it can stretch its limits to the notes the surround it. Thus, notes
are dovetailed to one another in order to form harmonious transitions.
These links are called gamakas, and are used frequently in the renditions
of musical compositions. Also, there is always room for improvisation,
or ornamentation of the compositions in order to suit the styles of the
artist and the mood and context of the performance.
Axiality in music
Music, performed in ‘real-time’ never exists as a whole at a particular
point in time. It unfolds along a linear axis of time. This creates an axis of
progression in a composition. This progression, many a times is marked
by successive changes in speed, intensity in the density and meaning of
the lyrics. The journey of the composition is culminated with the mention
of the composer’s signature, which, many a times also includes a heartfelt
prayer to the God. A piece of music as a whole also becomes part of eternity
in the memory of the listener, when one reminiscences the meaning and
understanding of the composition in one’s own mind and consciousness.
Certain elements of the composition are meant to be repeated after the
rendition of each part (eg. Charanas). This reinforces the premise of the
musical composition and the primary idea that it tries to convey through
the medium of music. This cyclical repetition can also be seen as a
meditative method of reinstating the essence of the musical composition
37
Shapes and their significance in Indian music

The basics of the design revolve around the idea of inner peace, the centre
and all the other elements evolve infinitely, however connected to this
centre and within the space and circumference of this circle so formed. Also,
as a temporal art form that revolves around the concept of kaala, music is
representative of the unending dynamism of time and can be represented
in the form of a circle. Classical music especially, is regulated through
structure and discipline and corresponding to the four Vedas (Rig-Veda,
Yajur-Veda, Saama-Veda and Atharva-Veda) that it draws from, and the
four elements (Svara, Taala, Sahitya and Phala) that constitute its making,
can be represented in the form of a square. The square is a symbolism of
music, in its essence, through its compositions is the essential and perfect
form, a symbol of certainty, a mark of order and perfection whose purpose
is beyond the illusionary, mundane and cyclical existence of the world.
Music and the society

Music played an indispensable role in the shaping of culture and society.
Firstly, many of the other art forms were co-dependent on music for the
purpose of performances and conveyance of artistic expression, such as
theatre, dance and poetry. A reflection of the times and society, music
from any time frame in history paints a vivid picture of the times that
the piece of music was created in. The politics of the era, the patronage
given to the arts, the freedom that artists were given to explore their sense
of expression. Temples were the earliest patrons of music along with the
royalty. Temples were the hub of all cultural activity and artistic expression.
Culture itself was rooted in religion. Music was considered one of the best
and purest forms of worship. Even factors like economic state of the society
at the time can be reflected upon using the music of the time. One gets
an idea of the prevalent movements-philosophical, ideological, religious
and social-that were at play in moulding the culture and society. During
the 12th to 14th centuries, the Bhakti movement helped to disseminate
Karnatic music to the masses by introducing Bhajana sangeetham. This
encouraged congregational singing in the temples and thus was an effective
community building exercise. Thus, through the study of the cultural and
philosophical milieu of Indian classical music, one also gains knowledge
on key aspects of the society at the time—what was socially acceptable,
the inequalities and injustices of the time, and what revolutions were
springing in order to settle those differences.
38
Chapter 4
THE AESTHETIC PARADIGM:
Indian aesthetic theory
39
Aesthetic paradigm
AESTHETIC PARADIGM OF THE INDIAN ARTS

Based on the Indian Aesthetic theory
Vibhava
+
Pratipadya
CONCEPTION
Artist’s
mind
Medium:
Space/time
CREATION
SANGEETHA
Dosha
Alankara
Sthayi
Abhidha
Riti
Artha Bhava Vyabichari Dhvani
Vyanjana
Sattvika
Laya
Auchitya
Language
Guna
Anubhava
ENACTMENT
Spectator’s
mind
APPRECIATION
Rasa
+
Beauty
SIDDHI
Fig. 4.1
Diagram depicting the flow of art
and ‘Experience’
40
Aesthetic paradigm
Fig. 4.2
Types of arts according to the Indian
Aesthetic theory
music
dance epics
SANGEETHA
painting ART lyrics
KALA KAAVYA
scultpure poetry
architecture epics
(Bharata, Natyashastra)
The relationship between Sangeetha (music) and Sthapatya (architecture)

have been discussed closely in several volumes of ancient literature. The
aesthetic relationship between Music and architecture, in the context
of Karnatic music and the temple architecture of Vijayanagara in the
medieval times will be explored in this chapter. For the purpose of this
study, music and architecture in the given context shall be viewed as
two forms of Indian art. The process of their creation shall be viewed
as the creation of art, and the product of this process will be seen as a
composition, constituting of various elements, put together with certain
logic, intent and style. These art forms are then open to observation,
appreciation, criticism and perusal in the minds of a spectator—a listener
of music and a visitor/user of a product of architecture. For the purpose
of analysing the aesthetic relationship between music and architecture
fruitfully, the following method and sequence shall be used.
The true meaning and purpose of these art forms becomes

primary to our understanding of the art forms themselves, and
understanding what relationship they share with one another in
the given point of view. This would also help one understand what
constitutes art—what role language plays, and how various types
‘meanings’ come together to provide a spectator with a wholesome
picture of the idea in the artist’s mind and how symbolisms aid
this process. This would also help us understand the concept of
harmony that is maintained in all art.
Investigation into how these values are embodied in the art

forms—Understanding the process of creation of these art forms
in order to attain the ‘goal’ as discussed in the earlier section.
Art is an activity of expression or communication of certain core
ideas, and requires a medium. Art can be considered as a ‘form’
given to an experience that is stored in the mind of an individual.
This contains some subject matter which require representation.
Art serves as a platform for this representation—primarily through
symbolism. These symbols can be of different types, and it is this
difference that accounts for the distinctions between art forms.
The art object thus produced is hence, a simple objectification of
something mental, individual and subjective. Creativity lies in this
process of objectification, this process of transforming something
private into public.
41
Aesthetic paradigm
The experience of this spectator thus becomes key to understanding

the entire cycle of the art’s conception to its appreciation when made
available for this spectator to perceive and relish. This experience
finally lends itself to a point of enjoyment in a way such that the
purpose of the art is thus fulfilled, completing the cycle of the art
object’s journey.
Music and the society

Art and appreciation of art gives us a sense of pleasure, a pleasure that is
beyond explanation through mere words, one that is unique, and cannot
be defined specifically. Abhinavagupta has noted that the ultimate purpose
of art a sense of super-worldly happiness that is similar to that of Brahma-
realisation. This has been termed as siddhi.
(Abhinavagupta)
This happens in the mind of the observer, or so to say, the appreciator.

This siddhi is of two types: that is human—Manusi, and that is divine—
Daivaki. The idea in Indian art is that world of art is created from a void,
and ultimately gets transformed into a void again. There is always a state
of eternal peace that acts as the universal balance of all art—the state of
nature. After the performance or creation of any art, the artist returns to
his original state. All the other states that emerge in between through
the course of art are temporary and are embedded in the original, and
work together in harmony. Creation of art thus, involves taking from the
reservoir of this harmony and ultimately restoring it—which as a principle
is operative in all arts.
An important aspect to note would be that Bharata, in the natyashastra

mentions something called the ‘sampurna siddhi’ which hints at a
standard that surpasses the limits of all parameters and deems itself as
indescribable or anirvacaniya. This concept is also related philosophically
to the idea of Brahman and maya, which is neither true, nor false and can
simply not be described. Art is considered to be nirguna and nirakara—
that which has no specific form, nor any specific characteristics. Thus, the
process of appreciation of art is considered similar to the experience of
Brahman himself.
Art-forms are said to create a ‘disturbance’—material or mental, also known

as sphota. The term Sphota is derived from the root ‘sphut’ which refers to
a ‘burst’ or ‘bloom’. It is used to contain the process of manifesting ideas
through meaning. For instance, in music, sound changes into language
and acquires meaning only through the ‘explosion’ of sounds, or Sphota.
There are two types of meaning in art: vacyartha (direct meaning) and
lakshyartha (implied meaning) also there exists a suggested meaning, so
the combination of implied and suggested meaning is the pratiyaman-
artha. Meaning in any case has the quality of sphota and is known through
intuition and specific timing. Artha, the meaning of an art object is an
explanation of the intention of the artist. However, symbolisation is a
method of objectification of the meaning of the art piece. It can be used
only by, and for those who understand this symbolism. Artha stands for
the following:
The object indicated by the symbol-artha

Meaning indicated by the symbol as a flash-pratyaya
These meanings expressed through symbolisms are relatable to an

audience through personal experience, the light of consciousness and
joy. It also reflects itself on the parameters such as ego and self regard
42
Aesthetic paradigm
(ahamkara and abhimana). This meaning is conveyed through the

mode of art, in a certain specific language. According to Mammata’s
Kavyaprakasha, the philosophy claims that language embodies four types
of meanings:
Independently effective words: abhidha

A sentential sense: tatparya
Perception of a surface incoherence: mukhyarthabadha
Figurative meaning: lakshana
Just like the connection of these words’ meanings, through syntactic

expectancy, semantic cohesion and proximity provide an overall meaning
of a sentence, the connection of these symbols, the meanings they are
conveying and the language that they are framed in, create a heightened
and wholesome understanding of the art object in the minds of the
spectator. Understanding of a piece of art doesn’t come from segregating
the meaning of the symbolism from the symbol itself. Since the nature of
the symbolic form itself varies between the arts, the essence of meaning
of the art comes from the meaning of the symbolism along with the
symbolic form. However, the observer doesn’t stop at just this, there is
also a process of arousal that comes from perception of the art, that may
not have been converted into the symbolic form entirely by the artist.
Through the process of absorbing the essence of the art and ‘observing’
it, the observer is charged with an emotion. Knowing that it is art and
not reality, the observer is subject to a feeling of enjoyment no matter
what the nature of the emotion induced be. This is known as Daivika
Siddhi.
Thus art has two ends. One—the point of creation, and second—the
point of appreciation. However, The point of creation also includes
the process of creation which plays as a factor in the appreciation so
generated. Creation of art comes from an urge to express, a public display
of the state of mind of the artist. However, appreciation is more of an
impression—a private action.
Indian aesthetic theory depicts art as epistemic in nature. For this we
would need to understand the following concepts as noted by Barlingay
in his monograph,
“(1) There is a world which exists in its own right

(2) we are able to know it, and thus are able to know it in pluralistic forms
(3) We are able to express these forms in the form of language
We are able to recognise various forms in their diversity using language as
a medium . the evolution is bench-marked by abstraction and division into
groups to gain better clarity in this aspect.various aspects like vikrti, prakrti,
Maya, samara and Jagat emphasise knowledge and expression. To distinguish
between the learned and the learning is the first step of abstraction, sowing
seeds of imagination. Space, time, substance, qualities, quantities, etc., are
closed concepts that define the universe. Man’s role lies in the capability of
understanding and establishing a relationship among these parts. Man imbibes
from his learning and uses his skills to build a product of imagination. The skill
is the power of imagination and the product is the imagination.”
(Barlingay, Surendra Sheodas. A Modern Introduction to Indian Aesthetic Theory: the Develop-
ment from Bharata to Jagannātha. DK Printworld, 2016.)
43
Aesthetic paradigm
Manifestation of the purpose of art

This ultimate purpose of all art—siddhi, is manifested through heightened
strategies and media which vary from one art form to another. Music and
architecture are two art forms that are temporal (relating to time) and
spatial (relating to space).
Music is essentially time series, sound series, language series (through the
medium of lyrical poetry)
Music bases itself on the background of time and sound. A composition
of music, even if composed at an earlier point in time, is performed in
real time, and never exists as a whole at any point of time. Time, though
thought of as divisible, is actually an entirety, whose divisibility comes
from the ability to divide units of time. In fact, even time itself only exists.
It is what is inside of it that flows. Thus, music unfolds in a linear fashion
and becomes a whole entity only in the memory and mind of the listener.
In temporal arts such as Karnatic music, the concept of Laya is presupposed.
Laya refers to the temporal continuum which creates possibility of equal
division. Laya gives the starting point of time in a music composition. It
is the notion that stands for concentration, a path of thought, the gradual
emergence of harmonious elements, etc. Tala is the rhythmic movement
and division of time units as per Laya.
Space is an infinite entity. It is infinitely divisible in the sense where the

entirety of pure space can’t be divided, and the only the things within
the space can be divided, infinitely. Architecture exists as a whole, but its
perception at any given time is never a whole, and only happens over time
in a linear process through observation and movement, and its perception
is never the same.
In the realm of the three dimensions of space, time occupies the fourth, which forms
the space-time continuum. Time and space are considered as states of consciousness
in Indian aesthetic and metaphysical theories. Time is thus not independent of
space and vice versa. They are mutually dependent and transformable. In terms
of both space and time, one perceives movement through only a point within the
‘whole’ of the space or time. The whole is actually never perceivable to the observer.
We only have the capacity of sensing an elongated sense of space or time, based on
the divisions created by us for repetition.
Art strives to seek the truth in its finality. Art as a perusal of the truth represents the
notion of endlessness and eternity, as the process of art—its conception, creation
and appreciation, may not allow the spectator to arrive at the truth, but it provides
a platform, a discourse on the exploration towards the truth. This process itself can
be considered as an achievement of finality in a sense.
Bhoga is a Sanskrit word that means “indulgence,” “enjoyment,” “consumption,”
“experience” and “sensual pleasure.” In yogic philosophy, bhoga is a term used in
several ways. Some see bhoga as the enjoyment of earthly pleasure that prevents self-
realization. Others see it as a type of pleasure without attachment that is necessary
for a healthy mind and body. Without attachment, bhoga does not prevent self-
realization.
The process of creation of art

Composition is a “process of symbolisations of processes, which extend
over time” and is the most important aspect of creativity of an artist, paint-
er, dancer, musician, performer or architect. It is also a way of conveying
this processes over time and space to people, who could also interact with
and contribute to this composition. Art can thus be called a system of sym-
bols that guide behaviour between space, time, rhythm, people and their
activities.
Formulation of a composition is an act that is done in “frozen time” and not
in real time, causing a deliberate suspension of time.
Whereas, in an open ended compositions of music, the creation happens in
real-time, wherein elements are assembled together spontaneously using
a specific parameter as a constant. This then, become significant similar to
44
Aesthetic paradigm
spatial art (architecture) wherein its realisation itself provides high

multiplicity and range.
The creation of art is done using the skill or ability of the artist, called
as pratibha. This is also a quality that is necessary for appreciation of an
artist’s work. The pratibhas are classified into two types: karayitri (creative)
and Bhavayitri (appreciative). This capacity is the factor that allows for
newness in creation at every iteration.
In both music and architecture, the composition is made of units, and

each unit strives to achieve perfection. No matter how ‘perfect’ an object
of art may seem— however compelling or authoritative, cannot prevent
further exploration and improvisation. An artistic piece can never be said
to have reached its ‘finality’ and hence art can also be considered a form
of expression that is ever-pregnant with the possibility of creating new art
from it. This holds good both in the case of Karnatic music and temple
architecture.
(Natyashastra,7.2)
Bhava is something that makes something in the mind of the artist

manifest itself in the form of experience. Bhavas are of three kinds:
Sthaayi/Sanchari (inner states of mind)—experienced through

anubhavas, which are symptoms that accompany the bhava.
Bhavas in the presence of the other adorning factors cause it to be
experienced as a rasa.
Sattvika (organic sensations)
Vyabhicari (states of human behaviour)
Another feature that goes into the creation of art is the nuances that
transforms the ordinary into extraordinary. This feature is the alankara.
This process of ornamentation can be considered as the embellishments
that adorn a piece of art to heighten the experience of it. In fact, looking at
alankara as just a method of ornamentation would be wrong. Moreover, it
is a technique to bring out the beauty of expression. We must agree that
the technique and essence of the art-piece, however meritorious, could
not become appealing to the spectator if not for the usage of alankara.
At the same time, it is said that an excessive importance given to the
alankara causes a loss of the inner essence of the art. Hence, alankara
must be a secondary virtue of art composition and perception. Art could
exist without alankara, but the vice versa could not be true.
Guna is another factor that governs the creation of art. This refers to the
condition that allows for the best artistic articulation. Aucitya is another
such factor that denotes the appropriateness of art.
The above features are actually part of the factors that constitute the
appreciation of art. Nevertheless, certain features when aimed at in the
appreciation stage of art, must be kept in mind and adhered to in the
process of creation of art.
As proposed by Ahobala in the scope of music, art as a medium wherein
the idea can suggest the mode of representation that suits it best. It
suggests a means that is best to convey and represent its ‘spirit’. Examples
of music from Ahobala’s discourse prove that this holds good for the
temple architecture as well. Similarly, a temple can be seen as a response
to its function and purpose.
Art as a mode of communication

All art thus provide a medium which conveys and yields some meaning to
the observer which is in fact, the intention of the artist.
For instance, Architecture though static and spatial form of art, gives us
a feeling of dynamism. It has the capacity to induce emotion, suggest
movement and function. At the same time music is not only be uttered
or heard, it can also be imagined. It gives an observer the capacity to
create an image in their mental space without it being seen by any other
person. The interpretation of an observer in both these forms of art is
always personal, and varies based on the factors surrounding the action
of observation of the art.
45
Aesthetic paradigm
Art indeed is communicative in nature. Art encompasses the communication

between the artist and the observer. The content of the feelings of the artist
and the perception in the mind of the observer, both are actually unreal,
and are senses in the human mind. Communication of ideas never happens
as a direct transmission between the artist and the observer. Art is always
a medium that is involved in the process, and the difference between the
arts comes primarily from the nature of this medium of communicating a
mental state.
The communication of art can be seen as a three step process:
A mental image is created in the mind of the artist, and creates a

potential for artistic expression. This is an internal consciousness,
private to the mind and body of the artist, in the form of the rasa.
The mental image is now is objectified through a specific medium

and becomes independent of the artists’ mind and body. The ‘art’ so
formed is now no longer private to the artists’ mind and discretion.
The idea, expressed through a specific medium of art is now open to

external perusal. This expression is now experienced by an observer,
and ultimately, the appreciation of the art becomes a part of the
spectator’s mind as siddhi.
The medium of communication varies between arts. In music, the

manifestation of the artist’s mind state is solely dependent on the artist
themselves, and the quality of expression that they are capable of. The
observer can only observe the art while it is being performed by the artist.
However, arts like painting, sculpture and architecture manifest the mental
image of the artist into an object, which exists independently and is open
for the observer to observe independently too.
Communication has also been explained in terms of rasa theory, which will
be dealt with in greater depth at a later stage in this chapter:
Rasa-nispatti-prakriya: the outcome of the process of art

Rasa-asvada-prakriya: the appreciation of the so created outcome
The sthayi Bhavas or mental states, through the process of vibhava,

anubhava and vyabhicari bhava take the form of rasa. The rasas are thus
transformations of mental states into behavioural patterns. This so
produced ‘rasa’ is then tasted, evaluated and appreciated by the observer,
to attain fulfilment and the final purpose of art.
(Natyashastra)
Bharata observes that rasa is a based upon which the bhavas are erected.
(Natyashastra)
In all art, there is a necessity of a continuant in the background in order

to experience the form of art. This could be termed as ’nothingness’, due
to the presence of which ’something’ can be experienced. For instance,
sound could never be perceived if not for the background of silence. This
factor accounts for the ninth rasa introduced by Abhinavagupta, the Shanta
rasa, which talks about this continuant aspect of art that performs no
action or at-least does not attempt to do so. They might be using different
languages for communication, which might or might not be translatable to
one another.
46
Aesthetic paradigm
The appreciation of art

Art as an activity consists of provision of an appropriate medium to the
thoughts of the artist, and allowing the same to pass successfully. If this
reaches the spectator successfully and a rapport is thus established, the
purpose of art on part of the artist is served. Thus, the idea in the mind
of the artist is thus measured by various subjective parameters that are
present in the mind of the spectator. It is this process that constitutes
the ‘appreciation of art’ and which transforms a mere spectator into an
appreciator of art.
As discussed above, there are certain significant aspects that constitute
the appreciation of art—rasa, alankara, riti, guna/dosha, vakrokti,
svabavokti, auchitya and dhvani
Rasa is a term widely used in the context of the Indian Aesthetic
theory, which relates to the appreciation or enjoyment experienced by
the observer/spectator of art. Rasa employs a sense of relish, and it is
said that no sense prevails without rasa (na hi rasadrte kaschid—arthah
pravartate)
Rasa can be seen as the soul of art. It is not only a method, but a goal that
is dreamed to be achieved by the Sahrudaya, a connoisseur of the art-
form. Thus, the appreciation of this rasa becomes of far more cruciality
than the creation of it itself. Thematic emotions are considered rasa
when they are combined with catalysts, consequents, bodily symptoms
and incidental emotions. This causes a pleasurable sensation. Since
the impact of the art-form’s performance provides a sense of pleasure
when ‘tasted,’ they are called ‘rasas’. Parasparasambandha-bhavas only
become significant in the context of a ‘performance’ and derive their
innate connection with rasa.
Siddhi—the ultimate purpose of art, is the third and final process in the
appreciation of art by the observer which happens in three stages, the
first two being occurrence of meaning and enjoyment.
There are various ways of measuring and gauging the appreciation of art.
Aucitya or appropriateness is one of the parameters of measuring the
beauty of art, apart from being a parameter in the process of creation. It
has two parts to it—consisting of the constituency of the art form and
relating to its evaluation.
The act of appreciation can also be divided into two kinds: definitive—
which is either about the subject of the matter or about the form, and
non comprehensible. This quality is what brings are to be known as
beyond the simple understanding of the human mind.
Other important concept to understand in the appreciation of a piece of
art happens in two categories—one, which has got to do with the subject
matter and the concepts that relate to this subject matter, and second,
an evaluative standard. An example of an evaluative standard would be
the idea of beauty.
Beauty is a complex notion that has a great variety of meanings. One way
of describing it is, that when beauty is sensed, it does not take more than
a moment to grasp. Beauty thus seems epistemic in nature and arises in
a context that is anthropocentric. There is no logical proof of the sense
of beauty. But an underlying fact remains that there is something that
is being conveyed, and this message is observed and appreciated by the
receiver. The content of what is conveyed touches the observer, and takes
a grip of their senses and feelings.
No art can be conceived without a backdrop of beauty. Art could be, in
a sense called as a communication of beauty. All art could be termed as
a mode of communication, but all modes of communication cannot be
titled as art. It is beauty that brings about this distinction. The concept
of beauty as such does not describe any object or cannot be analysed
through rationale. This is related hence, to the concept of cognition
which has been related by Indian thinkers as similar to the idea of the
‘atman,’ similar to self-realisation.
47
Aesthetic paradigm
Sri Adi Shankaracharya describes beauty as that which is a result of

accomplishment of what is desirable.
(Adi Shankaracharya, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Kumarasambhavam)
(Maagha)
Magha describes beauty as what appears to be new every time it is

perceived. Thus causing its experience to feel unique every time.
48
Chapter 5
THE CASE STUDY:
The history and context of the Vijayanagara Empire
49
The Vijayanagara Empire
THE CASE STUDY

The History and Context of the Vijayanagara Empire
In 1336 AD, Harihara and Bukka, the chieftains of the Northern and
Western provinces of the Hoysala kingdom, known as the Sangama brothers
peacefully annexed the kingdom from the aged king Ballala III without war
or bloodshed. By this time, the Sangama brothers had gained prominence
in the Tulunadu area, Malenadu and coastal regions of Karnataka.
The rise of the Vijayanagara empire happened at a time when the rulers of
the Delhi Sultanate were subjugating older kingdoms like the Chalukyas,
Hoysalas and Kakatiyas in the 11th century, wherein kingdoms were being
destroyed, atrocities were inflicted on the people and the cities of these
kingdoms were looted mercilessly.
The strategic and iconic annexation of the South Indian kingdoms by the
Sangama Brothers would not have been possible without the guidance
of their Kulaguru, Madhava Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana. They
were not just visionary scholars, but also ministers well-versed in the
military arts, polity and statecraft. As reformers and philosophers with
an all-encompassing vision, they were sympathetic to the sentiments
and needs of all the various sections of society. For over fifty years, the
Sangama dynasty was guided greatly by these brothers in various ways.
The royal emblem of the Vijayanagara empire consisted of elements such

as the sun, the moon, and a sword along with Varaha, the great boar.
The boar, used by the Chalukyas earlier is an incarnation of Vishnu—
famous for destroying Hiranyaksha (a greedy monster king, depicting one
who yearned solely for the sense of pleasure) and uplifting Mother Earth,
personified as Bhoodevi, according to the Dashavatara. This emblem
personifies the punishment of the wicked and protection of the world.
The sun and moon denote the long-lasting and illuminating nature of
the kingdom, and the sword shows bravery and valour. The royal seal of
the Vijayanagara kingdom comprising the letters ‘Virupaksha’—(A form
of Lord Shiva). The cresent moon is also considered a symbolism of the
Chandra, mounted on the hair of Lord Shiva. The use of both Shaivite and
Vaishnavite symbolisms also depicts a peaceful co-existence of cultures.
Fig. 5.1
The emblem of the Vijayanagara Empire
Source: Internet
The City and its sacred geography
Vijayanagara—‘The City of Victory’—located in the Deccan plateau and
along the River Tungabhadra, was the capital city of an expansive empire
and a locus of trade, royalty and prosperity.
John Fritz describes Hampi as under,
“The capital was not merely a setting for ritual or a precipitate

of social action; rather urban form at Vijayanagara embodied the
principles and relationships that constituted the authority of the
king. King and god were focus of the city-they paid homage to
each other and by radiating their energies outward they gave form,
harmony and purity to the empire.”
(John M Fritz)
The city reflected a resemblance to attractive descriptions of sacred temple

sites in ancient texts such as the Brihatsamhita, which states: ‘the Gods
always play where groves are, near rivers, mountains and springs and in
towns with pleasure gardens’. Abdul Razaq (A Persian traveller from the
15th century AD) has given a vivid description of the city of Vijayanagara,
portraying it as an unprecedented city with remarkable monuments and
temples, the likes of which was never seen in the whole world before.
50
TUNGABHADRA
ANEGONDI
Vitthalapura
SACRED CENTRE
Irrigated valley
Hampi
Hiriya Kaluve
URBAN CORE
ROYAL CENTRE
0 1 km
0.5
Kamalapura Hindu temples

Royal structures
Markets
Jaina temples
Islamic structures
Ashrama/institutions
Jails (agrahara)
Fig. 5.2
A map of the city of Vijayanagara
depicting religious establishments, social
spaces and context
(Anila Verghese, 1995)
51
Hampi, Pampa-kshetra, Kishkindha-kshetra or Bhaskara-kshetra, the

capital of the Vijayanagara empire is an Avimukta Kshetra, a place that
Shiva does not relinquish even during Pralaya—like Varanasi—a place
where divinity rules. As the names of this city suggest, Hampi has a rich
and versatile legendary and mythological history.
Capital of the kingdom of Kishkinda, on the banks of Pampa (an older
name for the River Tungabhadra) Lord Rama made his acquaintance with
Sugreeva and subsequently entitled himself to the legendary devotion of
love of Lord Hanuman. Later in history, it was the cynosure of a thriving
medieval Kingdom and flourished with utmost glory from 1336 to 1565
AD.
Landscape and Sacred Geography
“The capital was not merely a setting for ritual or a precipitate of social action;
rather urban form at Vijayanagara embodied the principles and relationships that
constituted the authority of the king. King and god were focus of the city-they
paid homage to each other and by radiating their energies outward they gave form,
harmony and purity to the empire.”
(Ian Whyte, 2002)
Landscapes form one of the most enduring linkages of a milieu, the rela-
tionship between the society and its physical environment. It encompasses
the past and the present of a place and gives an in-depth sense of identity
at the individual, local and national scales. Apart from observing geography
in the context of society, culture and politics, religious historians have
opened up new perspective of geography called ‘sacred geography’. Espe-
cially in Indian tradition, sacred geography has played a significant role in
shaping the religious, sentimental and cultural thought and the percep-
tions of transcendence, divinity and manifestation of supernatural powers
in the people. Sacred geography is also termed as cosmography, referring to
the systematic study of rare places where divinity is said to have revealed
itself on Earth.
“Gods always play where groves are, near rivers,

mountains, springs and in towns with pleasure gardens”
(Brihatsamhita:Stella Kramrisch, 1976)
Fig. 5.3
The landscape of Hampi
Source: Photogari Blog
Sacred sites are assemblages of natural and human-made symbols and

landscape markers created and associated with special meaning. Through
a believer’s values, aspirations and beliefs, mythical worlds are mapped
to specific geographies associated with holiness. The natural environment
composed of the holy Tungabhadra River, and a built environment consist-
ing of a network of temples and shrines were physical manifestations of
such beliefs.
The concept of sacred geography is also crucial to the understanding of the
philosophy, literature and context of the socio-cultural movements which
gained popularity during the Vijayanagara empire’s rule. It can be observed
in the musical compositions from the time, that the sacred space created
through the medium of art, in itself was not the motive of the implied di-
vinity. Rather, this space constituted the transcendental space in the mind
of the composer, which was translated into the sacrality of the local con-
text, temples and the social space inhabited by the Bhakti saints. The songs
of Purandaradasa, for instance, do not directly point at the politics, ideol-
ogy and society of the Vijayanagara empire, but the context and subjects
of his compositions were almost always located within the domain of the
empire of Vijayanagara.
52
Art in the Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagar was the city of temples, of gardens and groves. The rulers of
Vijayanagara actively encouraged cultural activities such as promotion
of education, arts, temple architecture, generous patronage extended
to such institutions. A major chunk of the art (both folk and classical)
of ancient India has not only risen from temples, and celebrations and
rituals therein, but has also thrived and grown there. During the ancient
times, the arts could be nurtured and propagated only through the Guru-
Shishya relationship and constant exposure to the performance of these
arts, all of these were dependent on temples and their spatial context.
This is one of the key reasons why Vijayanagara, through patronage and
propagation of such temple building activities, played an indispensable
role in safeguarding the art forms of ancient India.
The Vijayanagar rulers are famed for liberally patronising artistes,
musicians, painters, literators, sculptors etc. They acknowledged and
adequately rewarded all valuable services irrespective of the nature of
the services rendered and caste of the persons rendering such services.
For instance, musical contests were popular and sought after in the court
and the wandering artists and poets vied for these opportunities of royal
patronage, consisting of grants of land and villages, gifts of wealth and
valuables, honours and rewards and various kinds of privileges.
Temple architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire

Temple reconstruction was an important aspect of the Vijayanagara’s
cultural renaissance, and was taken up with priority. The initiative to
build new temples was combined with a desire to rejuvenate and enliven
the old ones as well. Fortification of temples in India was done for the first
time in the Vijayanagara Empire. The architecture of Vijayanagar’s era
can be classified broadly into religious, courtly, and civic functionalities.
It derives from the Hoysalas, Chalukyas, Pandyas, Cholas stylistically
and represents a harmonious amalgamation of the major architectural
influences in Southern India. At the level of monumental architecture,
the Rayas deliberately adopted the Chola and Pandya paradigm of
architecture.
“The Vijayanagara polity, by adopting the Chola-Pandya paradigm as the imperial

idiom of temple architecture, revived the gopura structure after a hundred
year gap in its construction and made it a pan-South Indian feature of temple
architecture, spreading across the whole of Tamil Nadu and much of Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh.”
(Anila Verghese and Anna Dallapicola, 2010)
Another way in which regal wealth was displayed was making donations
to a temple deity, often recorded in stone inscriptions of the temple.
Temple money was used for infrastructural development of the state
abundantly.
Dr Alexandra Mack notes that during the Tuluva period there was a
substantial increase in the flow of endowments towards important
shrines. The pilgrim centres became important links in the chain of
endowments of pilgrims between temple towns which had received
patronage from the Rayas of Vijayanagara in many ways. This also was
enhanced by the widespread popularity of the songs sung about these
temple towns by poet-composers such as Purandaradasa.
At the same time, the imperial temple culture brought both Brahminic and
Bhakti modes of religiosity into the pattern of Devadana—A triangular
relationship between the king, god and Brahmins. This presence of social
movements such as Bhakti in the temple context raised important and
controversial issues of participation, and defined the spiritual life of
Fig. 5.4
the Vijayanagara Empire. Purandaradasa was singing in and about the Use of Brick and stucco for construction
temples which were purely within the territorial limits of Vijayanagara
Empire.
53
Stylistic features of Vijayanagara courtly architecture reinforce this view of

‘cosmopolitanism’ and liberalism. The remains of the Lotus mahal or the
royal stable shows a mixture of the Hindu and Saracenic arcuate techniques
in harmony. Stylistic features derived from Hindu temple architecture
include stepped layouts, multi-tiered sculpted stone basements, curved
eaves, stepped roofs, and plaster decoration. Vijayanagara architects and
builders thus creatively blended features from within and beyond imperial
territories in the creation of distinctive imperial style of public architecture,
associated with conceptions of kingship and royal and imperial authority.
Among the most dramatic examples of this style is the large stables located
in the royal centre of Vijayanagara. Fig. 5.5
The Lotus Mahal, Hampi
Credits: Ramesh Ajjampur
Fig. 5.7
Fig. 5.6
Queen’s Bath, Hampi
Elephant Stables, Hampi
Credits: Nusaiba Khan
Music in the Vijayanagara Empire

As Vijayanagara expanded and prospered quickly, many great musicians and
musicologists like Matanga and Sarngadeva from the times of the Yadava
Dynasty and its contemporaries came and settled down in Hampi. They,
however, had their own ideas of how music should be sung. The mutual
contradictions were so great that around 1550 AD, the Vijayanagara King
Achutharaya commissioned scholars of the time to write a series of treatises
reconciling the contradictions and streamlining this form of music into a
regimen and framework that everyone could understand and learn from.
The naming of south Indian classical music as Karnataka-Sangita could be
accredited to these treatises, compiled as the ‘Sangita Shastra Navaratna’
which to this day, is the rulebook of Karnatic classical music.
Society during the Vijayanagara Era

Purandaradasa’s life time spanned the heyday of the Vijayanagara empire,
especially the reign of Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) which witnessed a
phenomenal increase in agricultural production due to the sustained
investment in irrigation facilities. The picture we get from the songs of
Purandaradasa is one of agricultural prosperity. Inscriptions found in
Vijayanagara record the construction of a large irrigation tank during the
reign of Krishnadevaraya. The general picture of agricultural expansion
found in the songs of the composer is corroborated by the references to
tanks, well, channels and dams during the Vijayanagara period.
“The tree indeed shines when endowed with old roots and new shoots
Similarly does dharma with time-tested theory and new innovation.
When Science and Art are in harmony with ancient Wisdom,
Do people win in life, Mankutimma”
(Mankutimmana Kagga, verse 522)
54
By the end of the 16th century, the religion was under a more open
minded rule. A European traveler named Barbosa described:
“The kings of Vijayanagara allowed great freedom so

that every man could come and go as he wished, living
according to his own beliefs without suffering any
persecution and without having to be questioned as to
whether he was a Christian, Jew or Moor.”
Purandaradasa reflects in his songs when he sings about different social

groups such as Nayakas, agricultural labourers, merchants and their
integration into the Vijayanagara polity, and even includes the faith of
the Muslims. In a song, he describes the lord who blessed Dhruva and
gave him an external abode, who harkened to the cry of Gajendra; the
rider on the Garuda as Hussain! and ends the song with a Quranic touch.
“I came deliberately there! Purandarada Vithala’s

Alla – Dil – Lalla”!
“without knowing Alla Khuda and not recognising the

basis of the teaching of the mulla”
Purandaradasa’s compositions often capture the essence of the caste
system at the time, for instance, through the hierarchical distinction
between rice and dry grains in the following lines:
“Have you brought ragi gruel?

Bless you-May your life be gracious and not gruelling
May no one treat you cruelly, bless you generous feeder of the poor
Giving up talks, except songs of God, singing bhajans daily,
Have you brought ragi gruel?”
Clearly indicating that ragi was the food of the poor, and rice, that of
the rich and upper classes. Kanakadasa, who hailed from the Kuruba
community (a lower class) was a contemporary of Purandaradasa. In
one of his poems Ramadhanye Purandaradasa Charite, he expresses his
deep regret over the caste distinctions of his times. He says that ragi and
paddy should co-exist and one should not fight against each other by
claiming superiority for itself.
Fig. 5.8
Virupaksha temple, Hampi
Source: Internet
55
Chapter 6
ANALOGY:
Using the case of Karnatic music and the temple architecture of
the Vijayanagara empire
56
Analogy
ANALOGY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

MUSIC AND ARCHITECTURE
Using the case of Karnatic music and Vijayanagara Empire’s temple architecture
TUNGABHADRA
ANEGONDI
Vitthalapura
SACRED CENTRE
Irrigated valley
Hampi
Hiriya Kaluve
URBAN CORE
ROYAL CENTRE
0 1 km
0.5
Kamalapura Hindu temples

Royal structures
Markets
Jaina temples
Islamic structures
Ashrama/institutions
Jails (agrahara)
Fig. 6.1
Map of the city of Vijayanagara
57
Analogy
Eastern Gopura
Shops
Hanuman Shrine
Rayagopura
Garbhagriha
Outer courtyard
1000 pillared hall
Kitchen
Phala Puja mantapa
Inner courtyard
Maha rangamantapa
Rangamantapa
Manmatha tank
Navagraha Shrine
Fig. 6.2
Plan of Virupaksha temple, Hampi
58
Analogy
Mantapas
Tank
Garbhagriha
Eastern Gopura
Fig. 6.3
Plan of Krishna temple, Hampi
59
Analogy
Eastern Gopura
Ratha
Southern Gopura
Northern Gopura
Garbhagriha
Rangamantapa
Uyyale mantapa
1000 pillared hall
Mantapa
Kitchen
Fig. 6.4
Plan of Vijaya Vitthala temple, Hampi
Ratha Vidhi
Fig. 6.4 (a)

Overall layout of Vijaya Vitthala Temple, Hampi
60
Analogy
Eastern Gopura
Northern Gopura
Garbhagriha
Rangamantapa
Utsava mantapa
Fig. 6.5
Plan of Ramachandra Temple, Hampi
61
Analogy
THE COMMON PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS
Sites for propagation of knowledge and religious awareness

Temples served as an important space for the propagation of
religious thought, as spaces for learning, education and spreading
knowledge about the whereabouts from the world around them.
The Virupaksha Temple in Hampi was one such space, as shown
in fig. 6.2. It consisted of various spaces within its complex which
served such purposes. The 1000 pillared hall was used as a space
for religious discourse, propagation of knowledge of the arts such
as music, dance and drama. The temple itself serves as a space
where there were rich discussions on the topics relating to Hindu
Fig. 6.6
mythology, philosophy and thought were encouraged. Inscriptions of everyday life, royalty,
An example of this would be the rich and intricate paintings art forms and celebratory events
within the temple complex of the temple and also the sculptural Hazari Rama temple, Hampi
Source: Internet
style adopted in the temples. Temples served as the ground for
the growth and popularity of movements that drove social change
and popular beliefs and thought. Owing to the patronage from the
Vijayanagara kings, the temples spaces used by artists who were
patronised by the kings for their purposes of propagation of popular
social movements and artistic thought. One such instance was of
Purandaradasa.
The Purandara mantapa by the Vijaya Vitthala temple was a
space created specially for the artist to utilise for composition,
meditation and propagation of musical knowledge. Bhakti saints
such as Purandara Dasa played a major role in popularising temples
and also in increasing the concept of pilgrimage by spreading the
message of these gods as their ‘ishtadevatas’. These musical saints,
These musical saints, revered as divine messengers also played
a significant role in initiating temple construction many a times,
on the pretext of having received a message from the divine to do
so (to be rephrased). Karnatic music education underwent major
transformation during the time of Purandaradasa, wherein he
formulated a system of music education that made karnatic music
accessible to people of all walks of life, and not just the scholarly
communities. This encouraged young children to involve themselves
in music as the system to learning was now gradual and much easier
to comprehend. He is thus rightly called the ‘Karnataka Sangeetha
Pitamaha’ (the father of Karnatic music). Similar to the temple being
a space for the propagation of religious philosophy and thought,
compositions such as Namavali and Divyanama kirtanas consists
of Vedic hymns which are sung in a certain musical order, and the
Jhombada type of prabandhas are recitations of mythological tales.
Objects of worship
Both the temple and Karnatic music itself are revered as forms
of the Gods themselves. This can be illustrated by an example in
Karnatic music:
“The Trinity—Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma outshine the glory of everything else
because of their pursuit of ‘Naadopasana’ the divine knowledge of music—Omkara, a
part of Brahman himself. It is this naadopasana which enables the Gods themselves to
pervade the universe, and uphold sacred knowledge such as that of Vedas.”
(Tyagaraja, Naadopasanace)
62
Analogy
This can be illustrated in the shloka below regarding the temples:
“The Sikhara is the deity’s head, the sanctum is his neck,

the mantapa is the stomach, the prakara constitutes his legs,
the gopuram represents his feet, and the dhwaja the seat of his prana”
The temple, is not only the abode of the God, it is also manifestation
of the form of God in various ways, which will be discussed later
in this chapter.
The purusharthas
The four purusharthas—Dharma (righteousness), Artha (means),
Kama (desire) and Moksha (Liberation)
The architecture allowing for the pursuit of these purusharthas
shall be depicted in the diagram below in the context of the Vijaya
Vitthala Temple as shown in fig. 6.4. The temple being in service of
Fig. 6.7
the God also offered services of righteousness (dharma) to people vElevation of the Vimana of the Ra-
of the community, such as food and provision of learning spaces. machanadra temple congruent to the
The markets around the temple made the temples the epicenter body of the deity
of commercial (artha) activities. Spaces for entertainment and
festivities (kama) were carefully articulated and provided for,
making relish and pleasure a prime purpose of the temple. The
sanctum of the temple--a space for meditation and enlightenment
allow for Moksha.
Similarly, as listed by Sarngadeva in the Sangitaratnakara, there
are certain compositions in Karnatic music especially from the
times of the Vijayanagara empire which focus on such values.
Many compositions in Karnatic music such as the sixteen types of
the Dhruva prabandhas, which are mainly aimed at attainment of
pious activities such as pleasure, victory, success in education and
intellect, accomplishment of luster and long life. These ‘mangala-
prada’ activities encompassed the purusharthas and the practice
of these forms of music allowed for penance and prayer in order
to achieve them.
A disciplined journey towards self realisation

The journey through the various spaces within the temple signify
the movement from worldly activities, through the guidance of
a guru, performance of rituals, sharing the thought of God with
others, devotion and concentration, and allowing ultimately to
reach the point of no distractions and self realisation. This can be
illustrated though the analysis of the Virupaksha temple in fig 6.2.
Similarly, Karnatic music preaches and speaks of such values in
order to attain salvation, and is also said to be one of the means
of achieving it. The pursuit of classical music and the process of
gaining its knowledge is a penance which involves great amount of
sincerity, humility, openness of thought and the power of sacrifice.
This can be illustrated in one of Sri Purandaradasa’s keerthanas:
“Is it easy to attain salvation?

only those who sincerely follow their guru achieve
fame and good name and peace”
The song talks about the path that need to be taken up in order to achieve moksha.
(Purandaradasa, Summane barduvude)
63
Analogy
The temple also served as an important site for the propogation of

the Bhakti movement which used to medium of songs (Karnatic
music) for its propagation and to spread its message, as described
in the earlier chapters. This was a way of the temple enabling
devotees to attain self realisation through the path of Bhakti,
which will be explained in detail in the next section.
THE ATTAINMENT OF MOKSHA THROUGH ‘BHAKTI’
A path towards God and spirituality

As denoted in the fig 6.4, the Vitthala temple provides a path
to attainment of the realisation of God. As Bhakti philosophy
preaches, there is no necessity for humans to give up on their day
to day activities, lives and livelihood in order to reach the God.
However, if only all of our actions are directed in the service of God,
this seemingly unattainable Goal of salvation could become more
accessible without forgoing one’s life’s responsibilities.
Similarly, some examples in Karnatic music point at a similar
philosophy—of propagating the idea and path of Bhakti through
the medium of music to achieve the ultimate goal of salvation.
Also these great saints such as Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa,
Annamacharya served as examples for how they attained holiness
through the pursuit of music and the tireless meditation of God.
Manifestation of the God for Worship Fig. 6.8

Journey from chaos to devotion in
Both Music and Temple architecture at Vijayanagara played an Virupaksha temple
important role in the path of devotion—of bringing the idea of the
god into formal manifestations.
“O Mind, mere knowledge of music without devotion can never lead to the right path.
Lord Nataraaja, Anjaneeya, sages like Brungi, Agastya, Maatanga and
Naarada worship you through music, saturated with devotion”
(Tyagaraja, Sangeethagnanamu)
The Virupaksha Temple, for instance was a temple which worshipped

the idol of the local deity—Virupaksha. It brought the conception
of the God who ruled over the empire into manifestation. Various
gestures within the temple architecture also aided this. The
mythological art, symbolic sculpture and spaces for propagation
of the thought of God helped enable worship and channelise the
devotional intentions of the people in a certain direction.
Similarly, Karnatic music too is almost always directed at God.

Lyrical excellence, technical finesse and innovation, always directed
towards the thought or praise of the almighty. This caused music to Fig. 6.9
Worship of the local deity Virupaksha
act as a vehicle in creating and worshipping a mental image of the at the Virupaksha temple; ceilings
God, manifesting God in the musician and the listener’s mind in a painted and pillars ornately carved
way that is personal and private to each person. with subjects related to the deity
The concept of Ishtadevata, as propagated by the Bhakti saints at Source: Internet
the time, was also a significant step in doing so. This even led to
propagation and pilgrimage of certain temples that were sung about
by these saints. For instance ,
Purandaradasa-Vitthala of Pandharpur
Kanakadasa-Adi Keshava of Kaginele
Annamacharya-Balaji or Tirupati
Bhakta Ramadasu-Sri Rama of Bhadrachalam
Akkamahadevi-Chennamallikarjuna
Basavanna-Shiva of Koodalasangama
64
Analogy
Accessibility of religious experience

The Bhakti movement, through its values and ideals aimed at
bringing the idea of God and devotion closer to the people, of all
walks of life. The movement worked against meaningless rituals,
caste system and other such practices and tried to even out social
discrimination and differentiation. Temples, being patrons of the
Bhakti movement made various efforts through their functioning,
the role they played in society or the architectural gestures. Let us
take some examples to illustrate this:
The Virupaksha temple’s Rayagopura is majestic and is visible
across the entire city, assuring the presence of the God in the Fig. 6.10
vicinity of all the people’s thoughts and daily lives even if they The kallina Ratha, or the stone chariot
at the Vijaya Vitthala temple
couldn’t visit the temple. The Manmatha Tank attached to the
temple and the Tungabhadra River flowing alongside it was a
source of water and a means of transport, which meant again
that the temple provided for the basic necessities of one and
all. The outer layers of these temples were filled with functions
like markets, as illustrated in the map which made the temple
an everyday existence and a frequent visit for anyone residing in
the city. Another important feature is of the temple being a site
for celebration of festivals, victory of the rulers and community Fig. 6.11
festivities. The Mahanavami Dibba was one such which was the The Mahanavami Dibba
site for festivities and Dasara celebrations
epicentre of the grand Navaratri and Mahanavami celebrations
from the Vijayanagara times.
Provisions like the Kalyana Mantapa within the VijayaVitthala
temple allowed people to use the temple for their personal
celebrations such as marriages, Upanayams, etc.
Similarly, Karnatic Music at the time being the medium of
propagation of the Bhakti ideology, actively made the beliefs of the
Bhakti ideology public to the masses. By writing about everyday
lives of the people, topics like the activities of a naughlty little boy,
an invitation to one’s beautiful village, and ghosts made music Fig. 6.12
everyday business for the masses. A keerthana by Purandaradasa Pushkarni tank by the Mahanavami
makes this message clear: dibba
“Whichever caste he might belong to and whosoever he be, it doesn’t matter when the
person has realized himself. One should not be guided by considerations of his caste”
(Purandaradasa, Aavakutavadarenu)
Ratha Vidhi
(Purandaradasa, Gummanu kareyadire)
Fig.6.13
Site plan of the Vitthala temple, showing the ratha Vidhi or the (Purandaradasa, Gummanu kareyadire)
path meant for the chariot
As observed by Matanga, the prevalent Prabandha tradition in

Karnatic music was too complicated and made the idea of music
distant from people and restricted it only to the scholarly classes.
This time frame in history marks the composition of the Balapatha
by Purandaradasa that simplified Karnatic music altogether for
the purpose of learning for beginners.
Another obvious, yet important observation is that Karnatic music
from this time, has been an accompaniment for all celebratory
activities, even to this day Fig.6.14
A marriage ceremony at the
Virupaksha temple
65
Analogy
A space for artistic Patronage

The temples allowed for spaces that were meant for the propagation
of art. This is a direct linkage to Karnatic music of the time, which
was performed extremely regularly in the premises of the temple as
part of various rituals, ceremonies, with the motive of teaching and
also personally as a mode of worship.
This time period, due to the patronage of the kings towards art also
saw many art forms attaining great heights. Karnatic music came
to be classified as a separate genre of classical music during this
time, and the name itself comes from the fact that the “Karnataki
Fig. 6.15
Sangeetha” received patronage under the Karnata Empire.
Purandara mantapa on the banks of
The ‘sangeetha shastras navaratna’ or the musical nonet were river Tungabhadra
conceptualised during this time. And it is the teachings of these Source: internet
documents that forms the basis of Karnatic music to this day. The
extensive patronage towards artists only meant the artists at the
time enjoyed a very comfortable life and a satisfied livelihood and
environment that nourished and helped them create more iconic
art.
Karnatic music and the temples as enablers of the nine forms of Bhakti
We will now illustrate examples from both temple architecture as
well as Karnatic music of the time, that would establish that they
enabled salvation by acting as vehicles for the practice of the nine
forms of Bhakti
Sravana, Kirthana and Smarana

The sculptures and paintings at the Hazari Rama temple ensure
immersion in the thought of god. The atmosphere of iconography,
symbolisms and paintings that are created act as a contact presence,
allowing the devotees Smarana form of Bhakti. The Pradakshina
Patha( fig.6. ) is a design gesture through which devotees indulge
themselves in repetitive worship through circumambulation. This
feature can be observed in around the sanctum of almost all temples
from the time—a few illustrated alongside.
The Maha mantapa, kalyanamantapa are spaces within the temple
complex that are meant for performances of art forms, their
propagation and learning. At the same time, they also serves as
spaces meant for congregation, discussion and carrying out of cultural Fig. 6.16
Mythological innscriptions in the
activities directed towards God, allowing for Sravana and Kirthana
Hazari Rama temple, Hampi
forms of Bhakti.
In the context of Karnatic music of the times, the very action of
either listening or performing music becomes an act of Sravana and
Kirthana. Since the music is always in the service and praise of the
almighty, the penance of obtaining the ‘sacred’ musical knowledge
itself is a form of meditation, Smarana. It involves mental exercise,
channelised memory and concebtration, and being submerged in an
activity related to music, such as listening—in order to achieve higher
expertise. Sravana and Keerthana of the sangeetha itself uplifts mood,
discards illwill, sorrowful thoughts and belligerence and fills the mind
with thought of God, peace and serenity, and thus the act itself is
considered a service to mankind and exposure to it, a priveledge
Kirthana, through compositions like suladhi, were said to be ‘sulabha,’
Fig. 6.17
thus making musical indulgence one of the easiest ways to attain Mythological paintings on the ceilings
Moksha Some songs and compositions to illustrate these sentiments of the Virupaksha temple, Hampi
are as follows: Source: internet
“O Narayana! May the sweet nectar of the essence of your

naamasmaranee(remembering and repeating your name) come to my tongue”
(Purandaradasa, Narayana ninna)
66
Analogy
“Why not chant ‘Krishna’ when by doing so all difficulties will vanish?
When you have attained the human birth, and are endowed with a tongue,
why not chant ‘Krishna’?”
(Purandaradasa, Narajanmabandaga)
Fig. 6.18
Mahamantapa, Vitthala temple with
“The mere listening to the Story of the Lord (Vishnu Katha) is as sacred a duty
musical pillars as the performance of nitya karmas, for instance, Sandhya.”
Source: Internet
(Annamacharya, Vinarobhagyamu)
Padasevana, Archana and Vandana

Temple complexes such as the Virupaksha, allowed for the service
of the people—or Padasevana through distribution of free food (as
seen, there is a kitchen and a dining hall for the purpose), free ly
available water through the Manmatha tank. As mentioned above,
the temple halls and open spaces also serves as spaces for scholars
to teach and propagate valuable ideals—a service of imparting
the light of knowledge through pravachanas, harikathas, etc. The
temples which were the sites for worship of the divine, allowed for
Archana through various architectural and symbolic gestures. The
pradakshina path was one such, the Balipitha was a small element
which encouraged devotees to offer their bit of offering to the
god no matter what their capacity was, in an act of worship. The
Garbhagriha—the soul of the temple, is built in such a way that
it ensures heartfelt and sincere prayer (vandana) and worship by
secluding the devotee from all external distractions and wandering
thoughts through the stark darkness and silence achieved in
the space, which is achieved through acoustic insulation and
hierarchical change in the light quality and scale of spaces in the
journey through the temple. The temples and the Rayagopuras,
as observed in the Vitthala temple were said to be made of brick,
which was the most pious building material. Each brick while in the
process of being laid was said to have been invoked with a prayer,
thus making the structure highly pious and suitable for the worship
of God. Fig. 6.19
As for sangeetha, the idea of service, worship and prayer is extended Pradakshinapatha and Garbhagriha of
various temples in Hampi
not only to the God, but also to the Guru, who is seen as equal to
the God himself.
“Till you become a slave of the Guru, You would not get salvation

Reading of various shaastras,Would only lead to wasted devotion”
(Purandaradasa, Guruvina Gulama)
(Annamacharya, Vinarobhagyamu)
Compositions such as the Vipikarna Manthaka songs were specially

crafted prayers that aimed at obtainment of virtuous actions. As
mentioned already at several instances earlier, the education
of sangeetha creates a mindspace of a musician wherein music
becomes the governing and guiding force in a musicians life through
Sadhana and the process and will of achieving expertise in musical
knowledge.
67
Analogy
Dasya
Several gestures and meaning in the context off temples and
sangeetha point toward a ‘dasya’ sentiment toward the Gods. We
can illustrate these in the temples of Virupaksha and Hazari Rama
as shown alongside. Placement of the main idol in the sanctum on
a heightened pita and the necessity to move upwards towards the
Garbhagriha from the lower level of the ‘outside world’ is one such,
indicating that the God, the king is always placed at a level higher
than the mortal humans and their activities. The ‘Hosilu’ or threshold
at the transition between spaces is an indication of the hurdles that
one has to make efforts to cross over in order to ‘meet’ the God.
The seclusion in the garb grid can also be seen as a way in which
the devotee is rid of all worldly senses and hence is totally in the
service of the lord, who governs his action sand thoughts entirely.
Small doorways to the garbhagriha are also an indication of the
devotee bending down before entering it, signifying how one leaves
their pride, self-self-esteem and ego before making their acquaintance
with the ‘king of kings’. The presence of a shrine for Hanuman and
Vidyaranya depict the reverence to the ideal ‘dasa’ as an example and
emblem of the epitome of ‘dasya’ devotion in order to reach salvation.
The knowledge of music itself, when understood is endless, vast and
overwhelming, This leaves a learner of music fulled with humility and
respect for the art, and cultivates a sense of humility in the person
towards everything that surrounds them.
“Venkataramana with thousand names (sAsira Namada)

Accept me as your servant”
(Purandaradasa, Dasanamadiko)
“Do you still not have compassion for this devotee (literally slave, servant)
O Hari, the supreme Lord who lies on the serpent-bed”
(Purandaradasa, Innu dayabaarade)
Sakhya
Viewing God as one’s beloved is a sentiment that can be seen vividly
In both temples and compositions and styles of Karnatic music. Let
us take the example of the Virupaksha Temple to illustrate this,
represented through the diagrams attached. The journey to reach the
sanctum in the temple causes the devotee to Journey to reach the
sanctum causes the devotee to feel an urge to reach it, like the wait
that one feels to meet their beloved. The temple in the centre of the
town and its activities provides a sense of being a ‘home’ and shelter
to one and all. A devotee is known to reach out to the temple in
times of calamity, difficulty, despair one visits a temple. Along the
same lines, a frequent visitor is acquainted to the temple and feels
a sense of belonging and personal attachment to the space, despite
it being shared by the entire community. At the same time, for a
new person, outsider or traveler, standardisation of the forms and
language ensure comfort and familiarity despite the alienation they
might be feeling otherwise. Through simple gestures like the visibility
of the Shivalinga from in between Nandi’s Horns creates a visual axis
which allows the devotee to get small glimpses of the god at every
stage of their journey through the temple. The introduction of the
Rayagopura during the Vijayanagara times is another such feature.
They mark their presence in the hustle and bustle of the city’s life,
which instills a sense of safety, care and assurance. The Garbha’s
scale as mentioned at several instances earlier serves another crucial
purpose—that of creating a sense of intimacy with the divine. Just like
no distractions or interference enters the Garbha from the outside, the
Garbha also assures the devotee the fact that nothing goes out of the
four walls of the Sanctum as well. This ensures that the devotee can
express their feelings, prayers freely without shame, worry, inhibition
68
Analogy
or distractions, just like in conversation with someone who is

dearest to them, and whom they trust undoubtedly.
This quality of ‘sakhya’ can be observed in Karnatic music from
the period very vividly. Let us take the instance of Manodharma
sangeetha: Aalapane, Svarakalpane. This compositional style of
sangeetha which is also known as open scoring is one wherein every
musician has the liberty to interpret and modify their art in the
most personal way, true to their deepest senses, sentiments and
uninhibitedly expressing their very own emotions. Owing to the
compositions of the Bhakti movement, practicing and even listening
to music is a way of always being close to the Ishtadevatas, who
themselves are the God of one’s choice and closeness. This instills
a mental image of the almighty who is closest to one’s heart, and
thus allows for musical prayer and meditationin its purest form.
Another important factor in how music created a sense of close
relationship with each and every listener, singer or performer was
the fact that regional language and topics of relevance to society
were the themes of most compositions. The pleasure and intimacy
that one shared with music did not discriminate between people
who possessed the knowledge of music or not. People related to
music through experiences from their own life, their personal
nuances in understandings of situations, philosophy and art itself.
“Venkataramana with thousand names (sAsira Namada)

Accept me as your servant”
(Purandaradasa, Dasanamadiko)
“Do you still not have compassion for this devotee (literally slave, servant)
O Hari, the supreme Lord who lies on the serpent-bed”
Atma Nivedana
The sentiment of surrendering oneself to the almighty as an act of
devotion in order to gain salvation is another such. As illustrated
earlier in the context of the other forms of Bhakti, movement
through the temple from light to dark, from more to less interaction,
from noise to silence is a depiction of a devotee sacrificing all
distractions and worldly attractions in the pursuit of the God. More
such gestures such as the small doorway, the obstacles in the path
towards reaching the god’s abode are also indicative of the devotee
displaying atma nivedana to reach their destination. Atma here
could also point at the notion of ‘self’—self esteem and ego.
In the context of sangeetha again, the process of learning the art
makes one engrossed in it in such a way that musical thought and
knowledge engulfs all of the students’ mind-space and makes them
blissfully detached from all the worlds miseries. As the Vijnana
Bhirava tetra mentions, the mental absorption produce by music
gradually leads to oneness with God. The prevailing sentiment in
these is that one gives up themselves and their consciousness, and
trusts the almighty completely to steer their life and their actions.
Some examples of these values expressed through music are shown
below:
Narrow doorways
Devotional effort
in reaching the God:
Height difference
Fig. 6.20
Diety placed at
greater height
Hosilu
Understanding the relationships
between
69
Analogy
“The everyday life is but merely a drama. What is seen and yet unseen constitutes the
drama. Beyond these stands salvation and liberation from this drama.”
(Annamacharya, nanati baduku naatakamu)
“Inner dweller!I’m tired and fatigued,

at this time your shelter (like) is what is sought”
(Annamacharya, antaryami)
“May the world throw all the possible adversities at me,

I will not deter as long as God’s grace is upon me”
(Gopaladasa, Baruvudellabarali)
“Thou shall go if Thy Leaves”

(Kanakadasa)
“O Boatman, I trust you; I trust you O Jagadama ramana

The flooding river is coming at us with great force; it is carrying me away.
The water level is rising alarmingly, Do help me cross it.
Truth is the secret, Bhakti is the path”
(Purandaradasa, Ambigana ninna nambide)
Fig. 6.21 Fig. 6.22

Vidyaranya Shrine, Shringeri Movement from light to dark in the
Ramachandra temple
Fig. 6.23
The Gopura of the Virupaksha temple
standing tall in the midst of its context.
Source: internet
70
Analogy
MUSIC AND ARCHITECTURE AS CONTEMPLATIVE OF

COSMIC AND METAPHYSICAL PHILOSOPHY
Karnatic music and temple architecture both can be seen as displaying
congruence with the philosophy of ‘Bhur-Bhuvah-Svah’ which describes
the coming together of the physical, mental and spiritual realms of
creation. In sangeetha, the three octaves that music operates within—the
mandara, Madhyama and Tarasthayi are said to encompass all of musical
creation, and this the cosmos itself.
The significance of the number 7 is another commonality.
The Srirangam temple, which underwent fortification under the
Vijayanagara rulers was a Saptaprakara temple, wherein each enclosure
was significant of each of the 7 elements that constitute creation—air,
water, fire, space, earth, mind and intelligence. It is also congruent with
the seven worlds of the cosmos, as described in the chapter previously.
Together the system constitutes the entire universe. Similarly, the seven
notes of music—Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni— together constitute the
entirety of music and nada, thus encompassing all of creation within
itself.
Another similarity with respect to the number 7 is the congruence of the Fig. 6.24
elements of a temple and Karnatic music with the seven chakras of the The seven enclosures in Srirangam
human body, thus linking them to the concepts of cosmic energy.
Arts at the time were highly profound in the knowledge and of being
informed about scientific phenomenon. Astronomical advancement
and understanding in the times can be reflected in both architecture of
temples as well as concepts in Karnatic music as well. For instance, the
astronomical calculations at play in the Vidyaranya shrine in Sringeri are
such that twelve pillars in the mandapam (named the Raasi pillars) are
so arranged that the sun’s rays fall on each of them, in the order of the
solar months. Also, it is common practice for most temple complexes
to have Navagraha shrines, which are shrines meant for worship of the
deities representing the celestial bodies of our cosmos. Musical notes,
similarly, correspond to various planets and Zodiac signs.
ZODIAC SIGNS and SWARAS

Kanya Rasi (Virgo) symbolizes Suddha Rishabha
Tula (Libra), Chatusruti Rishabha
Vrischika (Scorpio), Sadharana Gandhara
Dhanus (Sagittarius), Antara Gandhara
Mithuna (Gemini), Kakali Nishada
Vrishaba (Taurus), Kaisika Nishada
Mesha (Aries), Chatusruti Daivata
Meena (Pisces), Suddha Daivata
The Saturnine signs of Makara (Capricorn) and Kumbha (Aquarius)
stand respectively for Suddha Madhyama and Prati Madhyama, duly
accentuating the nature of Saturn.
PLANET and SWARAS

Kuja (Mars)—Sadharana Gandhara, Chatusruti Daivata
Budha (Mercury) —Suddha Rishabha, Kakali Nishada
Guru (Jupiter) —Antara Gandhara, Suddha Daivata
Sukra (Venus) —Chatusruti Rishabha, Kaisika Nishada
Sani (Saturn) —Suddha Madhyama and Prati Madhyama
71
Analogy
Also, the composition in raga Paras, “Srisukra” and “Divakara Tanu-

jam” in Yadukulakambhoji makes copious references to astrological
calculations of Amsas and their results.
“O Lord, you are all the planets, you are day and night,
You are all the months of the year, the season, Good times and the bad (eclipse)
You are the one even beyond the vedas”
THE DESIGN PARADIGM
Framework of compositions
As illustrated in the figures above, both Karnatic music and temple
architecture follow a certain set of guidelines used as a framework
to create and compose the ‘design’ of these art forms. The
Vastupurushamandala is one that governs the design of the temple.
Aspects like Raga, taala, etc. form guidelines for the composition
of musical pieces. Even in compositions that are done on the spot,
these factors do govern the structure of the composition.
Some of the elements mentioned under too inform us that both
Karnatic music and temples architecture of vijayanagara are
structured art forms.
Elements constituting composition

The temple complex consists of six enclosures, each representative
of a different aspect. This has been illustrated using the example
of the Virupaksha temple in the fig.6.2 attached. Of these six
enclosures a minimum of two are necessary for the structure to
qualify as a shrine. One of the prakaras can never exist independently.
Similarly, in the Prabandha tradition of Karnatic music there is a
classification based on the number of ‘Angas’ they contained. These
classifications were known as Jaatis—Medini (6), Anandini(5), Rayagopura
Dipani(4), Bhavani,(3) Taravali(2). In this too, no composition can

be structured using just one of the angas.
The sequence of elements

The analysis of the Virupaksha temple informs us of the sequence
Nandi mantapa
/Balipeetha
of spaces within the temple complex as depicted in the diagram
attached. Similarly, compositions in Karnatic music too have certain
set of elements that are arranged in a specific sequence in order to
qualify as a compositions. Let us look at the example of a category of Dhwajasthamba
prabandhas called the Rasaka Prabandha: It contains elements such
as Udgraha (introduction), Melapaka (bridge), Dhruva (refrain),
abhoga (conclusion) and an additional aalapana. Mukha Mantapa
Sanapana Mantapa
Navaranga
Antarala
Garbhagriha
Pradakshinapatha
Fig. 6.26
Fig. 6.25 Sequence of spaces in the Virupaksha
Shrines inside the Virupaksha temple temple
consisting of minimal elements
72
Analogy
Scope for innovation

Both temple architecture and Karnatic music essentially being
art forms, allowed for a vast scope of innovation despite being
a part of an extremely sophisticated and complex technicality
and expertise. The possibility of playing with the number of
elements within the prescribed framework is one such way. The
concept of Padavinyasa is one such, which allows for various
permutations and combinations in the layout of a temple as per
the vastupurushamandala. Also, as mentioned above, there are
various possibilities for the scale of the temples that are allowed
for based on the number of prakaras that the temple choses to
have. Some examples of Shrines near the Virupaksha Temple
complex have been attached in order to illustrate this aspect.
Similarly, a major part of Karnatic music is manodharma sangeetha,
music that is composed on the spot, in real time (an open score).
Even in such a composition such as aalapana, tempo acts as a
factor that ties the entire performance together. Svarakalpana
is another such type of composition with involves the listeners,
the accompaniments and the other artists in a performance too,
in the process of composition of tunes which happens in an
impromptu fashion. Similarly, Sangathi and Neraval compositions
are improvisations of the rhythmic orders (Svara –prastara) which
root themselves to a Taala and the lyrics of the composition
(Sahitya). Through such provisions, Karnatic music too, allows
for prodigious artistic freedom to imrpovise and to extemporise
in imaginative manners depending upon mood, environment,
context and other significant factors that affect the perception and
experience of music. Similar to the argument about temples being
able to exist in forms that are simpler than usually articulated for,
compositions called Vastu have the freedom to omit certain Angas
consisting of just lyrics (pada) and metre (taala).
Fig. 6.27
Temples with more then one
garbhargiha
Ornamentation
As we are already well aware, ornamentation was a technique
adopted in order to heighten ordinary meaning of these temples
and musical compositions into the extraordinary, done using
profound skills, knowledge and craftiness. Ornamentation in a
temple played a major role in depicting the life and society of the
times, served various purposes in aiding the process of worship
by the devotees and also acted as a medium to express innovation,
style and uniformity on the part of the designers. Some examples
of typical ornamentation from the temples of Vijayanagara are
illustrated alongside.
In the realm of Karnatic music, features such as Gamaka are
used to add nuances to existing compositions and to add
interesting innovations to manodharma sangeetha. Features such
as Shabdalanakara and arthalankara are two such methods of
ornamentation employed in the composition of Prabandhas.
73
Analogy
Variable integral component

Both temple architecture and Karnatic music offer the possibility
of varying character of the ‘composition’ through modification
in certain integral components. In temple architecture, these
factors might be seen as material, architectural and sculptural
style. Similarly, in Karnatic music factors such as words, language
and accompanying or medium of performance play important
roles in defining the character of the composition so produced or
performed.
AXIALITY
Axiality is an important aspect of both temple architecture and Karnatic
music, and this factor serves as an important factor that depicts their
commonality.
Fig. XX depicts the notions of axes in the Hindu temple through the
examples of Thiruvengalanatha temples of Vijayanagara.
As for Karnatic music, below are a few ways of illustrating its nature of
axiality:
Time acts as a primary axis to give direction and progress to the

musical content. This is an unending axis, wherein the same time,
sound, cosmic setting can never repeat, causing the experience of
music unique every single time it is experienced.
Compositional styles wherein the Taala/tempo acts as a linear axis

that keeps an open ended composition such as Ugabhoga, aalapana
or swarakalpana composition together.
Ritualistic ‘Circumambulation’ through repetition of specific lines

that serve as icons of the composition—Also known as the refrain.
Eg. Dhruva in a Rasaka Prabandha
In most compositions, such as Taanam: for instance, there is a

systematic increase of speeds through the course of the composition.
There is an increase in intensity, severity and the composition Fig. 6.28
reaches a peak at a certain point, and this is where the composer Understanding the relationships
introduces the name of the God that the composition is directed between
towards, as part of their signature, This can then be considered as
the soul of the composition.
Alikrama compositions translate to a ‘linear axis’. These

compositions consist of a series of systematically arranged
Prabandhas, ordered according to syllables or Matraka.
HUMAN BODY AS A BASIS FOR COMPOSITION

The human body has played an important role in moulding the
conceptualisation and forms of Indian art. This factor thus serves as
one of the very important grounds to establish commonness between
temple architecture and Karnatic music. This representation is a symbolic
gesture that is applicable to the two in various ways. In the temples of
Vijayanagara, one can observe The cyclical nature of Human life through
the Plan of Shikhara of the temples, which signifies the convergence of
the four corners of the shikara into a single point in the finial on top of
the Garbha griha. Also, The spaces within a temple in its organisation
represent parts of human bodies, as seen in the plan of the Virupaksha
Temple—illustrated in fig. 6.29 for better clarity.
74
Analogy
Also, the temple is considered to be the home of deity, just like the
human body is home to the Soul or the inner God— ‘antaryamin’, which
makes it a site for realisation of the self. The Vimana of a Dravida temple
is said to be congruent with the the body of a deity, as illustrated in fig.
xx. The human body, an instrument for the execution of musical art, is
known as the shareeri Veena.
The seven notes of music are said to be congruent with the different
parts of the human body.
“The Angas and Dhatus were explained with reference to organs and
elements of the human body. Of the six Angas, it was said :
Tena and Pada, reflecting piety and meaning respectively are its two
eyes; Pata and Birudu are the two hands because they are produced by
the hands, the cause being figuratively taken for effect; Taala and Svara
are the be two feet as they cause the movement of the Prabandha.
As regards the Dhatus – Udgraha, Melapaka, Dhruva and Abhoga –
were said to be like the Dhatus ( energies or Doshas) of Vata (wind),
Pittha (bile) and Kapha (phlegm) that support (Dharana) and sustain
(Bharana) body functions and the physical constitution; and, Prakriti
which is the basic nature of body.”
The connotations to the parts of the human body are highly significant
in the symbolisms concerning Karnatic music. One such important case
is of the Prabandhas wherein the human body is seen as the site for
realisation through the practice of music. The Six Angas—Svara, Birudu,
Pada, Tena, Paata, and Taala— and Dhatus—Udgraha, Melapaka, Dhruva
and Abhoga—of Prabandha are explained with reference to organs and
elements of the human body.
Another notion relating the human body and a compositions such as
prabandhas are that well constructed compositions of music are similar
to well functioning human body wherein the body parts are working
in harmony with each other in order to keep the body and its function
stable.
Fig. 6.29
Understanding the relationships
between
75
Chapter 7
CONCLUSION
76
Conclusion
CONCLUSION
“Art has for its object the production and realisation of the
beautiful, and the philosophy of art has to examine and explain
the conditions of this process in relation to the highest objects
and ends of human thought”
(C.L.Michelet,1886)
There can be two ways of constructing the analogy of the relationship

between music and architecture—either to juxtapose directly the parallel
potencies of the real and ideal world of the two art forms, which would
include a comparison on the basis of patterns, proportions, rhythm,
logic and other formal aspects; or to view separately each of the two
art forms and their respective philosophical and cultural underpinnings,
and then analyse the relationships between the two. The latter of the
two possibilities delves deeper and seems vastly more viable, because it
makes the exposition clearer since in any case the relationship between
the formal aspects of two art forms—namely music and architecture
as studied in this thesis—are consequences of the philosophical and
cultural influences that helped shape them.
Understanding the philosophical background of art becomes an

integral part of understanding the art itself. Philosophy presents to its
readers archetypes of real things, but never the real things themselves
(C.L.Michelet, 1886), which holds true in the case of art as well. The
archetypes of philosophical concepts are extracted from the concepts
manifested imperfectly in the form of ‘real objects’, and these real objects
are what become the ‘subjects’ of art through perfected technique and
symbolic representations. Music and architecture, the two art forms
in discussion here, can be understood using this analogy too. Music
is basically the fundamental rhythm of nature and the universe itself,
which through the means of musical art breaks in to the world of
representation. Architecture—a spatial art form, is an objectification
of spatial imagination, an objective archetype of the natural and
supernatural universe, wherein each building or built form is a disclosure
of an intellectual world.
Art is a temporal existence , and this factor is grounded in the way the
art is conceptualised, created, enacted, appreciated and realised in the
end. Thus, it would be an incomplete understanding if the consideration
of the ‘times’ and the worldly background of the art is not discussed in
enough depth. This historical and cultural dimension of art forms is an
essential in the larger understanding of any art form, especially Music
and architecture. As Schelling would insightfully remark,
“Art is itself an emanation of the absolute,

The history of art will show us most revealingly its immediate
connections to the conditions of the universe and thereby to
that absolute identity in which art is preordained”
(FWJ Schelling, 1859)
“Only in the history of art does the essential and inner unity of
all works of art reveal itself, a unity showing that all poetry is of
the same spirit, a spirit that even in the antitheses of ancient and
modern art is merely showing us two different faces”
(FWJ Schelling, 1859)
77
Analogy
The formal manifestations in the form of a specific medium are thus

consequences of the common milieu that the art forms root themselves to.
This cognisance not only sheds light on the conception and production of
these art forms, but also helps us understand how it is intended to reach a
person, how it is received by its audience, and how the audience uses it to
attain a sense of enjoyment or pleasure.
This brings forth an important point that, the artforms that emanate from
a shared world view cannot just have a common productional origin and
simultaneously have entirely different purposes or carry vastly divergent
meanings. The commonality in the philosophical motives and intent of art
always point at a convergence in the denouement that it produces. This is
the key pointer of this analysis. Though anaylsed in the specific context of
Vijayanagara temples and South Indian music, the conclusion has a wider
resonance and applicability
What this conclusion also points out, is that arguments of the autonomy
of architecture and its purview are untenable. Architecture—like all other
forms of art—is a social and cultural practice, and cannot exist without their
influence. This inference can be applied in understanding the dynamics
between the contemporary architecture and other arts as well. In this light
it is now easy to grasp why art forms are connected to one another and
influence each other significantly. The only difference between the present
and the ancient times is that historically, there was a homogeneity in
lifestyles of the people, or one dominant cultural factor that influenced the
lives of people and their art forms. Now there is a multiplicity of cultural
views and meanings, thus creating a more complex mixture of art forms
and conception.
78
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TUNGABHADRA

ANALOGISING MUSIC AND ARCHITECTURE AS

This thesis is dedicated to my Nana, for engrossing us since our childhood

I am forever indebted to my best friend, confidante and well-wisher, Nusaiba

Most importantly, I would like to thank my research guide, Dr. A Srivathsan

2. Philosophical, architectural and social pretext of The Hindu temple ...13

5. The Case Study—The context of the Vijayanagara Empire ...48

6. Analogy of the philosophical relationships between Music and architecture ...55

Purpose of the study

The Philosophical Paradigm: Do both art forms share a similar

conceptualisation and contextual response; and musical pieces of Karnatic

The Philosophical Paradigm: The study takes up textual analysis

Vijayanagara-The context of the study

As Vijayanagara expanded and prospered quickly, many great musicians

PHILOSOPHICAL PARADIGM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE

The temple as an embodiment of philosophical ideas

Dharma: Righteous living

“The soul grows by reincarnation in

The design of The Hindu temple displays movement from unity to

Space is the primary condition for the manifestation of creation. Being a

The temple enabling the Practice of Worship

The temple as contemplative and representative of the cosmos

Satyaloka: Brahma’s world, Abode of Truth or of Brahma, Satya-

to be wide at the top, and is also flat. Mount Meru West

is the sitting place of Lord Brahma, the creator of Abdomen Face

observed in the Vastupurushamandala, which will be Waist Stomach Chest Hands

discussed later in this chapter. As illustrated in the South

Indra (east) West 7 Svargas

Agni (southeast) East North 7 Patalas

Niruthi (southwest) East (Future)

Bhuvarloka: Sun, planets, stars. This world consists of the space

The temple is also said to be an embodiment of “Bhur-Bhuvah-Svah,” an

The Srivaishnavas of Srirangam associated the site’s island

Cosmic energy or the life energy is Sahasrasara

synonymous to prana, the immanent breath.

The material of which the temple is constructed is of great significance.

The existence of one brick is never independent of its surroundings. Each

The human body as a basis for the conception and

It can also be observed that the form of the Purusha is

between the elevation of the Vimana and the body of the

The temple as a manifestation in a built form through design

“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form

This Vastpurushamandala is the intellectual foundation of the temple,

Garbhagrha: The Garbhagrha, the core of the

experience--from the complexity of ornamentation Antarala

Pradakshinapatha: A circumambulatory path

the repetitive ritual of pradakshina. Balipeetha

Antarala-sukanas or ardhamantapa: A narrow Dhwajasthamba

pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the next

The Navaranga or Nrttamantapa is a hall-like space Gopura

This is followed by Sanapana mantapa, a space that

The Mukha mantapa serves as the opening pavilion.

The Dwajasthamba (flag post) that varies in its

The Balipitha (pedestal) is meant for ritual and

A Dipastambha or the lamp post is situated either Garbha

gates, which open to the four cardinal directions. Maryada

This arrangement of spaces can be modified according to the requirements

The experience of the Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of different

It can be observed that a line drawn at an angle of 22 ½ degrees from the

As mentioned above, a dynamic ritual associated with this understanding

Fig. 2.13 (f) Fig. 2.13 (d)

The shapes and their significance in Hindu temples

The temple in society