Electrical Engineering & Electronics

Assignment #02
Submitted to:
Engr. Usman Sardar

Name:
Hamid Raza (ME171039)
Adil Kanjoo(ME171073)
Noman Tariq(ME171038)
Transformer:

A transformer is a device that is used to either raise or lower voltages and currents in an
electrical circuit. In modern electrical distribution systems, transformers are used to boost
voltage levels so as to decrease line losses during transmission.

Basic Principle:

Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to transfer
electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field. Mutual induction is the process by
which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity
to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get
their name from the fact that they “transform” one voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current levels of their
supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of electrical power being transferred
from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

Application of Transformer
1. The transformer is the electrical device that is used to provide the required voltage level.

2. The output voltage & output current are the important parameters that are required for
designing the transformer. Power rating (KVA / MVA) can also be specified instead of output
current rating.
3. Transformers have variety of application, right from stepping down hundred’s of Kilovolts
from power generation., to bringing it down to usable 110V or 230V level, which is supposedly
safe operating level.

4. Transformers can be both, 1-phase typeOr3-phase type.

5. Transformers are further classified in accordance to their application areas.

Transformer Construction

A simple two-winding transformer construction consists of each winding being wound on a

separate soft iron limb or core which provides the necessary magnetic circuit

This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to provide a
path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of the voltage
between the two windings.
However, this type of transformer construction where the two windings are wound on separate
limbs is not very efficient since the primary and secondary windings are well separated from
each other. This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two windings as well as large
amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself. But as well as this “O” shapes
construction, there are different types of “transformer construction” and designs available which
are used to overcome these inefficiencies producing a smaller more compact transformer.

The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by bringing the two
windings within close contact with each other thereby improving the magnetic coupling.
Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may improve the magnetic
coupling between the two windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the magnetic losses of
the transformer core.
As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is designed to prevent
circulating electric currents within the iron core itself. Circulating currents, called “eddy
currents”, cause heating and energy losses within the core decreasing the transformers efficiency.
These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron circuit, which is constantly being
subjected to the alternating magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal supply voltage. One
way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct the transformer core from thin steel
laminations.
In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed from of a highly
permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations. These thin laminations are
assembled together to provide the required magnetic path with the minimum of magnetic losses.
The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high, thus reducing any eddy current loss by making the
laminations very thin.
These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between 0.25mm to 0.5mm and as
steel is a conductor, the laminations and any fixing studs, rivets or bolts are electrically insulated
from each other by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the
surface.

Transformer Construction of the Core

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependant upon how the
primary and secondary windings are wound around the central laminated steel core. The two
most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core
Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.
In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
wound outside and surround the core ring. In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the
primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown below.

Transformer Core Construction

In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary
windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through air. In the core
type transformer construction, one half of each winding is wrapped around each leg (or limb) of
the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the secondary on the other
but instead half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding are placed one over
the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling allowing practically
all of the magnetic lines of force go through both the primary and secondary windings at the
same time. However, with this type of transformer construction, a small percentage of the
magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and this is called “leakage flux”.
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and secondary
windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of
the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed magnetic paths
to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning back to the
central coils.
This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of this type of transformer
construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this has the
advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary windings are wound around
these laminated iron or steel cores for this types of transformer constructions. The coils are firstly
wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross section to suit the
construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core type transformer constructions, in
order to mount the coil windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched out from
larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel resembling the
letters “E”s, “L”s, “U”s and “I”s as shown below.

Transformer Core Types

 These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core shape. For example,
two “E” stampings plus two end closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core forming one element
of a standard shell-type transformer core. These individual laminations are tightly butted together
during the transformers construction to reduce the reluctance of the air gap at the joints
producing a highly saturated magnetic flux density.
Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to produce an
overlapping joint with more lamination pairs being added to make up the correct core thickness.
This alternate stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer the advantage of reduced
flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction is mostly used in
isolation transformers, step-up and step-down transformers as well as auto transformers.

Transformer Winding Arrangements

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction, because they
are the main current-carrying conductors wound around the laminated sections of the core. In a
single-phase two winding transformer, two windings would be present as shown. The one which
is connected to the voltage source and creates the magnetic flux called the primary winding, and
the second winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as a result of mutual
induction.
Types OF Transformers;

Transformer Types based on Voltage Level.

 Step-Down Transformer.
 Step-Up Transformer.
 Isolation Transformer.
Transformer Types based on Core material.
 Iron Core Transformer.
 Ferrite Core Transformer.
 Toroidal Core Transformer.
Induction motor:
An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from
the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without
electrical connections to the rotor.An induction motor's rotor can be either wound
type or squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are
self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for
smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed
service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in
variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing
and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.

Basic principle:

The principle of operation of three phase induction motoris the relative speed between the
rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. When a three phase set of voltage is applied to
stator winding, it produces rotating magnetic field in counter clockwise direction.

Working principle:
In a DC motor, supply is needed to be given for the stator winding as well as the rotor winding.
But in an induction motor only the stator winding is fed with an AC supply.
  Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic
Field" (RMF).
 The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in the
rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor
conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf.
That is why such motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called
as rotating transformers.)

 Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux
lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law,
is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.
 As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates
in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the
rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working
principle of induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.

Synchronous speed:

The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply

P = number of poles
Synchronous motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor in which, at steady state, the rotation of the shaft is
synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the rotation period is exactly equal to an
integral number of AC cycles. Synchronous motors contain multiphase AC electromagnets on
the stator of the motor that create a magnetic field which rotates in time with the oscillations of
the line current. The rotorwith permanent magnets or electromagnets turns in step with the stator
field at the same rate and as a result, provides the second synchronized rotating magnet field of
any AC motor. A synchronous motor is termed doubly fed if it is supplied with independently
excited multiphase AC electromagnets on both the rotor and stator.

Operation And Working Principle:

The operation of a synchronous motor is due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of the stator
and the rotor. Its stator winding, which consists of a 3 phase winding, is provided with a 3 phase
supply, and the rotor is provided with a DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase
currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux (and therefore a rotating magnetic field). The
rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. Once the rotor locks in
with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization. A single-phase (or
two-phase derived from single phase) stator winding is possible, but in this case the direction of
rotation is not defined and the machine may start in either direction unless prevented from doing
so by the starting arrangements.

Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply
frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the motor falls out of
synchronization and the field winding no longer follows the rotating magnetic field. Since the
motor cannot produce (synchronous) torque if it falls out of synchronization, practical
synchronous motors have a partial or complete squirrel-cage damper (amortisseur) winding to
stabilize operation and facilitate starting. Because this winding is smaller than that of an
equivalent induction motor and can overheat on long operation, and because large slip-frequency
voltages are induced in the rotor excitation winding, synchronous motor protection devices sense
this condition and interrupt the power supply (out of step protection).

Hardware Parts of Synchronous Motor:

It consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator core is constructed with thin silicon lamination and
insulated by a surface coating, to minimize the eddy current and hysteresis losses. The stator has
axial slots inside, in which three phase stator winding is placed. The stator is wound with a three
phase winding for a specific number of poles equal to the rotor poles.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the rotor
winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates electromagnetic
poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used.
Types Of Motor (AC & DC Machines) And Generators:
Any motor has two main components inside it, namely the field winding and the armature
winding. Field winding generates the static magnetic field, and the armature coil resembles a
piece of conductor kept into the magnetic field. Due to the magnetic field, armature experiences
a force and which cause to generate a sufficient torque to rotate the motor shaft. Now, the main
classification of DC motor can be done by the different connections of field winding and
armature winding. In other words we can say, types of DC motors are purely based on how the
field coil and armature is connected with each other.
DC SERIES MOTOR
You can get an idea from the name itself. The word series defines that, here the field coil and
armature coil is connected in a series circuit. The same current will flow through the armature
and field. Let us consider the armature current is Ia and field current is Ise. As per the Kirchhoff
current law, Total current will be I = Ia = Ise. Now check the diagram carefully. It is clear that,
the field coil is carrying the total armature current through it. So the field coil should be low in
resistance. That is why, a few turns of thick copper wire is used to design the field coil.
DC SHUNT MOTOR
Same way, in DC shunt Motor the field coil and armature winding is connected in parallel
connection. In electrical dictionary, the word “shunt” means parallel connection. The type of DC
motor is very common in practical use. Let us consider the armature current is Ia and field
current is Ish. As per the Kirchhoff current law, Total current I = Ia = Ish, where Ish is shunt
field current. As per the connection diagram you can clearly observe that, the field coil is
connected with the full supply voltage. To withstand with this voltage, the field coils are
designed with fine copper wires and consist several number of turns.

DC COMPOUND MOTOR
This type of DC motor is basically a hybrid module of DC series motor and DC shunt motor. In a
compound motor, both series field and shunt field are present. Applying the concepts of earlier
discussion, the shunt coil is designed with several turns of fine copper wires, in order to receive
the full input voltage. Whereas, the series field coil is made with few turns of thick copper wires,
to provide a low resistance path. In fact, the DC compound motor can be classified again in two
categories, namely short shunt compound motor and long shunt compound motor.

PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTORS

As on now, we have discussed the DC motors which copper coils or winding to develop the
magnetic field. But PMDC motors use permanent magnets to develop the field excitation. The
field magnets are mounted inside the casing, and the other parts remain the same, like DC
armature, carbon brushes and commutators. As the field flux is not changeable, so the speed of a
PMDC motor can be only controlled by regulating the armature voltage. This motors are used in
several battery operated applications, like portable drills, mixers, grinders, trimmer, electric tooth
brushes etc.

Types of AC motors:

Now we have covered a small portion on different types of electric motor. As on today, AC
power is more common as compared with DC power. An AC motor has several advantages over
DC motor, they provide good speed regulation features. The types of AC motor are based on
their internal construction and operation method. We shall briefly discuss for the most common
types with their connection diagram. There are two types of AC supply, single phase 230 Volt
AC and three phase 415 Volt AC. Single phase supply is used in domestic applications, whereas
three phase is mainly used in industrial segments. As per the principle of operation, AC motors
can be categorized in two basic category, Asynchronous induction motor and synchronous
motor.

Synchronous Motor: It is usually operated by three phase AC supply. The field current
generated by the stator part, rotates in a constant speed depending the AC frequency. And the
rotor follows the same speed of stator current. There is no gap in between rotor speed and the
speed of stator current, in case of an ideal synchronous motor. The tendency of running
synchronously with respect to the stator current, is the main reason behind the name
“Synchronous motor”. As the precision level of rotation is quite high, so this motors are used in
modern robotics, high intensity automation etc.
Single Phase Induction Motor: This is most common type of AC motor you can see in daily
applications. Here the speed of rotor is slower than the speed of synchronous speed, and always
depends on the applied load. That means, if you increase the connected load, the speed of motor
will be decreased. As per the rotor construction, there are two types of AC induction motor,
namely slip ring and squirrel cage type. You can find these motors in water pumps, small table
fans, mixer grinders, fruit juicers and many more appliances, those are operated by 230 Volt AC
supply.
Three Phase Induction Motor: The principle of operation is same here, but the basic difference
is in applied voltage. Instead of single phase 230 VAC supply, here we use 415 Volt three phase
supply to operate the motor. These motors are used in heavy applications like air conditions, air
compressors, blowers, big size cooling fans etc.