Mir’s generalized theorem defining all integral Pythagorean

triples as function of x

Shabir Ahmed Mir1

Division of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology
of Kashmir, Shuhama, Srinagar-190001, Kashmir, India

1
Correspondence address: Professor S.A. Mir,Post Office Box No.1310, GPO, Srinagar-190001,
Kashmir, India. E-mail address: mirsamir.19@rediffmail.com
 A prologue to a generalized theorem on Pythagorean triples

A new generalized Pythagorean theorem is presented that provides rationale to generate

all triples as function of one side of the Pythagorean triangle. Many interesting features

are exemplified together with the demonstrations to convince the novice to the field. The

author does not claim to be a professional mathematician.

The theorem was completed over an year ago and submitted to Asian- European Journal

of Mathematics bearing Manuscript Number: AEJM-D-10-00028 [submitted dated:

March 5th, 2010] indicating clearly therein that the author is Professor of Pharmacology

& Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, SKUAST of

Kashmir, Srinagar (INDIA).

The author had to wait till September 1, 2011 to get reply from the Reviewer following

repeatedly seeking to know the status of the paper from the worthy Editor. The Editor

used to reply that he has been sending strong letters to the Reviewer to make the reply

with no response till the indicated date. The important data to substantiate and

supplement the work were generated by VB Programming by the author, runs over a

large number of pages, and were uploaded to 4shared account in my name when the

Manuscript was submitted for consideration of its publication. The data were being

constantly downloaded obviously by the professionals. The author has not received any

adverse comments or any flaw from any quarter concerning the data. However, the

reviewer has made certain observations that I would share with the General Public:

1. The reviewer has raised objection to my act of prefixing my surname Mir in the

title of the manuscript, and claims it is right and privilege of professional

mathematicians to do so;
 2. The reviewer feels the theorem on which the present paper is based is trivial and

is not written by a mathematician—the author feels that this trivial function about

the integers has been employed for the first time in this theorem to explain

generation of all integral triples as function of one side of the Pythagorean

triangle;

3. The reviewer states that the paper is lengthy running over 20 pages those can be

accommodated within 5 pages;

4. The paper is not even well-written by Mathematical standards;

5. In view of these, the reviewer is against its publication in the concerned Journal.

No technical objection has been raised. No flaw or fallacy about the

soundness/unsoundness of the theorem has been indicated.

It is true that all above aspects were relevant as on March 2010, but still the judgment

was reserved by the august reviewer till September 2011?

Since it fetches me no professional advancement in my own professional field, I display

it on 4shared for free access and disposal for general public. It is obviously not written by

a professional mathematician so some errors are likely to be there on that account. Any

inconvenience in this regards is regretted.

Author:

Professor S.A. Mir

September 2nd, 2011

Srinagar, Kashmir, INDIA

 AMS Subject Code 11ZXX [Number theory– Miscellaneous]

Abstract

If (x, y, z) defines a Pythagorean triple then all the triples are expressible as function of x.
The rationale is provided by the generalized theorem on numbers that the product of any two
different non-zero numbers is equal to the difference of the squares of the means of their sum
and difference. The theorem asserts that each pair of different positive divisors (j, k) present
in every squared x whose product is equal to the squared x (j < x < k ≤ x2 ; x ≥ 3) would
each define a distinct integral Pythagorean triple as function of the pair:

p k−j k+j
x= jk y= z=
2 2

The two integers of each pair for any valid z are obtained from partitioning twice z into pairs
√
of summands: 2z = j + k and jk is an integer. Then each pair defines a distinct triple. In
fact, every integral Pythagorean triple defines its pair of parameters:

j =z−y k =z+y

The theorem provides a comprehensive approach to generate and study all integral
Pythagorean triples with extended scope to define the triples having fractional values.
Key words Pythagorean, triples, primitive, multiple, commutative, fractional
Introduction

Pythagorean triples have been studied extensively since antiquity. The generators for the
triples include amongst others two-fraction method [9], using Fibonacci number sequences [2,
4, 8], or more versatile m, n method (or its improved version r, s method) based on Euclidean
formula [3, 7,11, 12]. Mathematical discourse [12] and other interesting features about the
triples [1, 5, 6, 9, 11] are documented. The triples are commonly derived by using some
arbitrary integers while seeking solutions to : (i) identity equation (n + 1)2 = (n)2 + (2n + 1);
(ii) consecutive y and z in primitive triples for every odd x; (iii) prime factor(s) in z congruent
to 1 mod 4 for their unique representation as a sum of two different squares (Fermat); and (iv)
occurrence of countably infinite integers representable as difference of the squares of two
integers. The present work was designed to look for the parameters emanating from one
member of the triple to define the supported integral Pythagorean triple(s).

Definitions

A set of three positive integers (x, y, z) constitute a Pythagorean triple (PT) if x2 + y 2 = z 2 .

The triple is primitive (PPT) if gcd(x, y, z) = 1, and multiple (MPT) if gcd(x, y, z) > 1. The
root of every MPT is a PPT. Consequently, if d = gcd(x, y, z) > 1, then (dx, dy, dz) is a MPT
and (x, y, z) is the root of the triple. Every PPT and MPT has its commutative representation
recognized by identical value of z, and the values of x and y interchanged. The right triangles
they represent show the same area and the same perimeter but with different trigonometric
functions. For PPTs and MPTs of odd composite integers, y is even whenever x is odd and
vice versa, but z is always odd. For MPTs of even nature, the three members are always even.
A triple with fractional values satisfying the Pythagorean equation may be called fractional
Pythagorean triple (FPT). The triple is representable as (1/a)(x, y, z) with (m/a) representing
the fraction to generate the triple. The numerator m would stand for one of the three
members of the triple. If m = x or y then m ≥ 3. If m = z then m ≥ 5. The denominator is a
positive integer: a > 1. The fractional forms of each integral triple have characteristically
different areas and different perimeters but show the same trigonometric functions.

2
Characterization of members of the triple

The Pythagorean equation x2 + y 2 = z 2 implies the existence of three variables viz., x, y and
z to characterize a triple. The natural choice for generation of the triples is either x or y, and
surely not z. The reasons are mainly two. Firstly, the equation per se defines z as a
dependent variable, z = f (x, y), while x or y is an independent variable. If one of the latter
two is chosen as totally independent, the other member remains partially independent since
only a defined range of the integers would suit its qualification as a member of the triple.
Secondly, z can not be assigned all integral values to generate the triples. The qualification
requires presence of at least one prime factor in z that is congruent to 1 modulo 4 (Fermat)
else no triple is possible. Consequently, every z demands confirmation of its validity to
support or not to support the triples. There is no such a restriction for the independent
variable. It would take all integral values ≥ 3 for generating the triples.

Generalized theorem

If x is an independent variable then y = f (x), and z = f (x, y). Computational and manual
experimentations have provided rationale to define all integral Pythagorean triples in relation
to the observations on the numbers:

Theorem 1. The product of any two different non-zero numbers (j, k) is equal to the
difference of the squares of the means of their sum and difference.

The theorem holds solutions, not necessarily in integers, to all non-zero real numbers.
Confining reference to positive integers in relation to the triples, the theorem implies that if
the product of two different integers is a representation of a squared positive integer then the
triple is expressible in terms of the factors of the squared integer. The observations on the
integers reveal that the square of every positive integer x (x : x ≥ 3) has one or more
pairable positive divisors whose product defines the squared x. This paves way to define the
triple generator theorem as function of x.

Theorem 2. If (x, y, z) is a Pythagorean triple (x, y < z; x ≥ 3) and j, k constitute elements

of each different pair of the divisors in a squared x whose product is the squared x
(j < x < k ≤ x2 ). Then the product of each such pair is representable as the difference of the
squares of the means of sum and difference of the elements of the pair. Consequently,

3
  2  2
k+j k−j
jk = x2 = 2 − 2 (1)

The equation simulates the identity, x2 = z 2 − y 2 . The same parity of j and k in each pair is
necessary to get the solution in integers. The mean of the sum implies that it is the largest
member of the triple so z. Consequently every such pair would define a distinct Pythagorean
triple as function of its elements:

p
x= jk (2)
k−j
y= (3)
2
k+j
z= (4)
2
Proof. The validity is verifiable from identity of RHS and LHS of the equation (1). Knowing
that the product of j and k is x2 , the expansion of RHS of the equation confirms the same:

 2
k + j 2 + 2jk k 2 + j 2 − 2jk
  
4jk
jk = x2 = − = = jk
4 4 4

The identity implies the proof to hold for generalized theorem (1), and for the theorem related
to the triples (2). The validation of the theorem (1) is verifiable by assigning any sign to the
two parameters, or by substituting the two with the fractional representations (such as letting
j = a/b, and k = c/d) from rational and irrational non-zero real numbers, the latter
approximated to fractional form. In any eventuality, j 6= k to avoid annihilation of one term.
The theorem (2) guarantees all the triples in integers if x ≥ 3, and in non-integers if x is a
fraction or a positive integer < 3.
The number of pairs of j, k are easily deducible from prime factorization of every squared x.
Let the prime factorizations of odd and even x be represented, respectively, in the forms of
pα1 1 pα2 2 pα3 3 · · · pαnn and 2β pα1 1 pα2 2 · · · pαnn . Let τ (x2 ) and τ 0 (x2 ) denote, respectively, number of
total and pairable divisors in a squared x. Then the counts are provided by
For odd x:

τ (x2 ) = (2α1 + 1)(2α2 + 1) · · · (2αn + 1) (5)

τ 0 (x2 ) = τ (x2 ) − 1 (6)

4
For even x:

τ (x2 ) = (2β + 1)(2α1 + 1)(2α2 + 1) · · · (2αn + 1) (7)

τ 0 (x2 ) = (2β − 1)(2α1 + 1)(2α2 + 1) · · · (2αn + 1) − 1 (8)

Evidently τ (x2 ) is odd while τ 0 (x2 ) is even whether x is odd or even. Let T (x) denote number
of pairs, hence number of triples supported by a given x. Then the count is just half of the
pairable divisor count:
 0 2 
τ (x )
T (x) = (9)
2
The even nature of τ 0 (x2 ) is due to exclusion of non-pairable divisors from τ (x2 ). These
include x from every squared integer, and additionally 1 and x2 from the divisors for even
squared x as entailed by their respective ranges: 1, . . . , x2 ∀ x2 if x is odd and
2, . . . , x2 /2 ∀ x2 if x is even. Since each pair has its lower element less than x and upper
element more than x, the two sets may be denoted correspondingly as sets J and K with their
bounds:
For odd integers
J = {j : j = 1, · · · , m} and K = {k : k = x2 , · · · , x2 /m}
For even integers
J = {j : j = 2, · · · , m} and K = {k : k = x2 /2, · · · , x2 /m}
where m is upper bound of positive divisor in set J.
As evident, the two parameters j and k characterize every PT. Given any triple or two of its
members, the two parameters can be obtained directly following rearrangements and
substitutions of the Pythagorean and outlined equations (3, 4):
If y and z are known then j =z−y k =z+y
√
If x and z are known then j = z − z 2 − x2 k = 2z − j
p
If x and y are known then j = −y + x2 + y 2 k = 2y + j
The values for integral triples are in integers while those for fractional triples are in fractions.
For any given triple, the product of sum and difference of z and y or that of j and k define x2 .

Counts and kinds of triples as function of x

Let P (x) and M (x) denote, respectively, number of PPT and MPT for a given x then
T (x) = P (x) + M (x). Once two counts are known, the remaining count can be computed.

5
The generalizations from the experimentations are apparent:
(1) Unity is the divisor for every odd x so j = 1 and k = x2 define the first PPT for every odd
x. If x is odd prime (p1 ) then T (x) = P (x) = 1, M (x) = 0. If x is order of single odd prime
(pα ) then T (x) = α, P (x) = 1, M (x) = α − 1. The formula for getting T (x) for odd composite
x has been already given (6, 9).
(2) For all singly even integers since β = 1, the factor (2β − 1) of the general equation for
pairable divisors equals unity. T (x) for all such integers is given by the equation relevant to
odd prime composite. Consequently, T (x) = M (x). There is no primitive triple since the
factor 4 in squared x of any singly even integer provides only twice 2, one occurring as an
independent divisor, and second as factor for one or more odd prime factors in squared x. All
the triples are multiple. For twice odd prime α = 1 and β = 1, there is one and only one triple
with gcd = 2; T (x) = M (x) = 1. If x is even composite order of 2 such that (x = 2β ) then
T (x) = β − 1, P (x) = 21−1 = 1, M (x) = β − 2. The choice j for the primitive triple is 2. For
other even composites, the formula for getting the T (x) has been already outlined (8, 9).
(3) If ω denotes the number of distinct primes in composite x whether odd or even then P (x)
is given by the combinatorial equation:

P (x) = (C1ω + C2ω + C3ω + · · · + Cω−1

ω
+ Cωω + 1)/2

= 2ω(x)−1

(4) Every PT defines its commutative triple. If j, k, x, y, z define a Pythagorean triple for some
integer x then jc , kc , xc , yc , z would define its commutative version:

p
jc = z − x kc = z + x xc = y = jc kc

yc = x = (kc − jc )/2 z = (k + j)/2 = (kc + jc )/2

Rules to characterize j values for primitive triples

As indicated j = 1 defines the first PPT for every odd integer. This is the only triple if x is
odd prime or some order of odd prime. For odd composite other j values are prime factors of
x with their highest orders existing in x2 , and their products with each other in different
possible combinations provided each such product is less than x. For even integers baring
singly even, j = 2 defines the first PPT. This is the only primitive triple when x is order of 2.

6
For even composite of other kind, the primitive representations of j are 2, 22β−1 provided by
prime factor 2, and their products with odd prime factors of x in their highest powers existing
in squared x provided each such product or member is less than x. Proof for their
primitiveness is easily verifiable.

Proof. Let odd composite x = mn such that m < n, gcd(m, n) = 1, m2 < x. Then
x2 = m2 n2 . Taking j = m2 will provide k = n2 , y = (n2 − m2 )/2 and z = (n2 + m2 )/2. The
rule states that for j = m2 , the triple is primitive. Since x = mn, x is divisible by m or
(even by n ). The equations for y and z indicate that 2y = (n + m)(n − m) and
2z = (n + m)(n − m) + m2 . As evident, neither m nor n exist as factors in y or z. Therefore,
the triple is primitive. The same can be demonstrated for composite even x. Moreover, for
composite odd x with x = mn and treating m = 2r + 1 and n = 2s + 1 yields
x = 2(2rs + r + s) + 1 as odd while y = 2(s2 − r2 + s − r) as even, and
z = 2(s2 + r2 + s + r) + 1 as odd. Similarly for even composite x with
x = 2β mn, x2 = 22β m2 n2 , x is even while y and z are odd. The latter are defined by
22β−2 n2 ± m2 in case j = 2m2 , and by n2 ± 22β−2 m2 if j = 22β−1 m2 .

Manual method to generate triples as function of x

Computational algorithm would provide a fast tool to generate the triples. The lists so
generated even for a limited range of x, 3 through 1000, cover about 150 pages [10]. A sample
list is displayed as Table 1. The manual procedure provides the process of involved operations:

1. Decompose x and its square into their prime factors.

2. List all possible divisors of x2 in their ascending order guided by the prime factors.

3. The divisors left to x constitute set J and those to the right set K.

4. Pair elements of the two sets one-to-one such that the product of each pair is x2 .

5. Define y and z for each pair using the outlined equations (3, 4).

6. Identify the j representatives for primitive triple as per given procedure.

For convenience, first determine T (x) and P (x) for a given x by the formulas, and then identify
the members to match the counts. Alternatively, list all the possible divisors of x including
those anticipated in squared x provided each such choice is less than x. Then, k = x2 /j.

7
Demonstrations

If x is an odd integer

1. Every odd prime x = p1 has three divisors: 1, p1 and p2 . The pairable divisors include 1
and p2 . Taking x = 11 then j = 1, k = 112 = 121. The pair yields y = (121 − 1)/2 = 60
and z = (121 + 1)/2 = 61. The triple (11, 60, 61) is primitive with gcd(x, y, z) = 1.

2. The divisors in squared x for an odd prime x of order α include (1, p1 , . . . , pα , . . . , p2α ).
The number of pairs, after exclusion of x, is given by α. For instance with x = 75 , the
divisors for x2 = 710 include (1, 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 710 ). The divisors provide
five pairs (1, 710 ), (71 , 79 ), (72 , 78 ), (73 , 77 ), (74 , 76 ) so five triples. The computed values
for y include, correspondingly, (141237624, 20176800, 2882376, 411600, 57624), and those
for z include (141237625, 20176807, 2882425, 411943, 60025).The first pair with j = 1
provides a primitive triple (16807, 141237624, 141237625). The remaining 4 pairs provide
multiple triples. The counts match those obtained with the formulas.

3. Considering odd composite integers with different prime factors. Let x = 105 then
x2 = (31 .51 .71 )2 = 11025. The divisors following exclusion of 105 provide 13 pairs with
elements in set J = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 21, 25, 35, 45, 49, 63, 75}, and those in set
K = {147, 175, 225, 245, 315, 441, 525, 735, 1225, 1575, 2205, 3675, 11025}. The j values
defining the primitive triples include 1 and squares of the prime factors in x viz., 9, 25
and 49. Similarly if x = 7425 then x2 = (33 .52 .111 )2 = 55130625. The predicted triple
counts are T (7425) = 52 and P (7425) = 4. The primitive triples corresponding to the j
values of 1, 36 , 54 and 112 include (7425, 27565312, 27565313), (7425, 227752, 227873),
(7425, 43792, 44417) and (7425, 37448, 38177) . Similarly with x = 96525 and
x2 = (33 .52 .111 .131 )2 = 9317075625, the counts T (96525) and P (96525) are, respectively,
157 and 8. The j values for the primitive triples include 1, the squares of the prime
factors viz., 36 , 54 , 112 , 132 , and their products 112 .36 , 112 .54 and 112 .132 .

If x is a composite integer

1. Let x be twice an odd prime. Taking x = 202, x2 = (21 .1011 )2 = 40804; the even
divisors include 2, 202, 20402. Excluding 202, the remaining pair j = 2 and k = 20402
provides one MPT (202, 10200, 102202). If x is twice a composite odd integer, taking for
instance x = 130 = 21 .51 .131 , then x2 = (21 .51 .131 )2 = 16900. The pairable even divisors

8
 of 16900 are obtained by using products of prime factors in x2 in all possible
combinations multiplied by 2. These include 2, 10, 26, 50, 130, 338, 650, 1690, 8450.
Excluding 130, we get 4 pairs of j and k. The values of y and z from each pair are
obtained, respectively, as (4224, 840, 312, 144) and (4226, 850, 338, 194). The counts
match those provided by the formula: T (130) = (1/2)[(3)(3) − 1] = 4. As evident all the
triples (130, 4224, 4226), (130, 840, 850), (130, 312, 338) and (130, 144, 194) are multiple.
Singly even integers do not generate any primitive triple.

2. Let x be an even composite of form 2β such that x is congruent to 0 mod 4. Taking

x = 32, then even divisors of x2 = (25 )2 include the members defined by
21 , . . . , 24 , 25 , 26 , . . . , 29 . Excluding 25 leaves two sets with 4 members each such that the
set J = (21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ) and the set K = (29 , 28 , 27 , 26 ). The values for y are
correspondingly (255, 126, 60, 24), and those for z accordingly (257, 130, 68, 40). The
count includes only one primitive triple (32, 255, 257) corresponding to j = 2. The
results match those given by the formulas: T (25) = β − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4, P (x) = 21−1 = 1,
and M (x) = β − 2 = 5 − 2 = 3.

3. For an even composite x of mixed nature, let x = 20, (x2 = 22 .51 )2 = 400, the pairable
divisors include 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 40, 50, 100, 200. These constitute 4 pairs with sets
J = (2, 4, 8, 10), and K = (200, 100, 50, 40). The primitive triples (20, 99, 101) and
(20, 21, 29) are identified by j = 2 and j = 22β−1 = 23 = 8. The counts match those
provided by the formulas:

T (x) = (1/2)[(2.2 − 1)(2 + 1) − 1] = 8/2 = 4, P (x) = 22−1 = 2, M (x) = 4 − 2 = 2

Taking composite x with more factors, let x = 260, x2 = (22 .51 .131 )2 = 67600. The
divisors provided by each prime factor of x in x2 include 2, 4, 8 from 2β , 5 and 25 from
prime factor 5, and 13 and 169 from prime factor 13. The even divisors include those
from 2β , and their products with possible odd prime factors. The two sets are segregated
with set J = (2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 26, 40, 50, 52, 100, 104, 130, 200), and set
K = (33800, 16900, 8450, 6760, 3380, 2600, 1690, 1352, 1300, 676, 650, 520, 338).The count
includes 4 primitive triples: (260, 16899, 16901), (260, 4221, 4229), (260, 651, 701) and
(260, 69, 269) for j values 2, 8, 50 and 200. The counts match those predicted with the
formulas: T (x) = (1/2)[(4 − 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1) − 1] = 13, P (x) = 23 − 1 = 4, and
M (x) = 13 − 4 = 9.

9
 The j values for the primitive triples are obtained directly from the prime factors of x2 .
Let x = 16632 = 23 .33 .71 .111 then x2 = (23 .33 .71 .111 )2 = 276623424. The predicted
counts include T (16632) = 157 and P (16632) = 8. The j values for the primitive triples
include: 2 and 25 provided by the factor 26 in x2 . The j values viz., 98, 242, 1458 are
products of 2 and squares of 7, 11, 33 while the values 1568, 3872 are products of 32 with
72 and 112 . The last value for j = 11858 is a combined product of 2, 72 and 112 .

Simplified version of the theorem

The foregoing observations reveal that for all odd integers, j = 1 and k = x2 provide a
primitive triple; while for even integers baring singly even, j = 2 and k = x2 /2 would
guarantee a primitive triple. Therefore, substituting j and k by these values for getting y and
z for the two categories of positive integers, the two formulas emerge to guarantee one
primitive triple, whenever existing, for x ≥ 3:

y = (x2 − 1)/2 z = (x2 + 1)/2 if x is odd (10)

y = (x2 − 4)/4 z = (x2 + 4)/4 if x is even (11)

The formulas obviate the need for seeking the divisors from squared x. The proof for their
primitiveness or otherwise is easily worked out.
Primitiveness for odd integers Since the square of every odd integer is congruent to 1 mod
8, there is no harm in replacing x2 by 8n + 1. Then

√
x= 8n + 1 y = ((8n + 1) − 1)/2 = 4n z = y + j = 4n + 1.

As evident x is odd and y is even, the two are coprime. Similarly, y and z are two consecutive
integers so coprime. Therefore, when gcd(x, y) = 1 and gcd(y, z) = 1 then gcd(x, y, z) = 1.
The triple is primitive. The form of odd x implies n to accept only triangular numbers from
the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, . . . , (n0 )(n0 + 1)/2 (where n0 is a positive integer in the sequence
√
of natural numbers) to get x in integers. Consequently, the first valid x is 8 + 1 = 3 by
substituting the n with the first triangular number unity. The observation implies that no
integral triple is possible if x is less than 3.
Multiple nature for singly even integers Singly even implies that the integer x = 2s where s
is any positive odd integer. Squaring of it would generate 4s2 = 4t, where t = s2 . Substituting
the values to the formulas for even, we get y = (4t − 4)/4 = 4(t − 1)/4 = t − 1 and

10
z = (4t + 1)/4 = 4(t + 1)/4 = t + 1. Because t is odd, both t − 1 and t + 1 are even. Therefore,
all the elements are even, hence the triple is multiple.
Primitiveness for even composite integers Even composite x that is congruent to 0 modulo
4 may be symbolized as 2β s (x : x = 2β s) where s is an odd integer such that s = 1 if x is
exclusively 2β while s > 1 if x has one or more odd prime factors. Substituting the value of x
into the simplified formula for even composite, we get

y = (x2 − 4)/4 = (22β s2 − 4)/4 = 4(22(β−1) s2 − 1)/4 = 22(β−1) s2 − 1

z = (x2 + 4)/4 = (22β s2 + 4)/4 = 4(22(β−1) s2 + 1)/4 = 22(β−1) s2 + 1

Let factor 22(β−1) s2 = t. Then y = t − 1 and z = t + 1. Since t is even, y and z turn to be two
consecutive odd integers. As apparent x is even and y is odd, x and y are coprime with
gcd(x, y) = 1. Similarly, y and z are coprime with gcd(y, z) = 1. Consequently,
gcd(x, y, z) = 1. The triple is primitive.

Distribution of primitive triples with primes x and z

The simplified formula offers an efficient tool to examine the problem of finding primitive
triples with its two members prime [3]. Such occurrences are possible only in PPTs, or in their
commutative versions. In every PPT, x or y is necessarily even, in our case y. Computational
algorithm has been employed to generate a database of PPTs where both x and z have prime
values. The algorithm employs a program to input only those odd primes as x whose unit
digit is either 1 or 9. The generated z of the triple is screened for its primality. The
distribution pattern for such PPTs with x from 11 through 46279 is given in the table 2. The
actual list is documented elsewhere [10]. Simplified formula justifies its use as it guarantees
the primitive triples with odd x inputs. Every odd prime x is not a choice for generating
prime z. Primes with unit digit 3 or 7 on squaring would yield integers with unit digit 9.
Addition of 1 and division by 2, required for getting the value for z, would generate z with
unit digit 5. Such a z is explicitly composite. Only the odd prime x with unit digit 1 or 9
would generate a probable prime z with its unit digit 1. Exceptions to this observation are the
triples, (3, 4, 5) and (7, 12, 13), generated with prime x < 11. As evident, the distribution of
prime z decreases with increase in magnitude of prime x but continues infinitely (Table 2).
This suggests that the distribution of such triples is infinite like prime integers . The number
of triples so generated is just the half of the total. Other half belongs to their commutative

11
versions obtained with even x having prime y. The locations for such commutative versions
can be identified. The sequence of odd prime x generating such triples runs as follows

3, 5, 11, 19, 29, 59, 61, 71, 79, . . . , 1031, . . . , 10151, . . . , 45949, . . .

The corresponding commutative versions are at farther locations, increasing exponentially

with increase in the magnitude of x. These are identified by even x as marked by
corresponding y values;

4, 12, 60, 180, 420, 1740, 1860, 2520, 3120, . . . , 531480, . . . , 51521400, . . . , 1055655300, . . .

. The prime z values are correspondingly obtained as y + 1. The process is infinite both for
prime x, and for its commutative version at even x. Besides, there are infinitely many primes
with unit digit 1, and there is no restriction that an integer with unit digit 1 beyond any limit
of its occurrence amongst the integers will not be a prime. These observations provide
credence to the conjecture that the occurrence of PPT with two members prime is infinite.
Every such PPT is recognized with its prime z having unit digit 1 and prime x or prime y
having unit digit 1 or 9.

Triples as function of z

The procedure applied for processing x is also applicable for seeking the triples from an
integral y with the condition that what stands for x now stands for y. However, the
generation of the triples from any valid z demands a special treatment. The rationale ensues
as a corollary from the theorem provided by the equation (3):

 
k+j
z= ∴ 2z = k + j
2
Corollary. Let z be a positive integer (z ≥ 5) with at least one prime factor congruent to 1
modulo 4. If the product of two positive integers (j, k : j < k) representing partition(s) of twice
z is a square, then j, k of each such partition defines a Pythagorean triple:

p
2z = j + k x= jk y = (k − j)/2 = k − z = z − j

Each pair would identify the summands for its commutative triple. If jc and kc define the two
parameters for a commutative triple. Then

jc = z − x and kc = z + x

12
Consequently,
p
xc = kc jc and yc = (kc − jc )/2 = z − jc

For allowing computational generation of summands for every 2z, odd z justifies both even
and odd pairing summands {J = 1 ≤ j ≤ z − 1; K = 2z − 1 ≤ k ≤ z + 1} while even z justifies
only even summands {J = 2 ≤ j ≤ z − 2; K = 2z − 2 ≤ k ≤ z + 2}. The integers are screened
sequentially for odd z while for the even, the integers are screened with step 2. The number of
valid pairs define the number of the triples for the given z.

Counts and kinds of triples for z

Let T (z), P (z) and M (z) define, respectively, total, primitive and multiple triples supported
by a valid z then the counts are easily worked out. T (z) is function of the prime factors in z
those are congruent to 1 mod 4 (Fermat). Presence of other factors would only alter the
quality of the triples. If these prime factors in the z hold the form pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαnn . Then
T (z) = (2α1 + 1)(2α2 + 1) . . . (2αn + 1) − 1; P (z) = 2τ (z)−1 M (z) = T (z) − P (z) where
τ (z) is the number of such distinct prime factors in z. Each valid integral z generates an even
number of triples with symmetric distribution; the second half of the list is the commutative
version of the first half [10]. A sample list is displayed (Table 3). The experimentations
provide the generalizations:

• If z is only one factor of 4n + 1 type then T (z) = P (z) = 2, and M (z) = 0.

• If z is a single odd prime of order α then T (z) = 2α, P (z) = 2 and M (z) = 2(α − 1).

• If z is a mixed integer defined as product of d and z 0 where d is the product of all prime
factors other than 4n + 1 type, and z 0 is quotient of z and d then the triples are multiple
and the count is function of z 0 . The triples generated by z 0 are as provided by aforecited
formula for T (z), and the actual magnitude of each triple and its j and k parameters are
obtained by multiplying each member by d : T (z) = M (z). There is no primitive triple.

Manual method to generate triples as function of z

1. If z is solely containing one or more prime factors of type 4n + 1 then it is processed as

such. If it is a mixed integer then segregate the prime factors of the integer into two
sets; one comprises all odd factors of type 4n + 1 and the remaining constitute the

13
 second set. Let the product of the former set be identified as z 0 . Define the product of
the primes in second set as d {d : d = z/z 0 }.

2. Determine the number of triples supported by the integral z or z 0 , as the case be, using
the aforecited formula.

3. Partition 2z 0 into pair(s) of summands such that sum of j and k of each partition equals
the 2z 0 .

4. Select the pairs, whose product identifies a square. It is more convenient to select the
pairs in the initial distribution of partitions, and stop when the count matches half the
count predicted by T (z).

5. Determine the commutative triple for each identified triple by exchanging the values of x
and y, or use the outlined formulas to determine the summands.

6. In absence of d, the triple list as such is the required list. In presence of d, the
parameters of each triple defining 2z 0 must be multiplied by d to get actual set of the
triples.

Demonstrations

If z is exclusively product of prime factor(s) congruent to 1 mod 4

Let z = 5. Then z 0 = 5, d = 1. The formula predicts 2 triples: T (z) = [(2.1 + 1) − 1] = 2. Get

one pair of summands from 2z whose product is a square. The pair is immediately located as
1 + 9. Therefore, j = 1, k = 9; x = 3, y = (9 − 1)/2 = 4. The triple is (3, 4, 5). Its commutative
version is obtained by exchanging the values of x and y to get the new triple (4, 3, 5). The
triple is otherwise obtained by the formula: jc = z − x = 5 − 3 = 2; kc = z + x = 5 + 3 = 8..
√
The parameters would yield the same triple: x = 2 × 8 = 4; y = (8 − 2)/2 = 3 or simply
y = z − j = 5 − 2 = 3.
If z = 25, the formula predicts 4 triples: T (z) = [(2.2 + 1) − 1] = 4. The two pairs of
summands for 50 are located as (1 + 49) and (5 + 45). These provide two triples, respectively,
as (7, 24, 25) and (15, 20, 25). The commutative versions are, respectively, (24, 7, 25) and
(20, 15, 25). The respective commutative pair of summands are (18, 32) and (10, 40).
Let z = 221 = 131 .171 . Predicted count of triples for 221 = [(2.1 + 1)(2.1 + 1) − 1] = 8. The
four pairs that qualify choice of summands for 442 include (1 + 441), (17 + 425), (26 + 416) and

14
(50 + 392). These define 4 triples as (21, 220, 221), (85, 204, 221), (104, 195, 221) and
(140, 171, 221). These in turn define their 4 commutative pairs of j and k summands as
(200 + 242), (136 + 306), (117 + 325), (81 + 361).

If z is a mixed integer

Let z = 2520 = 23 .32 .51 .71 . There is only one factor congruent to 1 mod 4 i.e. 5. Therefore,
d = 2520/5 = 504, z 0 = 5. Formula predicts two triples for the given z 0 . The triples have been
already identified as (3, 4, 5) and (4, 3, 5). Multiply each element by 504 to get the actual
triples. The triples include (1512, 2016, 2520) and (2016, 1512, 2520). The respective
summands (504 + 4536) and (1008 + 4032) are obtained by multiplying original summands
(1 + 9) and (2 + 8) by 504.
Let z = 30030 = 21 .31 .51 .71 .111 .131 . Here d = 462 and z 0 = 65. The formula predicts 8 triples
for z 0 = 65. The four pairs of the summands are identified as (2 + 128), (5 + 125), (9 + 121) and
(13 + 117). The respective triples are (16, 63, 65), (25, 60, 65), (33, 56, 65) and (39, 52, 65). The
commutative pairs of summands are (49 + 81), (40 + 90), (32 + 98) and (26 + 104) providing
the commutative triples. To get actual values for the 8 triples, each element is multiplied with
462 : (7392, 29106, 30030), (11550, 27720, 30030), (15246, 25872, 30030), (18018, 24024, 30030)
and their 4 commutative versions with first 2 elements of each triple exchanged in their
positions.

Fractional Pythagorean triples

Fractional triples are real entities in their geometrical representations. Both simplified and
general formulas can be used for generating the FPTs as function of x or z having fractional
values. The only requirement is to convert every decimal or positive real form of x or z into a
fractional form if not already in fraction. Irrational forms of positive integers can be
approximated to fractional forms with the choice of the numerator determined by the desired
accuracy. The numerator is processed as an integer to get j and k pairs. Each value is divided
by the denominator of the original fraction to get the triple in its fractional form. The final
representations can be put either in decimals or fractions, or more conveniently put with the
triple in integers and the common factor of the triple in fractional form. It is more handy to
use the simplified formula to get at least one representation for a fractional value of x. For
x = 1 or 2, more appropriate would be to take their fractional representations in equivalents

15
viz., 1 = 3/3, 5/5, · · · and 2 = 6/3 = 10/5, · · · . In any of such choices, the representations are
likely to be different with different numerators. Since there are no restrictions of having j and
k of the same parity, one may use the integers directly except for x = 1 that otherwise would
generate an undefined y with numerator 0. Using the simplified formula the FPTs for
x = 0.01, 0.3, 7/19, 29/5, 1 and 2 are, respectively, found as 1/1000(10, 24, 26),
1/10(3, 4, 5), 1/19(7, 24, 25), 1/5(29, 420, 421), 1/10(10, 24, 26) and 1/10(20, 48, 52). Taking
√
2 = 1.41 = 141/100, we get the triple 1/100(141, 9940, 9941). Taking π = 22/7, the triple
obtained is 1/7(22, 120, 122). On similar lines one can compute fractional triple
representations for the z values. Taking z = 0.05 = 5/100, 10/7, 1 = 5/5, 2 = 10/5, 3 = 15/5
and 4 = 20/5, the numerator of the fraction is processed as z. The triples obtained for these
values are given along with their commutative forms within parenthesis, correspondingly, as
1/100(3, 4, 5; 4, 3, 5); 1/10(6, 8, 10; 8, 6, 10); 1/7(6, 8, 10; 8, 6, 10); 1/10(12, 16, 20; 16, 12, 20);
1/10(18, 24, 30; 24, 18, 30); and 1/10(24, 32, 40; 32, 24, 40). In case, the numerator has no factor
4n + 1 type, fractional z can still be processed by multiplying both the numerator and the
denominator with 5 or any other such choice. Since there are infinite points to choose from
the interval between any two positive integral points on the number line, the number of
representations for fractional categories is function of the choice of the numerator taken to
approximate a fraction or other decimal values. This offers an unlimited scope for getting
numerous representations of the fractional triples for the given fractional x or z.

Conclusions

The foregoing observations provide credence to the idea that all the triples are expressible as
function of x. The parameters characterizing each distinct triple are inherently provided by
the integers as a property of their divisors. The general property concerning all non-zero real
numbers provides rationale for the validity of the theorem for all the the triples taken in
integers or in fractions. The parameters are directly deducible from any given triple. The
theorem provides direct proof that the triples are infinite, as are the triples with their two
members prime. The arbitrary choice of integers is completely obviated.

16
References

[1] A.H. Beiler, Recreations in the Theory of Numbers (Dover Publications Inc., New York,
1966).

[2] M. Bicknell-Johnson, Pythagorean Triples and Generalized Fibonacci Numbers, Fibonacci

Quart. 17(1979) 1–12 & 293.

[3] D.M. Burton, Elementary Number Theory (Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd,
New Delhi, 2007).

[4] A. Dujella, Diophantine Quadruples for Squares of Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers,
Portugaliae Math. 52 (1995)305–318.

[5] E. Ernest, Primitive Pythagorean Triples, The College Mathematics Journal 23(5) (1992)
413 – 417.

[6] A.Fassler, Multiple Pythagorean Number Triples, Amer. Math. Monthly

98(6)(1991)505–517.

[7] G.H. Hardy and E.M. Wright, Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (Oxford University
Press, 2008).

[8] A.F. Horadam, Fibonacci Number Triples Amer. Math. Monthly 68 (1961) 751 – 753.

[9] R. Knott, Pythagorean Triangles and Triples, last updated 10 August 2009.
www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/.../pythag.html

[10] S.A. Mir, Pythagorean Triples All Integral: Lists (1 – 4) (2010)

www.4shared.com/account/dir/13018978/cbab2eb7/sharing.html

[11] E.S. Rowland, Pythagorean Triples Project, (2010)

www.math.rutgers.edu/%7Eerowland/pythagoreantriples-project.html

[12] F. Wiedijk, Pythagorean triples, J. Formal. Math. 13 (Inst. of Computer Science, Univ.
of Bialystok, 2003).

17
Table 1 Pythagorean triples function of x: a sample list

x x2 j : ka y : zb Status gcd(x, y, z)

3 9 1: 9 4: 5 Primitive 1
4 16 2: 8 3: 5 Primitive 1
5 25 1 : 25 12 : 13 Primitive 1
6 36 2 : 18 8 : 10 Multiple 2
7 49 1 : 49 24 : 25 Primitive 1
8 64 2 : 32 15 : 17 Primitive 1
4 : 16 6 : 10 Multiple 2
9 81 1 : 81 40 : 41 Primitive 1
3 : 27 12 : 15 Multiple 3
10 100 2 : 50 24 : 26 Multiple 2
11 121 1 : 121 60 : 61 Primitive 1
12 144 2 : 72 35 : 37 Primitive 1
4 : 36 16 : 20 Multiple 4
6 : 24 9 : 15 Multiple 3
8 : 18 5 : 13 Primitive 1
13 169 1 : 169 84 : 85 Primitive 1
14 196 2 : 98 48 : 50 Multiple 2
15 225 1 : 225 112 : 113 Primitive 1
3 : 75 36 : 39 Multiple 3
5 : 45 20 : 25 Multiple 5
9 : 25 8 : 17 Primitive 1
16 256 2 : 128 63 : 65 Primitive 1
4 : 64 30 : 34 Multiple 2
8 : 32 12 : 20 Multiple 4
17 289 1 : 289 144 : 145 Primitive 1
18 324 2 : 162 80 : 82 Multiple 2
6 : 54 24 : 30 Multiple 6

a
j × k = x2 for each divisor pair b
y = (k − j)/2 z = (k + j)/2
 Table 2 Distribution of the triples with x and z prime

Integer limita Total primesb Selected primesc Triples with

N x x (x, z) prime

100 24 10 7
300 61 28 13
1,000 167 78 30
3,000 429 207 72
10,000 1228 609 182
30,000 3244 1610 406
45,000 4674 2322 565
46000 4760 2360 575
46340 4791 2377 579

a
Lower integer limit is x.
b
Total primes include all odd primes as x within the limit of integer N .
c
Selected primes include odd primes x with unit digit 1 or 9.
Table 3 Pythagorean triples function of z: a sample list

z Summands x : yb Status gcd(x, y, z)

j : ka

5 1: 9 3: 4 Primitive 1
2: 8 4: 3 Primitive 1
10 2 : 18 6: 8 Multiple 2
4 : 16 8: 6 Multiple 2
13 1 : 25 5 : 12 Primitive 1
8 : 18 12 : 5 Primitive 1
15 3 : 27 9 : 12 Multiple 3
6 : 24 12 : 9 Multiple 3
17 2 : 32 8 : 15 Primitive 1
9 : 25 15 : 8 Primitive 1
20 4 : 36 12 : 16 Multiple 4
8 : 32 16 : 12 Multiple 4
25 1 : 49 7 : 24 Primitive 1
5 : 45 15 : 20 Multiple 5
10 : 40 20 : 15 Multiple 5
18 : 32 24 : 7 Primitive 1
26 2 : 50 10 : 24 Multiple 2
16 : 36 24 : 10 Multiple 2
29 8 : 50 20 : 21 Primitive 1
9 : 49 21 : 20 Primitive 1
30 6 : 54 18 : 24 Multiple 6
12 : 48 24 : 18 Multiple 6
34 4 : 64 16 : 30 Multiple 2
18 : 50 30 : 16 Multiple 2
35 7 : 63 21 : 28 Multiple 7
14 : 56 28 : 21 Multiple 7

a b
√
j + k = 2z x= jk y = (k − j)/2