Ornamental Hort Manual Final

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD
Laboratory Manual
HRT-202 (1+1)
Production Technology for Ornamental Crops,
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Landscaping
Prepared by: Course offered by:

Dr. R. V. Patil
Dr. R. V. Hegde Dr. S. M. Hiremath
Dr. C. K. Venugopal Mr. Kushal
Dr. V. S. Patil
Dr. S. M. Hiremath
Mr. Kushal
Name: _________________________________ ID No:________
Year: _____ Section:____ Semester __________
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
College of Agriculture, Dharwad-580005
2017-18
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD
College of Agriculture, Dharwad
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
CERTIFICATE
Certified that Mr./Miss. __________________________ bearing I.D.

No.___________ of II B.Sc. (Hons.) student of this college has satisfactorily carried
out the work assigned to him/ her in the practical class of the course HRT 202,
Production Technology for Ornamental Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
and Landscaping of the year 2017-18 of this college has satisfactorily carried out
the work as assigned to him/her in the laboratory of this department during the II
Semester for the Year 2017-18.
Marks: ___________________
Date: ________________
Signature of the Course Teacher

Syllabus of HRT-202 (1+1)
Production Technology for Ornamental Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and
Landscaping
Theory: Importance and scope of ornamental crops, medicinal and aromatic plants and
landscaping. Principles of landscaping. Uses of annuals trees, shrubs and climbers in landscape.
Production technology of important cut flowers like rose, gerbera, carnation, lilium and orchids
under protected conditions and gladiolus, tuberose, chrysanthemum under open conditions.
Package of practices for loose flowers like marigold and jasmine under open conditions.
Intorudction to production technology of important medicinal plants like aloe, ashwagandha,
opium, periwinkle, isabgol and aromatic plants like mint, lemongrass, citronella, geranium,
vetiver. Processing and value addition in ornamental crops and MAPs produce.
Practical:
1. Identification of Ornamental plants.
2. Identification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
3. Elements of landscape design.
4. Planning and layout of garden.
5. Planning and layout of garden
6. Propagation of ornamental plants.
7. Propagation of medicinal crops.
8. Propagation of aromatic crops.
9. Training and pruning of Ornamental plants.
10. Protected structures – care and maintenance.
11. Intercultural operations in flowers and MAP.
12. Harvesting and post harvest handling of cut flowers.
13. Harvesting and post harvest handling of loose flowers.
14. Processing of MAP.
15. Visit to commercial flower/MAP unit.
Suggested Readings
1. Arora JS. 2006. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani.
2. Bhattacharjee SK. 2006. Advances in Ornamental Horticulture. Vols. I-VI. Pointer Publ.
3. Lauria A & Ries VH. 2001. Floriculture – Fundamentals and Practices. Agrobios.
4. Prasad S & Kumar U. 2003. Commercial Floriculture. Agrobios.
5. Randhawa GS & Mukhopadhyay A. 1986. Floriculture in India. Allied Publ.
6. Sheela VL. 2007. Flowers in Trade. New India Publ. Agency.
7. Valsalakumari PK, Rajeevan PK, Sudhadevi PK & Geetha CK. 2008. Flowering Trees. New
India Publ. Agency.
8. Alice Kurian and Asha Shankar, M. 2007, Medicinal Plants, New-Delhi Publishing Agency,
New-Delhi.
9. Baby P. Skaria, Joy, P.P., Samual Mathew, Grey Mathew, Ancy Joseph and Bagina Josesh,
2007, Aromatic Plants. New India Publishing Agency, New-Delhi.
10. Purohit, S.S. and Vyas, S.P., 2007, Medicinal Plant Cultivation. Agrobios (India) Jodhapur.
11. Farooqui, A.A., B.S. Sreeramu, Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops University Press,
Hyderabad.
12. Anonymous (NIIR, Board), Herbs cultivation and their utilization, Asia Pacific Press, New-Delhi
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Date Title of the exercise Page No.

1 Identification of Ornamental plants.
2 Identification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.
3 Elements of landscape design.
3a Components/ features of landscape gardening
4 Planning and layout of garden.
5 Layout of different style of gardens
6 Propagation of ornamental plants.
7 Propagation of medicinal crops.
8 Propagation of aromatic crops.
9 Training and pruning of Ornamental plants.
10 Protected structures – care and maintenance.
11 Intercultural operations in flowers and MAP.
12 Harvesting and post harvest handling of cut flowers.
13 Harvesting and post harvest handling of loose flowers.
14 Processing of MAP.
15 Visit to commercial flower/MAP unit.
EXERCISE NO. 1 DATE:
IDENTIFICATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS -
ANNUALS, TREES, SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS
ANNUALS: Annuals belong to that class of plants which attain their full growth from
seed, produce flower, fruit / seed and die in one season or one year, whereas biennials are plants
which grow in one season flower and fruit and die in the next season. These are commonly
called as seasonal flowers.
The uses of seasonal flowers are:
1. for quick effect in garden (colour effect)
2. to fill the space left in perennial borders when bulbous and other flowering plants have
ceased to bloom
3. to provide continuous bloom in large variety
4. for bedding or mass effect
5. for edging
6. in the rock garden window boxes
7. in front of shrubbery or among shrubs particularly in newly planted shrubbery to produce
a quick and colourful effect
8. for ground cover
Observation:
1) Botanical name of the crop 2) Family
3) Plant height (dwarf, tall or medium and spread) 4) Habit of growth (erect or branching)
5) Shape and size of leaf 6) Type of inflorescence
7) Shape and size of flower 8) Flower colour and fragrance
SHRUBS: Shrubs are a group of plants of both flowering and foliage types. They display their
varied beauty by way of richly coloured flowers, handsome foliage and their shape. Shrubs are
very popular amongst gardeners on account of their great diversity in colour of flowers and
leaves. Height being grown in varied climatic conditions.
Shrubs are woody and hardy in nature and bushy in appearance. In size they lie between
herbs and trees. They live for several years and hence are perennial in habit. Shrubs are grown in
gardens and used for various purposes. They are primarily used for garden decoration and
various types of landscape work.
 They are used for shrubbery layouts
 They are sometimes used as ground cover
 They can be used for developing hedges around the garden
 They can be planted in rows as wind breaks
 They can be grown in pots and arranged in rows as borders
 They can be trained as standards and topiary to resemble some animals and birds
 A few shrubs can be used for cut flowers production
 They can be used to cover ugly sites like manure pits potting sheds etc.,
 Some are very good as specimen plants in the garden.
Observations:
1) Botanical name and common name if any 2) Family
3) Plant height and spread in cm. 4) Habit of growth (erect or branching)
5) Deciduous or every green shrub 6) Flowering or foliage shrub
7) Shape or size of leaf 8) Type of inflorescence
9) Season of flowering 10) Shape and size of flowers
Study Questions:
1. What is colour scheme? How it is useful in planning annuals in garden?
2. Name some annuals for cut flower production?
3. What is interior or indoor decoration?
4. Name the annuals season wise.
5. Name the early blooming and late blooming annuals.
6. Name the early blooming and late blooming annuals.
7. Name the annuals suitable for growing in shady location, rockery carpet bedding and
edging plants.
8. How do you define a shrub?
9. What are the uses of shrubs?
10. Make a list of foliage and flowering shrubs.
11. Differentiate between foliage and flowering shrubs.
12. Why do deciduous plants shed their leaves during winter months?
13. Group the shrubs according to their height.
14. Group the shrubs according to their season of flowering
Table1. Flowering Annuals
Sl. Height Method of
Common Name Botanical Name Family Season Colour Uses
No. (cm) propagation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Antirrhinum Antirrhinum majus Plantaginaceae 15-75 Seeds R&W Pink, yellow, white For mixed borders, cut
(Snapdragon) flower
2. Aster/ China aster Callistephus Asteraceae 15-90 Seeds R&W Except yellow For borders and cut flowers
chinensis
3. Angelonia Angelonia Scrophulariaceae 60-90 Seeds YR White with pink, For borders, pots, beds
grandiflora light blue
4. Brachycome (Swan Brachycome Asteraceae 20-35 Seeds R&W Light blue, white For borders, pots, beds
River Daisy) iberidifolia
5. Balsam Impatiens Balsaminaceae 60-75 Seeds YR All colours Beds, pot, rockery
balsamina
6. Bachelor button/ Globe Gomphrena globosa Amaranthaceae 30-60- Seeds YR Red, white Beds, Borders, Indoor
amaranth decoration
7. Button Zinnia Zinnia linearis Asteraceae 25-30 Seeds YR White, orange Beds, Borders
8. Calendula/pot marigold Calendula Asteraceae 30-60 Seeds R&W Yellow, orange, Beds, Borders, pots
officinalis apricot cream
9. Candytuft Iberis umbellata Brassicaceae 20-45 Seeds W White, carmine Beds, Borders
purple
10. Carnation Dianthus Caryophyllaceae 45-90 Seeds cuttings W Orange, white, Cut flowers, beds
caryophyllus yellow, pink
11. Coreopsis (tick seed) Coreopsis tinctoria Asteraceae 20-90 Seeds R&W Yellow, brown, Beds, Border
crimson brown
12. Annual Chrysanthemum Asteraceae 30-100 Seeds W All shades Cut flower, beds, borders
Chrysanthemum carinatum
13. Clarkia Clarkia elegans Onagraceae 30-90 Seeds R&W Red, pink, white, etc Beds, Borders
14. Cockscomb Celosia argenta Amaranthaceae 30-90 Seeds YR Red, pink, Yellow Beds, Pots
15. Dahlia Dahlia spp. Asteraceae 30-180 Tubers, Root R All Beds, Pots
Cutting
16. Cosmos/Mexican aster Cosmos bipinnatus Asteraceae 60-150 Seeds Suckers YR White, Pink and Beds, Borders
crimson
Sl. Height Method of
Common Name Botanical Name Family Season Colour Uses
No. (cm) propagation
17. Daisy Bellis perennis Asteraceae 15-30 Seeds RW White, Blue Pots, beds, cut flowers
18. Gaillardia (blancket Gaillardia pulchella Asteraceae 45-60 Seeds/division YR Yellow, Orange, Borders, beds, cut flowers
flower) crimson
19. Gerbera/Barberton Gerbera jamesonii Asteraceae 35-40 Seeds YR All except blue Beds, border, pots
Daisy
20. Straw flower Helichrysum Asteraceae 60-90 Seeds RS Yellow, white,orange Indoor decorations as dry
(everlasting flower) bracteatum and Various hues flowers
21. Hollyhock Althea rosea Malvaceae 120-150 Seeds RS White, pink, red, Beds, Borders
yellow
22. Larkspur Delphinium ajacis Ranunculaceae 30-90 Seeds W Blue, Purple, white, Beds, Borders
pink
23. Lady’s lace Pimpinella monoica Apiaceae 100- Seeds W White Beds, Borders
150
24. Marigold (French Tagetes patula Asteraceae 30-40 Seeds RW Yellow, Orange Beds, Borders, Edging
dwarf)
25. Marigold (African tall) T. erecta Asteraceae 60-90 Seeds RW Yellow, Orange Beds, Borders, Pots, Cut
flowers
26. Pansy Viola tricolor Violaceae 15-30 Seeds RW Except Yellow Rockery, borders, pots, beds
27. Garden Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus Tropaeolaceae 30-60 Seeds Orange, Yellow Hanging basket, beds
RW
28. Petunia Petunia hybrida Solanaceae 30-45 Seeds YR All Beds, border, pots
29. Phlox Phlox drummondii Polemoniaceae 30-45 Seeds RW All Beds, pots
30. Garden pinks Dianthus chinensis Caryophyllaceae 30-40 Seeds W All Beds, Pots
31. Salvia (red) Salvia splendens Lamiaceae 30-90 Seeds YR Red, Purple, White Bed, Rockery, Borders
32. Salvia (Blue) Salvia farinacea Lamiaceae 60-90 Seeds YR Deep blue, White Bed, Rockery, borders
33. Sweet William Dianthus barbatus Caryophyllaceae 15-30 Seeds W Pink, Red Bed, Borders
34. Verbena Verbena hybrida Verbenaceae 25-30 Seeds YR Pink, Yellow, Blue, White Pots, Beds, Edging, rockery
35. Zinnia Zinna elegans Asteraceae 15-90 Seeds YR Red, Yellow Beds, borders
36. Gladiolus Gladiolus spp Iridaceae 30-90 Cormels RW All Beds, Pots, cut flowers
Table 2. Foliage Shrubs and Herbs
Sl Method of
Botanical Name Family Description
No. propagation
1. 2 3 4 5
1. Acalypha wilkesiana Euphorbiaceae Cuttings Copper coloured leaves
2. Acalypha hamiltoniana Euphorbiaceae Cuttings Green foliage with yellow edges
3. Araliaceae sp. Araliaceae Cuttings Digitate leaves on long stalks
4. Coleus sp. (Solenostemon) Lamiaceae Cuttings Leaves reddish brown sometimes with yellow margin. Different variegated
colours are also seen
5. Costus ignons Zingiberaceae Cuttings Oblong leaves, dark green, above red tinged underneath orange coloured flowers
6. Crinum bulbispermum Liliaceae Bulbs Sword shaped leaves with beautiful inflorescence
7. Cyclanthus palmata Cyclanthaceae Cuttings Plant grows up to 9-12 ft. high with divided green leaves of 2-3 ft. long
8. Clerodendrum inerme Verbenaceae Cuttings Has vigorous growth habit which stand severe pruning
9. Codiaeum variegatum Euphorbiaceae Cuttings & Ornamental shrubs with varying multicoloured leaves.
(Croton) Layers
10. Dracaena fragrans Liliaceae Cuttings & Ornamental shrubs with varying multicoloured leaves.
Layers
11. Durantha plumieri Verbenaceae Seeds/ Small thorny shrub with light yellow leaves makes an attractive hedge.
Cuttings
12. Eranthemum sp. Acanthaceae Cuttings Medium sized shrubs with coloured leaves
13. Fittonia sp. Acanthaceae Cuttings Variegated leaves suitable for rockeries dark leaves with white or red veins
14. Graptophyllum hortense Acanthaceae Cuttings Compact shrubs with large ovate leaves
15. Phyllanthus nivosus Euphorbiaceae Cuttings A bushy shrub up to 2 m high leaves brown or white or variegated
16. Sanchezia nobilis Acanthaceae Cuttings Quick growing shrub with showy foliage green leaves with light yellow veins.
17. Strobilanthes dyerianus Acanthaceae Cuttings Colourful foliage shrub growing up to 1 m. high leaves tints of blue and lilac
and rosy purple beneath
18. Panax spp Araliaceae Cuttings Small leaflets midrib greenish white
19. Pendanes sunderiana Pandanaceae Suckers Leaves long and arching with very minute marginal spines.
Table3. Flowering Shrubs and Herbs
Sl Flowering Method of
Botanical Name Family Flower colour Description
No. Season Propagation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Artabotrys Annonaceae Yellow Winter Seeds layers Evergreen hardy shrub, flowers are highly
odoratissimus fragrant
2. Barleria cristata (day Acanthaceae Blue/Yellow/White YR Seeds, Cutting Bushy small shrub
queen)
4. Cestrum diurnum Solanaceae White RS Layers cuttings Soft woody shrub, flowers fragrant during
(Day king) morning
5. C. nocturnum (night Solanaceae Creamy white SR Cuttings Evergreen shrub with shining leaves
queen) highly fragrant flowers
6. Gardenia florida Rubiaceae Orange YR Layering Bushy shrub with small green and greenish
bronze leaves medium sized shrub with
fragrant flowers
7. Hamelia patens Rubiaceae White S Layering Medium shrub with abundant flowers
8. Ixora parviflora Rubiaceae Orange YR Layering cutting Dwarf spreading shrub
9. Jasminum sambac Oleaceae Creamy white S Cutting Dwarf spreading shrub
10. Lagerstroemia indica Lythraceae Pink white, Mauve S Cutting Medium sized deciduous shrub
11. Lantana camara Verbenaceae Yellow, white YR Cutting Hardy shrub
12. Pentas carnea Rubiaceae Pale lavender, pink YR Cutting Var. Alba white flowers, Var. Kermesina-
crimson Var. Lilacina-mauve
13. Mussaenda philippica Rubiaceae White, Red YR Cutting/layer Hardy medium shrub
14. Hibiscus rosa- Malvaceae White, red, pink YR Cuttings Hardy plants
sinensis
15. Caesealpinia Fabaceae Red, Yellow RS Seeds Medium sized shrub
pulcherrima (Peacock
flower)
16. Stachytarpheta rosea Verbenaceae Rose Red YR Cuttings Medium sized soft wooded shrubs
17. Tecoma stans Bignoniaceae Yellow RS Seeds Tail, shrub suited for hedge
Sl Flowering Method of
Botanical Name Family Flower colour Description
No. Season Propagation
18. Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae White SR Cuttings Evergreen hardy shrub
coronaria
19. Thevetia nereifolia Apocynaceae Yellow YR Cuttings, Seeds Tall evergreen shrubs
20. Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae Red, Yellow YR Cuttings Tall evergreen
pulcherrima
21 E. leucocephala Euphorbiaceae White YR Cuttings Tall evergreen
22. Holmskioldia Verbenaceae Yellow YR Cuttings Medium high plants
sanguinea (Cup and
saucer)
23. Justicia carnea Acanthaceae White YR Cuttings Grown as edge
24. Nerium oleander Acanthaceae Multicolour YR Cuttings Medium to heavy shrub
25. Vinca rosea Apocynaceae White, Pink YR Seeds Light shrub
26. Calliandra spp. Mimosaceae Red, White Rainy Cutting Seeds Very hardy shrubs
27. Beloperone guttata Acanthaceae Red YR Cuttings Very hardy shrubs
28. Cassia biflora Fabaceae Yellow YR Seeds Small shrub with yellow colour flower
year round
29. Canna indica Cannaceae Many colours YR Rhizomes Leaves resembles those of banana and
green or bronze coloured
30. Pelargonium sp. Geraniaceae White ,Red YR Cuttings Small herb
Table 4. Shade trees

Sl. Common name Botanical name Family Method of Perennial/Deciduous Remarks
No. propagation
1 Woman’s tongue Albizia lebbeck Fabaceae Seed Deciduous Large tree, flowers fragrant, pods thin, flat, pale-
straw coloured
2 Christmas tree Araucaria cookii Araucariaceae Seed Evergreen conifer Trunk has tendency to curve or lean, giving tree a
dramatic silhouette. Tree sheds whole branchlets
rather than individual leaves.
3 Neem Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Seed Evergreen Vermifuge, Insecticide, Astringent, Tonic,
Malarial fever and Antispetic. It posseses anti
diabitic, anti bacterial and anti viral properties
and used in cases of stomach, worms and ulcersr.
The oil is extracted.
4 Umbrella Schefflera Araliaceae Seed/cuttings Evergreen/ Stems can be single or multi-stemmed. Leaves
tree/octopus tree actinophylla Deciduous are palm-like with 7-16 leaflets.
5 Ironwood Casuarina Casuarinaceae Seed Evergreen Timber, fuelwood, medicine, dye. It is wind
or beefwood equisetifolia pollinated. Trees are mostly monoecious
6 Shisham Dalbergia sisoo Fabaceae Root Deciduous Heartwood is very resistant to dry-wood termites.
suckers/Seed
7 Banyan tree Ficus benghalensis Moraceae Seed/ stem- Evergreen Timber is used for well-curbs, furniture etc.
cuttings Suitable for paper pulp.
8 Peepal Ficus religiosa Moraceae Seed Evergreen/ The pollinator wasp for F. religiosa is
Deciduous Blastophaga quadraticeps.
9 Fern tree Filicium decipiens Sapindaceae Seed Evergreen It can grow up to 15 ft, the flowers are green and
red, very attractive 3-lobed inflated red seed
capsule,
10 Weeping fig Ficus benjamina Moraceae Seed/ stem- Evergreen Some disadvantages to this tree in cultivation
cuttings include adventitious roots both above and below
ground which can break up concrete surfaces
11 Indian rubber Ficus elastica Moraceae Air layers/ Evergreen Excellent outdoor plant in frost-free areas.
plant cuttings Wonderful houseplant in average lighting.
12 Australian Silver Grevillea robusta Proteaceae Seed Evergreen Silky Oak is a valuable timber.
Oak
13 Vilayati hunase Pithecellobium Fabaceae Seed Leaves Pods are turgid, twisted, and spiral, 10 to 18 cm
dulce = are deciduous but long, 1 cm wide, and dehiscent along the lower
Inga dulcis foliage is persistent suture. Seeds are 6-8, with an edible, whitish,
giving a look of pulpy aril. The arillus is sweet when the fruit is
evergreen ripe.
14 Polyalthia Polyalthia Annonaceae Seed Evergreen Very graceful with its downward-sweeping
sometimes longifolia branchlets and shining, green foliage ; but
incorrectly identified sometimes wide-spreading slender branches issue
as Ashoka tree
from the straight trunk.
(Saraca Indica)
15 Indian beech, Milletia pinnata = Fabaceae Root Deciduous for a short It is often used for landscaping purposes as
poongamia, oil Pongamia glabra suckers/Seed period a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy
tree, honge, and showy fragrant flowers.
ponge
16 Traveller’s palm Ravenala Strelitziaceae Seeds/ Evergreen The traveller's palm (not a true palm) has been
madagascariensis Attractive described as being part banana plant and part
clumps palm tree. The traveller's palm gets its name from
the fact that thirsty travellers could find stores of
water in many parts of the plant including the leaf
folds, flower bracts and inside each of the hollow
leaf bases.
17 Rain tree Samanea saman Fabaceae Seed/cuttings Semi-Deciduous
18 Tropical Almond Terminalia Combretaceae Seeds Deciduous The kernel of Indian almond has shown
catappa aphrodisiac activity
19 Thuja Thuja orientalis Pinaceae Seeds/Air- Evergreen
layers
Table 5. Flowering Trees

Sl.No Common Name Botanical name Family Method of Flower Flowering season
propagation colour
1. Pride of Burma Amherstia nobilis Fabaceae Air layering Red Late Winter/Early Spring, Evergreen
2. Camel’s foot tree Bauhinia purpurea Fabaceae Seeds/Cuttings Pink and Sept-Nov., Deciduous
fragrant
3. Rio Grande Trumpet Bignonia megapotamica Bignoniaceae Seeds/Cuttings Liliac pink March-May, Evergreen
4. Silk cotton tree Bombax ceiba = Bombacaceae Seed Red flowers Jan-March. The woody fruits contain
Bombax malabaricum silky floss used in pillows, etc.
5. Flame of the forest Butea monosperma Fabaceae Seed/root suckers Orange red, Early summer, Deciduous
(Muttuga) (B.frondosa) rarely yellow
6. Bottle brush Callistemon Myrtaceae Seed/ Stem tip Red Throughout the year but higher in no.
lanceolatus cuttings from Feb-Nov. Evergreen
7. Japanese camellia/ rose Camellia japonica Theaceae Cutting/Grafting/ White, Pink , Late fall to spring, Evergreen
of winter Seeds Red
8. Golden shower tree Cassia fistula Fabaceae Seed Yellow Just after leaf fall in May, Deciduous
9. Apple blossom tree/Pink Cassia javanica Fabaceae Seed Pink, White Late spring/ Early summer,
& white shower tree Deciduous
10. East Indian tree/Red Cassia roxburghii = Fabaceae Seed Red
cassia Cassia marginata
11. Burmese pink cassia Cassia renigera Fabaceae Seed Pink Deciduous
12. Kassod tree Cassia siamea = Seena Fabaceae Seed Yellow Throughout the year, Evergreen
siamea
13. Yellow shower Cassia spectabilis Fabaceae Seed Yellow Throughout the year, Deciduous
=Seena spectabilis
14. Colville's Glory Tree Colvillea racemosa Fabaceae Seed Orange Early winter, Deciduous
15. Coral tree Erythrina crista-galli Fabaceae Seed Bright red Oct.-April, Deciduous
16. Erythrina/ Flame tree Erythrina indica Fabaceae Stem cuttings/Seed Red Mid spring, Deciduous
17. Gliricidia/Mother of Gliricidia maculata Fabaceae Seed Pale pink Feb.-April, Tree is leafless when in
cocoa flower, Deciduous
18. Jacaranda /Brazilian Jacaranda mimosifolia Bignoninaceae Seed/Cuttings Blue-violet March-April, Deciduous
rose wood
19. Pride of India Lagerstroemia speciosa Lythraceae Cuttings/Air- White to Summer, Deciduous
layering purple/Pink
20. Michelia (Sampige) Michelia champaca Magnoliaceae Grafting/Seed Orange, Flower in spring, Evergreen. Grown
yellow, or for their flowers, both on the tree and
creamy white as cut flowers. Champak flowers are
flowers also used to produce an essential
oil for perfume
21. Sky Jasmine/Cork tree Millingtonia hortensis Bignoniaceae Root suckers/ White Oct-Dec., Deciduous
(Akash Mallige) Cuttings/ Seed
22. Copper pod tree Peltophorum Fabaceae Scarified seeds, Bright Nov-Feb., Semi-deciduous
ferrugineum cuttings, branch yellow
stakes
23. Temple tree Plumeria alba Apocynaceae Cuttings/Layers White Throughout the year, deciduous
24. Gulmohr/ Flamboyant Delonix regia = Fabaceae Seeds Orange red, April-June, Evergreen/Deciduous
Poinciana regia spotted with
yellow and
white/Yellow
25. Chogache/White dragon Sesbania grandiflora Fabaceae Seeds/Stem White, yellowish, Early deciduous
tree cuttings rose-pink or red
26. Potato Tree Solanum macranthum Solanaceae Seeds/Stem Flowers are March-Nov., Evergreen
(ornamental brinjal) cuttings/Grafting fragrant and
change their
colour from
white to pink
to lavender.
27. Fountain tree Spathodea Bignoniaceae Seed/Grafting Red Dec.-Jan., Evergreen/Deciduous
campanulata
28. Tabebuia/Silver Tecoma argentea Bignoniaceae Seed/Layering Bright Late winter, Deciduous
Trumpet Tree yellow
29. Ashoka S. asoca=Saraca indica Fabaceae Seed Orange - Feb.-April, Evergreen

yellow
CLIMBERS: Botanically, Plants which have the special structures to climb on supports are
defined as climbers. Climbers are group of plants which have weak stems and ability to climb up
the support, with the help of modified organs such as tendrils thorns roots and rootlets, etc., for
sun light and air, Twiners differ from climbers in the way that they do not posses such modified
organs but twine around the support cover it and reach the top.
Climbers are divided into various groups:
1. Twiners: These are climbing plants which twine themselves spirally around another plant
or some other object.
2. Climbers: Their special organs are modified leaf-stalk hook-like thorns etc., which
provide the support to the plant.
3. Ramblers: These are the plant which do not succeed in their efforts to climb but manage
to spread around supporting themselves on stones or branches
4. Creepers: The climbers of this group are too weak to rise vertically up words. They
have roots at their nodes for this purpose.
5. Trailers: These are similar to creepers but do not have roots at the nodes.
Climbers very in their growth habit. Some climbers are known for their foliage and some
are for their flowers.
Horticulturally climbers can be classified into different groups based on growth,
flowering and purpose for which they are used etc.,
1. Showy flowering climbers: They flower at certain times of the year. The flowers are
more attractive. Example are Quisqualis indica (Rangoon creeper, Combretaceae),
Antigonon leptopus (Coral creeper, Polygonaceae) etc.
2. Climbers for foliage: These are the climbers which are grown for their beautiful leaves
the flowers in them are of not attractive value. They may be trained to climb over walls
or the trunk of the trees. Examples are Ficus repens(Creeping fig, Moraceae), Bignonia
gracilis (Cat’s claw climber, Bignoniaceae) etc.
3. Vernonia (Asteraceae) climbers with scented flowers: Under this the climbers which bear
scented flowers are included. Some of the climbers are Jasminum grandiflorum (Royal
jasmine, Oleaceae), J. Officinale(Poets jasmine), J. Climatic panniculata etc.
4. Climbers for partial shade: These are the climbers which are grown in partial sunshine.
Such climbers are Clerodendrum splendens (Flaming glorybower, Verbenaceae), Petrea
volubilis (Queen’s wreath, Verbenaceae) etc.
5. Light climber: These climbers produce sparse vegetative growth and remain light in
spread. These climbers are useful for limited spaces e.g. Clitorea ternatea (Nagar hedi,
Fabaceae), Lonicera japonica (Japanese Honey suckle, Caprifoliaceae) etc.
6. Heavy climbers: These climbers produce luxuriant vegetative growth and grow very
vigorously. They cover large area and are suitable for covering beggar area. E.g.
Antigonon leptopus, Bignonia magnifica (=Saritaea, Glowvine, Bignoniaceae),
Bougainvillea spp.(Nyctaginaceae), Quisqualis indica, Wisteria sinensis (Fabaceae),
Clerodendrum toronto (Verbenaceae), etc.
7. Climbers for hedge making: These climbers are very useful for hedge making. They
withstand the frequent trimming and prunings. E.g. Clerodendrum inerme (Wild jasmine,
Verbenaceae) and Bougainvillea spp.
8. Climbers for indoor decoration: These climbers are more suitable for indoor decoration
since they are shade loving plants. E.g. Pothos (Araceae), Monstera deliciosa (Araceae),
Philodendron sp.(Araceae), Asparagus sp.(Asparagaceae) etc., They can be grown in
pots and can be kept indoor.
Material Required: Plant specimens of different climbers
Study Questions
1. Identify the climber
2. Study them and also their various parts like the leaf, special structures, stem and flower.
3. Collect the information about the importance, planting and pruning of climbers.
Climbers
Common Name Botanical name Family Propagation Flower colour Flowering season
Garlic creeper Mansoa alliacea= Bignoniaceae Cuttings lavender flowers with a white Throughout the year but peak in
Adenocalymma throat rainy season, Evergreen
alliaceum
Allamanda / Allamanda Apocynaceae Cuttings Yellow, trumpet-shaped Evergreen
Yellow bell cathartica
Coral Vine Antigonon leptopus Polygonaceae Cuttings/ Pink/ Near white Mid-summer to fall, Evergreen
Seed
Aristolochia/Pelic Aristolochia Aristolochiaceae Seed Cream colour on the outside Throughout the year, Evergreen
an flower grandiflora with a dark red centre
Manoranjan Artabotrys Annonaceae Seeds/ Flowers with two whorls of Throughout the year, Evergreen
odoratissimus Cuttings three greenish-yellow petals,
fragrant
Banisteria Banisteria Malpighiaceae Ripe wood Golden yellow Winter,
laevifolia cuttings
Cat's claw Bignonia gracilis= Bignoniaceae Solitary yellow Cuttings/ Layering Summer
climber Macfadyena flowers
unguis-cati
Golden Shower Pyrostegia venusta Bignoniaceae Orange flowers Semi-hard wood cuttings Winter and spring, Evergreen
=Bignonia venusta
Clerodendrum Lamiaceae=Verb Root suckers/Layering
densiflorum enaceae
Mussel-shell Clitoria ternatea Fabaceae Seeds/ Deep blue/White flowers Throughout the year, Evergreen
creeper, Butterfly Cuttings
Pea /Nagar hedi
Combretum Copmbretaceae
densiflorum
Creeping fig Ficus repens Moraceae Cuttings/ Seed flowers of the plant is very
insignificant, Evergreen
Glory lily Gloriosa superba Liliaceae Dividing rhizomes Green to yellow to scarlet Spring - Summer
/tubers/Corms
Wax plant, Wax Hoya carnosa Asclepiadaceae Layering/Cuttings Pink white Summer
Flower
Madhavi lata Hiptage Malpighiaceae Seeds/Layering They are pink to Throughout the year with peak in
benghalensis white, with yellow marks. summer. Evergreen. The fragrance is
very strong and pleasant, resembles
fruity perfume
Morning Ipomoea Convolvulaceae Seeds/ Purple-blue Spring to frost
glory/Blue dawn learii=Ipomoea Cuttings
flower indica
Railway creeper Ipomoea palmata Convolvulaceae Seeds/ Purple Spring to frost
=Ipomoea cairica Cuttings
Sky blue cluster Jacquemontia Convolvulaceae Seeds/Layers/C Blue Kharif & rabi
vine pentantha uttings
Gundu Mallige Jasminum sambac Oleaceae Cuttings/Layers White Throughout the year
Jagi Mallige Jasminum Oleaceae Cuttings/Layers White Flowers are very fragrant.
grandiflorum Flowering starts during March–
April and continues up to June–
July, April –May being the peak
season. Principal aromtic
componenets are Indol, Jasmone,
Benzyl Acetate, Benzyl Benzoate,
Methyl Anthranilate, Linalool &
Geraniol
Suji / Vasanta Jasminum Oleaceae Cuttings/Layers White
Mallige auriculatum
Japanese Lonicera japonica Caprifoliaceae Cuttings/ Has white flowers tinged Flowers are produced late April
Honeysuckle Seed with pink and purple through July, and sometimes
through October.
Split-Leaf Monstera deliciosa Araceae Stem cuttings White spathe
Philodendron
Passion flower Passiflora sp. Passifloraceae Cuttings/Seeds Diversified colours Throughout the year
Purple Petrea volubilis Verbenaceae Cuttings/Layers/ Light mauve/White Spring-summer,
Wreath/Queen’s Sucker
wreath
Philodendron sp. Araceae Stem
cuttings/Seed
Rangoon Creeper Quisqualis indica Combretaceae Cuttings/Sucker Open white and age to red Summer & fall, Evergreen
/Seed
Heavenly Blue Thunbergia Acanthaceae Large, lavender- Leaf cuttings/ stem Summer
/clock vine grandiflora blue/Near white cuttings/Dividing the rootball
Brick and butter Thunbergia Acanthaceae Yellow/Maroon Cuttings/Seed/Layers Spring and summer, Evergreen
vine/Clock vine mysorensis
Black-eyed Susan Thunbergia alata Acanthaceae Cuttings/ Red, orange, red-orange, Throughout the year
seed white, pale yellow, or bright
yellow
Money plant, Scindapsus aureus Araceae Stem cuttings It produces spikes of tiny Evergreen
Pothos = Epipremnum flowers in spathes but is
aureum seldom seen in house plants.
IDENTIFICATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
BRIEF INFORMATION FOR IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANTS
Common name, Varieties/ types Propagatio Planting season Economi Harvesting time and Major chemical Uses
botanical name, n /soil/climate c part yield (ha) constituents
family
1. Aloe CIM Sheetal Suckers- June-July; leaf 10000-12000 kg/ha 1. Gel – contains 1.Laxative
Aloe Barbadensis 36500/ha Wide adaptability fresh leaf yield after 2 polysaccharides, 2.moisturizer
(A. vera) years and upto 5 yrs; steroids, organic acids, 3.wound healer
Liliaceae once in 8 months saponins etc., 2.Aloin 4. cosmetics
2. Ashwagandha, Jawahar Seeds 10- July-Aug; sandy Mainly 150 days after Alkaloids like withanine 1. Aurvedic
Withania somnifera, Asgandh 20, 12 kg/ha loams; dry climate roots. sowing; 4-5 q dry somniferine preparations
Solanaceae Poshita Also leaf roots/ha and 50 kg 2. Sedative
and seed seed/ha 3.rheumatism
4. Bronchitis
5. as tonic
3.. Opium poppy 1. Shyama Seeds 3.5 November in N. India; Latex of 4-5 months after Alkaloids like Narcotic drug,
Papaver somniferum 2. Shweta kg/ha sandy loams rich in unripe planting; lancing the 1. Morphine Treatment of severe
Papavaraceae 3. Sujata organic matter cool fruits unripe fruits 2. Codeine muscular and other
(opium less) climate (opium) (capsules) ;60 kg 3. Papaverine pains (as a sedative)
opium/ha 4. Narcotine
4. Periwinkle 1. Pink Seeds 2.5 June-July; sandy Leaves 1 ton roots& 1.5 ton Alkaloids like 1.Anticancer activity
Catharanthus roseus 2. White kg/ha for loams; tropical and stem root stem (One year after 1. Vinblastine 2.Against Leukaemia
Apocynaceae Nirmal, Prabhal, broadcasting sub tropical climate planting) 1.5 ton 2. Vincristine (blood caner)
Perennial herb Dhawal 0.5 kg/ha for leaves (6th & 9th 3. Antidiabetic
transplanting
months after planting
5. Isabgol Plantago Gujarat isubgol-1; Seeds 8 Oct.-Nov; loamy soils Seed husk 4 months after Colloidal mucilage I) Laxative; Added to
ovata Gujarat isubgol-2; kg/ha rich in organic matter; planting 1 ton seed/ha consisting xylose arabinose 1. Icecreams
Plantaginaceae Niharika cool and dry climate rhamnose galactose 2. Chocolates and other
galacturenic acid foods
Common name, Varieties/ Propagatio Planting season Economi Harvesting time and Major chemical Uses
botanical name, types n /soil/climate c part yield (ha) constituents
family
1. Sarpagandha RS-1 Seeds:10 May-June Deep fertile Root 2-3 years after Alkaloids like Reserpine, Treatment for mental
Rauvolfia serpentina kg/ha also soils rich in organic planting 33 qunitals ajmaline, serpentine, illness Hypertension,
Apocynaceae from stem, matter humid tropical roots and 10 kgs Antidote to the bites of
root cutting climate seeds snakes & insects
and stumps
5. Senna ALFT-2; Seeds; 25 June-July, Jan-Feb; Leaves 130-150 days; 3 Sennosides Laxative
Cassia angustifolia Sona kg/ha Loamy soils; warm and pods harvests done. 15-20
Leguminosae and dry weather q/ha dry leaves and 7-
10 q/ha of pods
8.Guggal Marusugandha Cuttings- Hot dry climate; Gum – Harvesting after 8- Gum resin Fixative in perfumery
Commiphora mukul from CIMAP 2500 Desert plant resin 10years. 700- lowers cholesterol,
Burseraceae from stem 900g/plant gum resin Arthritis
9. Aonla Banarasi, Budding- June-July -Tropical fruits 20-25 t/ha Whole fruit;Vitamin C Liver tonic
Phyllanthus emblica Chakaiya, 500plants/ and sub tropical Phyllemblin Component of triphal
Euphorbiaceae Krishna, ha churna
Kanchan Laxative and diuretic
10. Stevia - Stem Acidic to neutral soils, Leaves 3 months after planting Stevioside Natural sweetener
Stevia rebaudiana cuttings- semi humid and thereafter at 90 Rebaudioside-A; Insulin balancing
Asteraceae 110000/ha subtropical conditions days interval. rebaudioside B properties
11. Coleus K 8, Aisiri Terminal Red sandy soils. Tuberous 135-150 days after Forskolin Hypertension
Coleus barbatus (C. cuttings - Tropical and roots planting; 1500 kg/ha Asthma
forskohlii) 84000/ha subtropical climate dry tuber Heart ailments
Lamiaceae Restoration of grey hairs
12. Kalmegh CIM Megha Seed-400 Hardy crop; Cooler Whole First after 90-120 days Andrographolides Chronic malaria
Andrographis kg/ha climate with well herb from planting and Jaundice
paniculata distributed rainfall second after 60 days loss of appetite
Acanthaceae from first harvest bitter tonic
2000-2500kg dry herb/ha
13. Ocimum CIM Ayu, CIM Seeds (75- Wide range but well Whole 90 days after planting in 1. Linalool 1. Cough and cold
Ocimum sanctum Angana, CIM 250 g/ha drained loamy soils; herb annuals. In perennials 2. Camphor 2. Perfume
Kanchan Tropical and subtropical once in 65-75 days upto 6- 3. methyl eugenol
climate 7 years
BRIEF INFORMATION FOR IMPORTANT AROMATIC PLANTS
Common name, Varieties/types Commercial Planting Economic part Harvesting time Major Uses
botanical name, method of season/soil/climate and yield (ha) chemical
family propagation constituents
1. Mints 1. MAS-1 Stolons of 4-5 Jan-Feb; well Leaf 105-110 days 1. Menthol 1) Commercial
a)Japanese mint 2. Hybrid-77 cm long with 2- drained loamy soils after planting 20- 2. Carvone menthol source
Mentha arvensis 3. Siwalik 4 growing rich in humus; 40 t/ha of herb 3. Linalyl 2) Medicine for
b) Pepper mint 4. MSS-1 points temperate and which gives 100- acetate cold and coughs
Mentha piperita 5. MSS-5 subtropical climate 150 kg oil per ha 4. Linalool 3) Cosmetics
4) Confectionary
c) Spear mint 6. Koshi (cool summers)
5) Alcoholic
Mentha spicata 7. Himalaya
drinks
d)Bergamot mint 6) chewing gum
Mentha citrata and toothpaste
Lamiaceae
2. Lemon grass 1. OD-19 2-25 kg/ha May-June; well Leaf and 25-30 t/ha of fresh Citral , citron a) Perfumes
a) East Indian (sugandhi) seeds and drained sandy inflorescence leaves from 4-5 ellal b) Flavoring
lemon grass
2. Pragathi rooted slips loams; warm cuttings per year foods
Cymbopogon
flexuosus 3. Nima 25000/ha tropical climate which yield 100- c) Medicine
b) West Indian 4. Praman 150 kg oil d) Soaps and
Lemon grass C. 5. Kaveri detergents
citratus
c) Jammu Lemon 6. Krishna
grass 7. Chirharit
C. pendulusPoaceae
3. Citronella grass 1. Manjusha Rooted slips Ma-June; rich Leaves and 6t/ha from single Citronellal, a) Cosmetics
Cymbopogon 2. Mandakini 25000/ha loamy soils; warm inflorescence harvest; 50 kg oil Citronellol, b) Perfumes
winterianus 3. Bio-13 tropical climate per single harvest Geraniol c)
Poaceae 4. Jorlab-2 Insect/repellent
5. Manjari
6. CIM Jeeva
7. Medini
4. Geranium 1. Algerian Softwood Jan-Feb, June-July Leaves and tender 15-18 qn of Citronellol 1. Cosmetics
Pelargonium 2. Reunion cuttings ;red sandy loams; shoots herb/ha which geraniol 2. Perfumes
graveolens 3. PG-7 (27000- wide range of yields 15-20kg oil
Geraniaceae 4. Egyption 37000/ha) climate but grows
5. Bourbon well in subtropical
6. CIM Pawan climate
5.Vetiver Sugandha, Slips – June-July;. Red Roots During dry vetiverols 1. Perfumes
Chrysopogon Kesari, Gulabi,75000/ha lateritic with good season.; 18 2. Fixatives
zizanioides Dharini organic matter.; months after 3. Cosmetics
Syn. Vetiveria CIM Vridhi Tropical and planting;. 3000- 4. Soil binder
zizanioides subtropical climate 4000 kg dry
Poaceae roots/ha
5. Palmarosa or 1. PRC 1 For May-June; Loamy Leaf and 450-550 q/ha of Geraniol a) Cosmetics
Rosha grass 2. Trishna transplanting soils rich in organic inflorescence fresh herb from b) Perfumes
Cymbopogon 3. Jam-rosa seeds at 2-25 matter; tropical 15 months crop in
martini var. motia 4. Tripta kg/ha. climate two cuttings
Poaceae which yield 200
kg oil
6. Patchouli 1. Johore Terminal stem Oct-Nov; well Leaves and tender 5 months after patchouli 1. Cosmetics
Pogastemon 2. Singapore cuttings or drained loamy soils shoots planting; later alcohol, b- 2. Perfumes
patcholi syn. P. 3.CIM Samarath, shoot tip rich in organic once in every 3-4 patchoulene, 3. Fixative in
cablin 4.CIM Saksham. cuttings matter; tropical and months up to 2-3 a-guaiene, perfumes
(27000/ha) subtropical climate years 1500-2000 caryophyllene,
Lamiaceae (cool summers) g dried herb/ha a-patchoulene
which yield 60-
65kg oil
7. Davana No known Seeds 1.5 kg/ha Nov.-Dec;; well Leaves and flowers Harvest at 50% sesquiterpene 1. Garlands
Artemisia varieties drained rich sandy flowering stage; ketone called 2. perfumes
pallens Asteraeae loams; warm 15 t of fresh as cisdavanone 3. Cosmetics
winters and cool herb/ha which and artemone 4. Flavouring of
summers yield 15-16 kg foods
oil/ha 5. Medicinal
EXERCISE NO. 3. DATE:
ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN
1. Major elements: plants and water
2. Minor elements: Stones, bricks, tiles, tar, metal, grass, plastic, wood, sculpture etc.,
3. Other elements: Light, sound, smell, touch, food etc.,
Major elements:
Classification of plants based on utilities and functional value:
1. Aesthetic purpose:
a) Avenue planting- flower parade
b) Ground planting
c) Shrubbery, rockery, topiary, hedges, edges
d) Potted plant, flower beds, boarders
e) Ground cover
f) Water garden
2. Functional purpose:
a) Control pollution
b) Reduces noise
c) Control soil erosion
d) Wind break
e) Deciduous plants can utilize to increase temperature during winter
Criteria for selection of plants:
Morphological character should be considered while selecting the plants;
1. Height of the plant
2. Types of branches- upright, drooping, horizontal
3. Spread and width of the plant
4. Form of the plat
5. Type of plant- evergreen, deciduous
6. Colour of the plant
7. Texture of the plant- smooth, rough
8. Flowering time of the plant
I. Water: water has the ability to change form, at low temperature water freezes, evaporates
at high temperature and liquefies at moderate temperature
i. Aesthetic use:
 Water falls- cascade type, fountains, streams, lakes, ponds, Nappe, Chadar, chute.
 Water is used for creating reflection during night time along with lighting.
 The use of water helps in reducing the temperature in the microclimate.
 Sound of water makes a person feel comfortable.
 Water may mask the over power unwanted sounds
ii. Functional use: Water will nourish the plant, increases growth and development
Minor elements
III. Stones:
 For creating rockery, statues or sculptures, to imitate natural water falls, garden benches,
path/walks
 Keep in mind that stone radiates heat and will have to be used carefully
IV. Bricks:
 For creating garden walls, ponds
 As paving material
 For constructing plant boxes
V. Wood:
 Wood adds colour and texture to the garden
 Used for creating paths, steps, garden bridges, ornamental picket fence, country fences,
arches, pergolas
 Wood should be coated with paints/ preservatives to prevent decay
VI. Metal:
 For creating artistic features like garden bridges, arches, pergolas, Arbour, fence, light
stands, metal gardens
 Used as a base material for plants to grow on, when used for topiary
 Metals should be treated with anti corrosive materials before using in the out doors
VII. Sculptures:
 Artistic material adds beauty to the garden with the use of stones, granites, sandstone,
marbles, metals
 Sculptures includes birds, human being, animals etc
 It can be kept in front, middle part, and in running streams of the garden
VIII. Glass: It includes mist chamber, green house, conservatory, terrariums and illumination
purpose
IX. Concrete: Used for creating drives, paths, walks, ground cover
X. Tar/ Asphalt: Creating drives
XI. Plastic: Drippers, sprinklers, pots, waste bin
Other elements:
XII. Lighting: Illumination, focusing the focal points, illuminating water
XIII. Sound: water falls, running streams, musical fountain, and wind chimes
XIV. Smell: planting of aromatic plants in different parts of the garden, trees,
Aromatic plants, annual beds can be used
XV. Touch: Texture of materials like plant surface, sculptures, paving,
Garden benches
XVI. Food: Created at out side boundary of the garden
EXERCISE NO. 3. (a) DATE:
GARDEN FEATURES
A component or feature in a garden can be a structure provides shade shelter or a place to
rest, or it can be a focal point positioned to create visual interest, to mark a transition between
different parts of the garden or to frame views. Although components are diverse in nature, have
a common element they attract attention and thus should always be well positioned, nearly
constructed and well maintained.
Some of the important garden components are as follows:-
HEDGE: Shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen is called
hedge. Many other plants such as succulents, cactus and palms can also be used.
Purpose: A hedge serves many purposes such as
1) A compound wall 2) To ensure privacy
3) A screen 4) Form a background for a floral displays
5) Separate one component of a garden from other
Selection of Suitable Plants:
In a garden a hedge is planted with two main objectives:
(i) For protection which means protection against theft, wind etc. For this category a hedge plant
should have the flowing characteristic:
Quick growing, hardy (drought resistant) thorny, dense should respond to frequent
pruning and clipping and can be raised quickly by seeds or cuttings. Attractive foliage and
flower will be an added attraction, though it is not a criterion in this category. e.g. Acacia spp,
Bougainvillea spp., Durantha, Cassia carandas, agave, Euphorbia spp (Cactus) Pendanus.
(ii) For ornamental purpose or screening: In this category hedge plants should have attractive
foliage and flowers, should be dense in growth habit stand regular clipping and generally low in
height e.g. palms, trees, conifers, shrubs and succulents.
EDGE: Lining of borders of lower beds, paths, lawn and shrubbery with brick concrete, living
plants, etc., is known as edging. Edging may be formal made of stone bricks, tiles et or informal
consisting of living plants (edge plants). Edge plants should grow very low as the purpose is not
for screening but to provide lining only, for the purpose of decoration of demarcation.
Informal Edging:
1. Grass Varges: A strip of grass, is a very attractive edging, especially in front of flower
beds. A grass verge should not be less than 60 cm in width for using lawn mower.
2. Other informal edging: Plant for edging is very good these are kept a low height and
maintained by neat and proper trimming.
Foliage plants: Plant with alternative foliage, which can withstand heavy pruning/clipping are
most suited e.g.: Altenanthera, Coleus, Eupatorium cannabinus, iresine, durantha, pilea.
Flowering Plants: Many of the flowering annuals and some perennials are also used for edging.
Eg: Amaryllis, Gerbera, Verbena, Miniature roses, dwarf marigold salvia.
ARCHES: A garden may need some arches for training climbers or ramblers. They are
generally constructed near gate or over path in a garden. An arch should be at least 2-2.5 m high
and breadth not less than 1 m or depends on path over which it is constructed. They can be
constructed with wood, stone pillar, iron angle. Arch roof may be angular flat or arch shaped
and binding wire may be used for roof.
PERGOLA: For growing creepers in a row pergolas are ideal structures. A pergola is defined a
sense of arches joined together. Generally pergolas are constructed over pathways, which add
beauty to a garden. Like arches the support can be made of wood, stone iron angle or G.I. pipe.
The supporting pillars may be connected together by wooden rafter (strips) or iron rod. Over
this base strong wire mesh may be placed for the creepers to spread easily. Roof may be flat or
arch shaped. The width of pergolas is kept generally within 2-2.5 m and height little more than
that and length will depend up on area to be covered.
TOPLARY: The art of clipping and shearing shrubs and small trees or herbaceous perennials in
to different shapes is known as topiary. Shapes like globe, done or cube can be given without
the help of any pre-fabricated moulded wire model. But difficult shapes such as bird animals
etc., need rough outline with wires and then training the shrub along the frame. Plants which
have numerous, dark green foliage and stand frequent clipping and shearing are suitable for this
work. Eg: Clerodendron inerme, Durantha, Bougainvillea, Hibiscus, Thuja, Polyalthia
longifolia, Cupressus.
ARBOURS: There are small cool places of resort in the garden. They are usually open on all
the sides. Roofs covered with dry typha grass or straw over that some height climbers can be
trained. They should be either placed at corners so that one can enjoy privacy and quietness or it
may be placed from where good view of garden can be seen.
CARPET BEDDING: Covering an area preferably a bed or a series of beds with dense low
growing herbaceous plants according to a set design in known as carpet bedding. In such places
designs like figures, letters or maps are cut with plants having different growth habit and
different coloured leaves.
SHRUBBERY: This is an essential feature of any garden. Shrubs are of permanent nature and
once planted will become a permanent feature. If plants are properly selected, the shrubbery will
provide flowers throughout the year. The beds meant for shrubberies need not be very formal
but should appear more natural. It is used for biding portion of a garden besides adding beauty.
BORDERS: Beds which are more in length than breadth and contain plants of a heterogeneous
character are known as borders. There are different kinds of borders and these are named
according to the kind of plant material grown in them. They are herbaceous border annual
mixed border and mixed boarder.
Borders may be placed against a wall a fence, shrubs, a hedge, or form a double border.
These are also used to mark a division between one part of a garden and another.
Other feathers of a garden are steps, terraces, drives and paths lawn flower bed rockery
water garden, marsh or bad garden etc.
STUDY QUESTION
1) What is shearing of hedge and edge? Explain briefly.
2) What is paved garden and crazy path?
3) What is difference between herbaceous and annual mixed border?
4) List the plants suitable for water garden and bog garden.
PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF GARDEN
A garden is a work of art. It is the pleasure ground of civilization. A ere collection of
plants will not make a garden. It is the skilful arrangement and disposition of plants over the
area, making a design or pattern or picture to have a naturalistic effect. Therefore, gardening
necessitates are artistic taste and on the part of gardener apart from the science knowledge of
plants and their culture.
The elements or design line direction shape, size, texture value and colour and the
principles of composition balance, rhythm, harmony and dominance serve as guidelines for the
creation of art.
A formal garden in laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern. In this garden the
design is stiff as everything is done in a straight and narrow way. In such gardens everything is
planted in straight lines. The flower beds borders and slobbery are arranged in geometrically
designed beds.
In informal garden the whole design looks informal as the plants and the features are
arranged in a natural way without following any hard and past rules.
Material Required:
1) Drawing 2) Graph paper 3) Soft lead pencils
4) Good rubber or nylon eraser scale 5) All drafting equipment
Procedure:
 Mark the outline
 Plot the imaginary line (main and minor axial lines)
 Plot the entrance roads, paths along the axial lines
 Mark the intersected area for fountains/statue
 Decide the plants for outer lines
 Decide the plants for inner demarcation
 Plot the specimen trees and shrubs
 Demarcate the areas for playgrounds, benches, flower beds, and for other use areas
 Draw everything in pencil first so that alterations can be made if needed
 Fallow a uniform scale of 1 : 15 or 1 : 20
Precautions:
 Avoid planting items requiring much maintenance
 Take care of underground sewage lines and over head electric and telephone wires
 Don’t use materials like iron wood etc., for construction of garden benches
 Prepare the design and take to the spot and make changes if any
 Use pencil for initial design
LAYOUT OF DIFFERENT STYLES OF GARDENS
Besides the term “landscape gardening” the other two familiar terms in gardening are the
Formal and Informal gardens.
1. Formal Gardens: A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern. In
this garden the design is stiff as everything is done in a straight and narrow way. In such
gardens everything is planted in straight lines. Also if there is a plant on the left hand side of
a straight road, a similar plant must be planted at the opposite place on the right hand side i.e.,
mirror image of each other. The flower beds, borders, and shrubbery are arranged in
geometrically designed beds. Trimmed formal hedges, Cypress, Ashoka trees, and topiary are
typical features of a formal garden. Ex: Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles
2. Informal Gardens: In an informal garden, the whole design looks informal, as the plans
and the features are arranged in a natural way without following any hard and fast rules. But
here also the work has to proceed according to a set and well-through-out plan; otherwise the
creation will not be artistic and attractive. The idea behind this design is to imitate nature.
Ex: English and Japanese gardens
1. Wild Garden:
A comparatively recent style of gardening, namely, “Wild Garden” was expounded
by William Robinson in the last decade of the nineteenth century. His idea was
revolutionary and found many admirers to follow this. The concept of wild garden is not only
against all formalism but it also breaks the rule of landscape styles. His main idea was to
naturalize plants in shrubberies. He also preached that grass should remain unmowed, as in
nature, and few bulbous plants should be grown scattered in the grass to imitate wild scenery.
He also suggested that passages should be opened in the woodland, and trees, shrubs, and
bulbous plants should be planted among the forest flora to fulfill his idea of a wild garden.
His other idea was to allow the creepers to grow over the trees naturally imitating those of the
forests.
Before someone starts to venture into designing a garden it will be wise to get an idea
abut the major gardening styles of the world. This will pen up a window to this knowledge on
gardening and help him design his own garden by adapting the best from each or any of these.
But this does not mean that one should copy any garden style. For example, when a would-be
writer studies Shakespeare, Shaw, or Tagore it does not mean that he will translate their ideas
in his work of literature. He only studies the styles of writing and forms his own ideas suiting
to the situation and time. Similarly, a garden enthusiast has to study the different styles only
to gain knowledge to help him form his own ideas suiting the local condition and limitations
such as a available space, funds, etc.,
Though in India from history and ancient literature we find that gardening was quite in
vogue in olden times, but unfortunately there is no garden style called “Indian garden”, which
can claim a place in the major gardening styles of the world. The famous garden style of
India the “Mughal Gardens” are nothing but a replica of the ancient Persian Gardens.
The major garden styles are; Mughal Gardens, Persian gardens, Italian gardens, French
gardens, English gardens and Japanese gardens
Out of these, the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of
formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal
style of gardening.
PROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
The living organisms reproduce by producing off-spring or by multiplying themselves.
In nature plants propagate themselves by seeds and vegetative parts. The gardener has to learn
the different methods of propagation to replace the old or the diseased stocks and to meet the
increasing demand of a growing garden.
Methods of Propagation
There are different methods of plant propagation, which can be classified under two
heads: (A) Sexual Propagation (B) Asexual or vegetative propagation.
(A) Sexual Propagation
Plants are propagated sexually by seeds and spores. Actually, a s[pre (as in ferns) is an
asexual body. But, when this falls on a moist surface it produces small plant bodies (prothallia),
which develops the sex organs (archegonia and antheridia) and these in due course develop sex
elements (gametes), which fuse and resulting body develops into the fern plant.
It is generally observed that plants raised from seeds are more vigorous in growth than
those raised by vegetative methods. A seedlings may not be an exact replica of the parents as a
result of natural cross-fertilization or segregation of characters, whereas plants raised by
vegetative means resemble the mother plant in all plant characters unless the plant part used for
propagation turns out to be a natural ‘sort’. Propagation by seed is necessary to obtain new
plants or hybrids. One disadvantage of propagation from seeds is that the seedling may take
years to produce flowers. For example, an orchid seedling may take 5-8 years to produce
flowers. But a plant raised by vegetative propagation from another mature plant flowers within a
season or between 1 and 2 years.
(B) Vegetative Propagation: By vegetative propagation is meant the production of a complete
plant from one vegetative bud or several such buds. This definition includes all asexual methods
such as cutting, layering, division, separation, budding and grafting. Tissue culture method of
propagation is also included under this.
Cutting : This may be defined as a process by which a plant is produced by severing a
vegetative portion from the plant and rooting it in a favorable medium under optimum
conditions. The plant parts that are used for this purpose are stems, toots leaves, and modified
stems such as tubers, corms, rhizomes, runners, and bulbs. In general, propagation by cutting is
the cheapest and the most convenient method and hence this is used more popularly to raise new
plants. It is probably possible to raise most of the species of plants by one method of cutting or
the other, but in the case of annuals, biennials, and some perennials some other methods such as
seed age, layering and grafting are easier and more economical.
(1) Stem cuttings: Stem cuttings are of three types (a) soft wood or herbaceous (b) semi-
hard wood, and (c) hard wood. Experimental evidence shows that cuttings, with a few leaves at
the top, root better than leafless cuttings.
(a) Soft wood cuttings; soft wood stem cuttings may again be separated into two
distinct categories: (i) those taken from herbaceous plants such as carnation, chrysanthemum,
coleus, dahlias, delphiniums, petunia etc. and (ii) the un ripened tips of woody plants such as
most o9f the ornamental shrubs and some tees. Soft wood cuttings are taken from below a node
and the bottom leaves are removed.
(b) Semi-hard wood cuttings: The portions of the stems which have passed the soft
wood stage but re not yet nature are referred to as semi-hard wood cuttings. Semi-hard wood
cuttings are used and the bottom leaves are removed.
(c) Hard wood cuttings; these are cuttings of shrubs and trees taken from mature current
years growth. The length of cuttings varies with the type of plants and weather conditions. One
meter to one and a half meters long hard wood cuttings of some trees and shrubs such as Ficus
benghalensis, Citharexylon, Gliricidia maculate, and species of erythriana, when planted out in
the open, root easily. But, generally, hard wood cuttings are 15-30 cm long. The soft wood or
herbaceous cuttings are generally 2.5 cm to 10 cm long.
The water – shoots, which are over-vigorous and over-luxuriant growths from the base,
do not make good cuttings. Similarly, in carnation the basal cuttings re not good, as these
produce more vegetative growth than flowering. The cuttings of middle portions and tips are
better in carnation. In some plants, the terminal tip cuttings produce better plants.
PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES IN MEDICINAL PLANTS
1) Aloe: The plants are generally propagated by root sucker or rhizome cuttings.
2) Ashwagandha: The crop can be grown by directly sowing the seeds into the field as
well as by raising seedlings and transplanting then.
3) Opium poppy: Opium poppy is propagated by seeds. The capsules are placed by hand
and the seeds are separated after breaking the capsule. A day capsule weight bout 7 g and
it contains 11 to 12 thousand seeds weighing about 3.5 to 4.0 gm. Treating 1 kg of seeds
with 4-5 g of Thiram or Brassicol before sowing protects the seed from soil some disease
4) Geranium: it can be propagated through Softwood cuttings
5) Isabgol: The crop can be raised by seeds. For huge percentage of germination the seeds
should be taken from the crop harvested at the end of the proceeding season. Old seeds
tend to lose viability under ordinary storage condition. The seeds are small and light, hence
seeds must be mixed with sand or FYM before sowing. Mercurial seed dresses at the rate
of 3 g/ kg seed may b used to protect the seedlings from a possible attack of damping off.
5. Coleus : Coleus can be propagated by seeds as well as by stem-cuttings. However ,
propagation through seed is like difficult and slow and should be used only for the
breeding of new varieties. Whereas propagation by cuttings is very easy and economical
to raise this crop on a large scale terminal cuttings of 10-12 cm long with 3-4 plants of
lower are sown in already prepared nursery beds. The cutting establish well in the
nurseries and there is no problem in their rooting.
6) Senna: The crop is raised from seeds, which possess hard and tough seed coat. To
moderate the hard seed rate for better germination, pre-germination seed treatment is
essential. This can accomplished by pounding the seeds lightly with course sand in a
mortar.
7) Rauvolfia : Rauvolfia is propagated by seeds. It can also be propagated by vegetative
means like root cuttings, root stumps, stem cuttings and leaf cuttings. Fresh seeds
collection from ripe fruits are immediately sown, show a higher percentage of germination.
The viability of the seeds drops markedly was the increase in the interval of time between
8) Periwinkle (Vinca): It is commercially propagated by seeds. For transplanted crops,
500 g seeds are used in nursery to raise seedlings for one hectare. Seedlings emerge after
ten days of sowing and at 60 days, the seedlings are ready for field planting when it
attains a height of 15-20 cm, planted at 30 cm distance in rows spaced at 45 cm.
9) Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia) : The crop can be raised both by vegetative (root cuttings, stem
cuttings, root stumps) and seed propagation. Seed propagation is the best method for raising
commercial plantation.
10) Belladonna - The plants could be propagated by seeds, shoot cutting or root cutting.
However, raising of seedlings in nursery of direct broad casting of seeds in field are
recommended for raising a commercial crop
PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES IN AROMATIC PLANTS

1. Mint : Stolons of 4-5 cm long with 2-4 growing points are used for multiplication,
Recommended method of raising a new crop is through planting of stolons although suckers,
runners and transplanting of sprouted plants an underground stem that is formed at the end of
creeping root stock during winter to overcome dormancy period. These are white, smooth,
fragile, juicy plant material which is dug out fresh at planting time.
2. Lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus)
It is propagated through sexual (seed) and vegetative means. It is reported that both
the seedlings and the rooted slip performed equally well with respect to growth and yield.
But, due to the high cost of transplanting direct seedling is widely practiced. For raising the
crop by direct seedling a seed rateof20 to 25 kg/ha is recommended. While sowing the seeds
must be thoroughly mixed was dry river sand in a ratio of 1:3 to ensure the uniform
distribution of seeds during sowing.
3. Citronella
Citronella is propagated by both seed and vegetatively. Viable seeds are not formed
because of irregularities in meiosis have the species can be propagated commercially by
vegetative means. This is achieved by splitting the clumps into slips. The bush is gently dug
rat and separated into a number of slips and each slip contains 1-3 liters. The fibrous roots
and leaves should be trimmed off the slips before planting. It is observed that a 1-year old
clump on an average gives about 50 slips.
4. Geranium
Geranium is exclusively propagated by vegetative means, as there is no seed setting
in it. Terminal cuttings of about 20 cm long and consisting of about 8 nodes are the best
suited material for propagation as they give 80% rooting without any treatment. However, the
middle portion and basic cutting are reported to give poor rooting which can be improved by
treating them for 6 was IBA / IAA at 200 ppm.
5. Khus (Vetiveria ziznoides)
Vetiver is propagated from seeds or slips. In south India, where the crops is cultivated
on a large scale the non seedling type is grown. This is propagated from slips obtained from
the uprooted clumps of the previous crop. These clumps when broken give a number of slips.
Slips that are separated from the clump with the rhizome portion intact and have 15-20 cm of
the shoot portion, constitute the material for planting.
6. Lemon Grass
The crop is generally propogated through seeds though vegetative propogation
thorugh rooted slips is also possible. It is found significantly better than direct seedling.
Dibbling of seeds results in poor crop stand. Initial high expenditure involved in
transplanting direct seeding is widely practised especially over plains and terraced lands in
Kerala. For direct seedlings, 20-25 kg of seeds are recommended for one ha of the crop.
Seeds are usually thorougly mixed with dry river sand in the ratio 1: 3 for ensuring
uniform distributiion of seed during sowing.
Exercise No. 09 Date:
Training and pruning of Ornamental plants

Pruning is an important practice for manipulation of growth and flowering as it
influences growth, flower bud initiation differentiation and ultimately the flower production this
is an important operation in both rose and jasmine crops.
Pruning of Rose:
The main objective of pruning rose plants is to remove unproductive growth, ensure
production of large number of strong and healthy shoots which will bear flowers and improve
the quality of blooms. It keeps the rose bush in proper shape and size. It allows light and air to
reach the centre of the plant and facilitates various cultural operations in the field. It also helps
in rejuvenation of the old plant.
Pruning Time:
Pruning has to be done at right time to serve the purpose. Sufficient time must be
allowed for the new shoots to mature and flower. Late running delays flowering as well as
reduces the production considerably. Diseased and dried shoots must be cut from the base
whenever detected. The branches which grow irregularly and affect the shape of a neat bushy
plant should also be removed without waiting for proper season.
The best time of pruning is the period when the activity of the rose plant is lest and the
plain is as dormant stage. Pruning time will depend entirely on the climatic conditions of the
region. In North India, pruning is done during October-November. The same procedure can be
followed in eastern parts: In Bangalore, where growth is more plants are pruned twice in a year
first during October - November to obtain flowers April and then again during May - Jane to
obtain blooms during July-October.
Position of Pruning:
The basic rule in pruning is always to make the cut at about half a centimetre above a
vigorous bud that pointing outwards. Cut given should be slightly slanting. All cut ends are to
be painted with Bordeaux or Blitox paste, containing an insecticide like monocrotophos at 0.5
per cent.
Type of Pruning: The intensity of pruning markedly influences the growth and flowering of
roses. Depending upon the level of pruning, there are three types of pruning-light moderate
hard. Before deciding type of pruning all diseased dried and unwanted portion are cut back at
base. In light pruning the healthy shoots are cut either at the second or third eye immediately
below the flower bearing foot stalk. Moderate pruning is done by cutting back the main and
lateral shoots at previous year growth at about help the length of the growth (5 to 6 buds from
the base). Hard pruning consist of keeping only 3 or 4 shoots of the last year and heading back
at about 3 or 4 eyes from base. The amount of pruning depends upon cultivar and class of rose,
the health and vigour of the plant, space provided for each plant, fertility of the soil and the
desired flower quality. Generally strong and study plants and if soil is sandy and less fertile and
to obtain more blooms, light pruning is advised. Weak plants are pruned hard also in case of
heavy and fertile soil. Hard pruning is done to obtain large blooms with longer stem.
The general principal of pruning in hybrid tea roses is to remove all dead and diseased
branches. Only about 3-4 healthy branches are left after pruning and these are cut back to
desired height from the ground. The floribundas are pruned lightly when these have established.
Pruning of Jasmine:
Pruning is a regular operation in case of jasmine in order to regulate bearing and to get
better yield. Normally irrigation is withheld prior to pruning and plants are pruned by removing
all the past seasons shoots including dead and diseased branches. All the leaves in the bushes
are stripped off. After pruning all cut ends are smeared with Bordeaux paste of spray COC to
prevent infection. The height and season of pruning depends on the species. The delay in
pruning adversely affects the yield.
1. Jasminum multiflorum (Kakada):
This species is not pruned but all side suckers and branches arise at lower height are
removed as and when they appear. Generally it is pruned during March-April.
2. Jasminum sambac (Dundu Mallige): ]
Only about 24-28 shoots are retained and all other shoots have to be removed at base.
All retained shoots are pruned at a height of 50-60 cm from the ground during December every
year.
3. Jasminum auriculatum (Vasanth Mallige):
In this species also remove all shoots from the base retaining only about 9-11 shoots.
These are cut at a height of 40-60 cm from the ground during mid December every year.
4. Jasminum grandiflorum (Jaji Mallige):
In this species also retain only 9-11 shoots and they are pruned at a height of 90-100 cm
from the ground during December every year.
Protected structures –Care and maintenance
Greenhouses are frames of inflated structure covered with a transparent material in which
crops are grown under controlled environment conditions. Greenhouse cultivation as well as
other modes of controlled environment cultivation have been evolved to create favorable micro-
climates, which favours the crop production could be possible all through the year or part of the
year as required. Greenhouses and other technologies for controlled environment plant
production are associated with the off-season production of ornamentals and foods of high value
in cold climate areas where outdoor production is not possible. The primary environmental
parameter traditionally controlled is temperature, usually providing heat to overcome extreme
cold conditions. However, environmental control can also include cooling to mitigate excessive
temperatures, light control either shading or adding supplemental light, carbon dioxide levels,
relative humidity, water, plant nutrients and pest control.
Classification of greenhouse based on suitability and cost

a) Low cost or low tech greenhouse:Low cost greenhouse is a simple structure constructed
with locally available materials such as bamboo, timber etc. The ultra violet (UV) film is used as
cladding materials. Unlike conventional or hi-tech greenhouses, no specific control device for
regulating environmental parameters inside the greenhouse are provided. Simple techniques are,
however, adopted for increasing or decreasing the temperature and humidity. Even light intensity
can be reduced by incorporating shading materials like nets. The temperature can be reduced
during summer by opening the side walls. Such structure is used as rain shelter for crop
cultivation. Otherwise, inside temperature is increased when all sidewalls are covered with
plastic film. This type of greenhouse is mainly suitable for cold climatic zone.
b) Medium-tech greenhouse: Greenhouse users prefers to have manually or semiautomatic
control arrangement owing to minimum investment. This type of greenhouse is constructed
using galvanized iron (G.I) pipes. The canopy cover is attached with structure with the help of
screws. Whole structure is firmly fixed with the ground to withstand the disturbance against
wind. Exhaust fans with thermostat are provided to control the temperature. Evaporative cooling
pads and misting arrangements are also made to maintain a favourable humidity inside the
greenhouse. As these system are semi-automatic, hence, require a lot of attention and care, and it
is very difficult and cumbersome to maintain uniform environment throughout the cropping
period. These greenhouses are suitable for dry and composite climatic zones.
c) Hi-tech greenhouse :To overcome some of the difficulties in medium-tech greenhouse, a hi-
tech greenhouse where the entire device, controlling the environment parameters, are supported
to function automatically.
Cost involved
1. Less expensive greenhouse without fan and pad Rs.300 to 500/m2
2. Medium cost greenhouse with pad and fan system Rs.800 to Rs.1100/m2
without automation
3. Expensive greenhouses with fully automatic Rs.2000 to Rs.3500/m2
control system
Other classifications: The greenhouse can also be classified based on type of structures, type of
glazing, number of spans, environmental control etc. The various types are as follows.
Classification as per type of structure
a. Quonset type
b. Curved roof type
c. Gable roof type
Classification as per glazing
a. Glass glazing
b. Fiberglass reinforced plastic glazing
i. Plain sheet
ii. Corrugated sheet
c. Plastic film
i. Ultra violet stabilized low density poly ethylene
ii. Silpaulin
Classification based on number of spans
a. Free standing or single span
b. Multispan or ridge and furrow or gutter connected
Classification based on environmental control
a. Naturally ventilated
b. Passive ventilation
Poly house:The crops grown in open field are exposed to vivid environmental conditions,
attack of insects and pests, whereas the polyhouse provides a more stable environment.
Polyhouse can be divided in to two types
a) Naturally ventilated polyhouse: These polyhouse do not have any environmental control
system except for the provision of adequate ventilation and fogger system to prevent basically
the damage from weather aberrations and other natural agents..
b) Environmental controlled polyhouse: This type of polyhouse helps to extend the growing
season or permits off-season production by way of controlling light, temperature, humidity,
carbon-dioxide level and nature of root medium.
Shade house: Shadehouses are used for the production of plants in warm climates or during
summer months. Nurserymen use these structures for the growth of hydrangeas and azaleas
during the summer months. Apart from nursery, flowers and foliages which require shade can
also be grown in shadehouses. E.g. Orchids, These shade structures make excellent holding
areas for field-grown stock while it is being prepared for shipping to retail outlets. Shadehouses
are most often constructed as a pole-supported structure and covered with either lath
(lathhouses) or polypropylene shade fabric. Polypropylene shadenets with various percentages
of ventilations are used. Black, green, and white coloured nets are used, while black colours are
the most preferred as it retains heat outside.
2. Orientation of greenhouse / polyhouse
The design of greenhouse should be based upon sound scientific principles which facilitates
controlled environment for the plant growth. Controlled environment plant production systems
are used widely throughout the world to produce plant materials and products at a time or
place, or of a quality that can not be obtained outdoors. Controlled environment agriculture
requires far more capital investment per unit area than field agriculture and thus must
essentially be correspondingly more intensive to justify investment costs. The greenhouse is a
structure covered with a transparent material for admitting natural light for plant growth. The
main components of greenhouse like structure, covering/glazing and temperature control
systems need proper design for healthy growth of plants.
Under Indian conditions, Quonset type, multispan greenhouse is most suitable, because
of its low cost and ease of fabrication. Ultra violet resistant low density polyethylene
(UVLDPE) single film cladding of 200 micron thickness is sufficient for Naturally Ventilated (
NV) greenhouse and fan and pad (FP) greenhouses. This should be fully tightened by stretching
on the structure to avoid fluter and tearing. It should not be nailed or screwed to the structure as
it gives the chance for tearing. The T-Lock of LLock should be used for fastening the sheet at
structure, as this does not tear the sheet and sheet replacement is easy.
Design : The structure has to carry the following loads and is to be designed accordingly.
a) Dead load: weight of all permanent construction, cladding, heating and cooling equipment,
water pipes and all fixed service equipments to the frame.
b) Live load: weights superimposed by use (include hanging baskets, shelves and persons
working on roof). The greenhouse has to be designed for a maximum of 15 kg per square meter
live load. Each member of roof should be capable of supporting 45 kg of concentrated load
when applied at its centre.
c) Wind load: The structure should be able to withstand winds of 110 kilometer per hour and
at least 50 kg per square meter of wind pressure.
d) Snow load: These are to be taken as per the average snowfall of the location
The greenhouse should be able to take dead load plus live load or dead load plus wind load plus
half the live load.
The greenhouses are to be fabricated out of Galvanized Iron Pipes. The foundation can
be 60cmx60cmx60cm or 30 cm diameter and one meter depth in PCC of 1:4:8 ratio. The
vertical poles should also be covered to the height of 60 cm by PCC with a thickness of 5cm.
This avoids the rusting of the poles.
Orientation : Orientation of the greenhouse is a compromise for wind direction, latitude of
location and type of temperature control. Single greenhouses with latitude above 40°N should
have ridge running east to west to allow low angle light to enter from side rather than ends.
Below 40°N the ridge of single greenhouses should be oriented from north to south, since the
angle of sun is much higher. This orientation permits the movement of shadow of the gutter
across the green house. The location and orientation of the greenhouse should avoid falling of
shadow on the adjacent greenhouses. To avoid the shading effect from one green house to
another greenhouse these should be oriented East to West. However, the wind direction and
latitude are also to be considered.
Wind effects, : If the greenhouse is naturally ventilated, the advantage of natural wind
direction has to be taken to the maximum possible. The maximum dimension (length) of
greenhouse should be perpendicular to the wind direction especially in summer. For fan and
pad greenhouse the natural wind direction should be same as the air blown by fan.
Size of the greenhouse :The dimension of NAV GH should not be more than 50m x 50m.
Bigger the greenhouse, more will be the temperature build up due to poor ventilation. The
length of evaporatively cooled greenhouse should not be more than 60m.
Spacing between greenhouses :The spacing between naturally ventilated green house should
be 10 to 15 m so that the exhaust from one greenhouse should not enter the adjacent
greenhouse.
Height of greenhouse : The maximum height can be up to 5m for 50m x 50m green house and
this can be reduced as per the reduced size of the green house. Higher is the greenhouse more is
the wind load for structure and glazing. The side ventilation can be of 2 m width and roof
ventilation is 1m in width.
Structural design :The greenhouses are to be designed for necessary safety, serviceability,
general structural integrity and suitability. The structure should be able to take all the necessary
dead, live, wind and snow loads. The foundation, columns and trusses are to be designed
accordingly. The greenhouse structures are to be designed to take up the loads as per design
loads prescribed by the National Greenhouse Manufactures Association (NGMA of USA)
standards –1994.
Components of greenhouse
Roof: transparent cover of a green house.
Gable: transparent wall of a green house
Cladding material: transparent material mounted on the walls and roof of a green house.
Rigid cladding material: cladding material with such a degree of rigidity that any deformation
of the structure may result in damage to it. Ex. Glass
Flexible cladding material: cladding material with such a degree of flexibility that any
deformation of the structure will not result in damage to it. Ex. Plastic film
Gutter: Collects and drains rain water and snow which is place at an elevated level between two
spans.
Column: vertical structure member carrying the green house structure
Purlin: a member who connects cladding supporting bars to the columns
Ridge: highest horizontal section in top of the roof
Girder: horizontal structure member, connecting columns on gutter height
Bracings: To support the structure against wind
Arches: Member supporting covering materials
Foundation pipe: Connection between the structure and ground
Span width: Center to center distance of the gutters in multispan houses
Green house length: dimension of the green house in the direction of gable
Green house width: dimension of the green house in the direction of the gutter
Cladding material :Polythene proves to be an economical cladding material. Now long lasting,
unbreakable and light roofing panels-UV stabilized clear fiber glass and polycarbonate panels
are available. Plastics are used in tropical and sub-tropical areas compared to glass/fiberglass
owing to their economical feasibility. Plastics create enclosed ecosystems for plant growth.
LDPE (low density polyethylene) / LLDPE (linear low density polyethylene) will last for 3-4
years compared to polythene without UV stabilizers.
Comparison of different kinds of covering materials
Transmission
Sl. Type Durability Light Heat Maintenance
No.
1. Poly ethylene One year 90% 70% Very high
2. Poly ethylene UV resistant Two years 90% 70% High
3. Fiber Glass Seven years 90% 5% Low
4. Tedlar coated Fiber Glass Fifteen years 90% 5% Low
5. Double strength Glass Fifty years 90% 5% Low
6. Poly carbonate Fifty years 90% 5% Very low
Intercultural operations in flowers
1. BENDING IN ROSES:
 After planting, shoots will develop quickly.
 Only after the flower bud becomes clearly visible the shoots are bend-out towards the path and
the flowers are removed, this process is known as „bending‟.
 Since the plants grow about 40 cm above the ground, it is possible to bend down the stems
deeply.
 Be careful not to break the shoots, the plant should remain capable of transporting sugars from
these areas to the new developing shoots.
 The shoots should be bending down so the grafting place or, if a cutting is used, the old top of
the cutting will become the top of the plant.
 The flower buds on these bend-out shoots have to be removed. This system allows the leaves to
continue their production of energy.
 When the dominating primary shoots (apical dominance) is removed, causing the plant to
respond by developing more basal buds.
 In the plant hormonal changes take place, which promote shoot development (balance
cytokinins/ auxins).
 After cutting or bending out results in an increased cytokine level, causing buds to break. The
shoots formed are producing auxins, so restoring the hormonal balance in the plant.
2. SPECIAL CULTURAL PRACTICES TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF ROSES:

 Thinning: Removal of the undesirable growth like inward growth, weak stems, blind shoots,
crowded growth.
 De-suckering: The operation of removal of suckers from root stock i.e. the shoots produced
below the bud union on rootstocks is called de- suckering.
 Pinching: Removal of a part of terminal growing portion of stem is called pinching. It is done
to reduce the plant height and to promote auxiliary branching. Pinching of blind shoot is
beneficial to increase flowering.
 Disbudding: Removal of undesirable buds is known as disbudding. Keeping only the central
bud and removal of others cause development of a quality bloom. It is done in standard/HT
roses to reduce number of flowers.
Removal of young vegetative shoots:
 This practice is also known as de- shooting. It is generally followed in HT roses.
 Young vegetative shoots developing from the axils of leaves of basal and lateral shoots are
removed to allow only one terminal shoots. It is important from the point of stalk length.
Defoliation:
 Under special conditions it is followed, but it has reported that removal of leaves from rose
plants will increase number of blind shoots,
 It will force the plants to produce growth and flowering during desired period.
Use of growth substances:
 To some extent some growth regulators like GA3 and retardants like CCC are used to get more
number of flowers with good quality.
 GA3 @ 250ppm has been found to increase the stalk length, flower size and reduce number of
blind shoots.
Removal of faded flowers:
 If the opened blooms are not removed intime, there is chance of developing fruits bearing
seeds.
 Once the hips are formed and reach the advanced stage of development, growth and flowering
are severally reduced during the season;
 Cutting of faded flowers will force to produce strong lateral shoots which will produce good
quality flowers.
3. Pinching in chrysanthemum
 Pinching is one of most important operations in chrysanthemum culture.
 The operation of removal of terminal growing portion of stem pinching reduces plant height
and promotes axillary branches.
 Time and severity of pinching depend on the type of chrysanthemum and the desired
objectives.
 After planting, the growth is mostly upward with very little branching.
 To arrest such tall growth, a simple procedure called „pinching‟ is used. It is also called
„stopping‟.
 Only soft vegetative shoot tips 1.5 to 3 cm long are removed.
 Pinching is most essential for small flowered chrysanthemum.
 First pinching is done when the plants reach a height of 15-20 cm with 3-4 pairs of leaves.
 A second pinching may be necessary if the plants make straggly and lean growth.
 Pinching increases the number of flowering stems in each plant; it can indirectly control
flowering date and bloom quality; and the number of stems to a plant can easily be controlled.
 Two types of pinching are performed:
(a) Soft pinching: By this pinching the top soft tips of the shoot along with 2-3 open leaves are
removed;
(b) Hard pinching: It means removing a longer portion upto hard shoot.
 Single pinching is done, if two flowers are desired, whereas double pinching is done for four
flowers.
 In spray chrysanthemum numerous small to medium sized flowers are produced, therefore,
two pinchings are required to encourage lateral growth.
 As a general rule rooted cuttings are pinched two weeks after planting or approximately 100
days before full bloom.
4. Disbudding and De-Shooting in Chrysanthemum
 These operations are mostly performed for large flowering of decorative type
chrysanthemums.
 Many of the standard type varieties are disbudded in which the largest terminal bud is
reserved and all auxiliary buds are removed.
 Disbudding of spray varieties is very easy because in this case only the large apical bud is
removed and the auxiliary buds are allowed to develop
 For taking three blooms per plant, three lateral strong shoots are allowed to grow and others
are removed.
 Lateral buds and side shoots are removed at their early stage of growth from time to time.
 For taking one bloom per plant no pinching is done.
 Only the main stem is allowed to grow.
 Removal of undesirable lateral buds and shoots are done.
 Dis-shooting is practiced to reduce the number of branches for improving the size and form
of the flower.
5. DE-SUCKERING and STAKING in Chrysanthemum
 During the vegetative growth phase, plants grow upward.
 New suckers continue to develop from base of plants.
 For proper and vigorous growth of plants, suckers are removed from time to time.
 It is practiced to allow single stem to develop up to a certain height.
 Without de-suckering the main plant will loose vigour and becomes weak.
STAKING: Staking is necessary to keep plants erect and to maintain proper shape of plants and
bloom. Stakes are prepared mostly from bamboo sticks.
6. Support in Carnation :
 Carnation crop has the tendency to bend unless supported properly. Hence the crop needs
support while growing.
 Good support material is metallic wire woven with nylon mesh.
 At every two meters the wire should be supported with poles.
 The poles at both the ends of bed should be strong.
 Metallic wire is tied around the bed along the length with the support from supporting poles.
Across the bed, nylon wires are woven like net.
 For an optimum support, an increasing width of the meshes can be used bottom net can be of
7.5x7.5cm /10x10cm, then two nets of 12.5x12.5cm and the upper most can be 15x15cm.
 4 – 5 layers of nets are to be laid before planting.
 For every 2.5 to 3.0 m wires to be supported with poles.
 First net should be fixed at 12 cm above soil.
 Place remaining nets over first net 15 cm apart.
7. PINCHING in Carnation:
 Pinching refers to breaking out tip of budding and encouraging growth of side shoots.
 Essential for Standards.
 4-6 well grown laterals are allowed.
 At six pairs of leaf first pinching has to be done.
 First pinching done 3 -4 weeks after planting.
 Depending upon the need of crop spread it is classified into,
 Single,
 One and half and
 Double pinches.
1. SINGLE PINCH
 Ideal time for pinching is morning.
 When the plant attains 6 nodes, the first pinch is given.
 5 -7 cm of apical portion has to be pinched off.
 This would give rise to 4-6 lateral shoots.
2. ONE AND HALF PINCH
 After single pinched shoots flower, half of side shoots are pinched off.
 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again.
3. DOUBLE PINCH
 All the lateral shoots are pinched off. i.e., 3 - 4 weeks after first pinch
 Pinching is done at 4 well developed pairs of leaves
8. DISBUDDING IN CARNATION:
Disbudding refers to removal of side buds so that the central/terminal bud receives
maximum food for the full development.
1. FOR STANDARDS
 Removal of lateral buds.
 Main flower bud alone left.
2. FOR SPRAYS
o Terminal or main buds are removed to encourage more number of side shoots.
 Best time for disbudding – when apical bud is 15 mm in diameter.
9. PRUNING in Jasmine
 In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary.
 So increasing the number of shoots is the main criterion to increase the yield, for this pruning
is an essential operation.
 It also influences growth, flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the flower
production.
PRUNING PERIOD:
 J. sambac - Last week of November
 J. grandiflorum - Last week of December
 J. auriculatum - Last week of January
Pruning is done at a height of 45-50 cm from the ground level.
10. PINCHING in Marigold :
 In tall varieties of Tagetes erecta, emergence of side branches and their flowering is
influenced by the presence of apical dominance.
 Due to which the plants of marigold grow straight upwards to their final height and develop
into terminal flower bud.
 However the apical portion of the shoot is removed at the early stage to get more number of
axillaries which in turn produces more flowers.
 Pinching the plants at 40 days after transplanting enabled the plants to yield more flowers.
11. Interculture operation in tuberose:
 In order to keep the plots free of weeds and to avoid the exposure of bulbs, the plots are weeded
and earthed-up once a month.
 Earthing-up enables the spikes to grow erect, despite strong winds and rains.
 The application of Atrazine (@ 3 kg/ha) as a pre-emergent weedicide keeps the plots weed-
free.
 A pre-emergent treatment of Gramaxone (@ 3 kg/ha) followed by three post- emergent
sprayings at intervals of 110 days in between the rows also keeps the crop weed free.
 Mulching the plots with strips of black polythene, dried grass and chopped straw is effective in
controlling weeds.
 The flower-spikes should be supported by stakes after about 2 1/2 months of planting.
12. Staking in Gladiolus: Especially large-flowered varieties of gladioli grown outdoors are susceptible to
lodging, hence need staking. The stems should be tied with strings to thin but strong supports
Harvesting and post harvest handling of cut flowers.
Harvesting in Rose:
 The stage at which flowers should be cut, either for decoration or for cut flower dispatch is the
tight bud stage.
 When the bud shows full color but the petals have not yet started unfolding.
 Harvesting at this stage will help the flower to last longer in vases or during transportation for
better retention of colour and freshness.
 The optimum stage may varying slightly depending on cultivar and one has to experience to
judge the right stage for cutting.
 Because a flower bud of a red cultivar when cut at a little early stage may fail to open later.
 Most pink and red cultivars should be allowed to develop a stage where one of the two outer
petals begins to unfurl at the upper point.
 Loose flowers used for preparing perfumes and various other products also for worshipping are
harvested only when they are fully opened
Time of Harvesting
 The flowers should be cut before sunrise i.e. early morning or late in the afternoon when the
sun is about to set so as to avoid damage of buds due to high temperature during the day.
 Late harvest result in short vase life of cut flower and low oil content.
 In greenhouses for every two hours flowers can be harvested. The stem cut should always be
given above a healthy outward pointing bud with clean and sharp secateurs.
 It has to be cut above two five leaflet leaves. The cutting of the stem just above the
 „Knuckle‟ (i.e., the point at which the shoot originate is called „Knuckle‟) significantly reduces
the flower yield per plant compared to the cutting made above the 1st or 2nd five leaflet leaf
stage.
Post Harvest Technology in Rose
Immediately after cutting the stem should be dipped in clean water upto the neck or
base of the flower bud. The delay in keeping the cut flowers in water will leads to air entry and
results in vascular blockage.
1. Pre-cooling:
 In a cold storage at the temperature of to 7.2oC the flowers have to be kept immediately after
harvesting to remove latent heat which enhances the keeping quality of flowers
 Then they have to be dispatched to market with maintaining cold chain
 It should be transported to Airport by „Refrigerated Van‟ and store them in cold storage at airport
and directly shifted to refrigerated cargo frights.
 Usually pre-cooling is done for 6-8 hours in winter and 8-12 hours in summer.
2. Pulsing: Treating of cut flowers with 2-4% sucrose solution for 3-4 hours. This intern makes
the cut flower very hardy and turgid to improve the quality of cut flowers, also have lees neck
bending.
3. Grades:
 The flowers which are in uniform stem length and developing flower buds should be grouped
together at the time of cutting and kept them in separate container.
 For easy handling the basal foliage and thorns may be removed up to 20 cm at the time of
cutting of the flowers.
 It is necessary to dispatch the flowers within 24-30 hours after harvesting.
4. Packing:
 The graded cut blooms have to be packed in corrugated cardboard boxes (CCB).
 The size of the boxes varies with the quality and quantity of roses to be packed.
 A box of 100cm length x 32.5cm width and 6.5cm height will accommodate 80 roses of 65-
70cm long stem.
 The inside area of the box is lined with thin polythene film and very fine newspaper. Moist
tissue papers are spread out end to end of the box to provide a cushion to blooms.
 The blooms are generally packed in bundles of 20 each and bundles are tied with string or
rubber band
 The upper portion of the each bundle having flower buds and are wrapped in a corrugated paper
which is fixed with an adhesive tape or rubber sheet.
 The labeling of cultivars is made on the paper. The lower half of the bundle is wrapped with
tissue paper.
 Two bundles are placed opposite to one another all along the length of the boxes in such a way
that their flower buds will face the side of the box and their stem end towards the center of the
boxes and at the sides there will be cushioning have to be provided.
 After this the stem ends of two bundles on either side are secured firmly with a wooden stick
fixed along the width of the box.
 This wooden stick is placed over a strip of foam rubber to avoid damage of stem.
 The inside of the box is finally covered with a sheet of tissue paper before putting the cover of
the box.
 Labeling is done with all details includes cultivars, colour, stem length, number of
flower/bundle, total quantity of flowers in a box and the firm etc.
 All along the outer edges of the boxes either adhesive tapes or plastic tying strips with tying
machine
The final box will weighs about 5-6 kg.
Vase life:
 Senescence in cut roses is characterized by decrease in concentration of anthocyanin, protein
and tannic acid and an increase in most amino acids, glutamine, Maleic acid and free ammonia
in the petal tissue.
 The advances in senescence are due to increase in ethylene production and membrane
permeability.
 Pre-cooled and pulsed flowers stored better in general. However some of the preservatives like
8HQC @ 300ppm, 8HQS @ 150pm, AgNO3 @20-30ppm, citric acid @ 200ppm have been
found to be good for prolonging the vase life of cut roses.
Harvesting in Chrysanthemum:
 Decorative types are harvested when the petals in the centre of the topmost flower is almost
fully developed.
 In standards, harvesting is generally done when outer ray florets ceases to further develop.
 Pot-mums are sent to the market with half to fully opened flowers.
 Spray mums are generally harvested at the two thirds to three-fourths open stage; standard
mums at the three-fourths to full open stage of development.
 Yield start from 3-4 months after planting.
 Main crop duration 6 months.
 Ratoon crop 4 months. Total duration (6+4) 10 months.
 The lower leaves are stripped off up to 15-20 cm and bundled in units of 5 stems and secured
with a rubber band.
PACKING in Chrysanthemum
 Most often standard chrysanthemum are placed in sleeves and packed in display boxes
measuring 91 x 43 x 15cm.
 They are placed in the boxes according to the grades.
 For bulk packing of the spray chrysanthemums, 10, 15 or 20 stems are placed in sleeves
according to the grades.
 Six sleeves, three at each end, are generally packed in each box, measuring 80 x 50 x 23cm.
STORAGE in Chrysanthemum
 Chrysanthemum cut flowers can be wrapped in plastics and stored dry for 6 to 8 weeks at a
temperature of 0.5oC.
 Temperature for truck shipments across the country ranged between 2o and 4oC.
 The stems in the buckets (after grading) are given a cut using sharp blade and pre cooled at 1°C
minimum of 2 hours before packing.
 Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6 weeks period at 0-3°C.
VASE LIFE in Chrysanthemum
 The use of proper preservative solution throughout the period of post-harvest handing is very
important to prolong the life of cut flowers.
 Dipping of the stem for a very short period (5 seconds) in 1200-4800 ppm silver nitrate or
soaking the stems in 1000 ppm silver nitrate for 10 minutes.
 Addition of 2 % sucrose to silver nitrate was found beneficial.
 It increased the vase-life from 12 days to 20 days.
HARVEST AND POST HARVEST CARNATION :

 After planting normally it takes 110-120 days to come to peak flowering.
STANDARDS:
 Carnation flowers mature in 4-5 months period.
 Standard cultivars are harvested at ''Paint Brush'' stage with half-open flowers, or almost fully
open flowers.
 At large bud / tight bud / cross bud stage
 Petals are visible at this stage
SPRAYS: When at least 2-3 top flowers have opened & other buds show colour
Time of Harvest: 15 – 20 weeks after single pinching
POST HARVEST OPERATIONS IN CARNATION:

 Harvested flowers are bunched together based on their physical measurements like length of
stem, diameter of flower etc.
 For a good post harvest life, flower stems have to be trimmed at the base and should be
immediately placed in a bucket of preservative solution (Acidic pH 4.5) with 2-5 % sucrose
and biocides for 2 to 4 hours.
 Carnation flowers can be stored for 2-4 weeks before marketing.
 Flowers have to be packed in cartons lined with polyethylene be pre-cooled without lid.
 The plastic is then loosely folded on top of the stems and the lid is closed.
 These cartons are stored in cool chambers designed to maintain 00C with good air circulation
and a constant RH of 90-95 %.
 Floral preservatives like, 8-HQS or 8-HQC @ 200-600 ppm; STS (Silver Thio-sulphate) @
0.2- 4mM; Cytokinin @ 10-100 ppm; Sugar @ 0.5- 2% and Citric acid @50-100 ppm.
HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST HANDLING OF GERBERA

 The flowers are harvested when 2 – 3 whorls of stamens have entirely been developed; this will
decide the vase life of flowers.
 Pluck the flowers in the morning or late in the evening or during the day when temperature is
low.
 Pluck the flower from the plant rather than cutting them.
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF GERBERA
 Cut the heel of the stem by giving an angular cut.
 Pack the flowers in a box with following dimensions.
 Immediately after harvesting, flowers put in water and kept for four hours at 7 to 8oC
 The cut flowers can be stored dry at 2oC in moisture – proof retentive boxes for two days
 If stored wet at 4 to 5oC, the flowers can be kept for 5 to 7 days.
 Always add 7 – 10 ml commercial bleach/Sodium Hypochlorite solutions in one litre water i.e.
1% solution.
 It has a maximum vase life of 7 to 8 days.
 Frequent re-cutting of stem ends is suggested.
 The flowers are relatively insensitive to ethylene.
 A good flower has stalk length of 45 – 55cm, and diameter of flower is 10 – 12cm.
 Gerbera Cups - The packaging solution to protect the gerbera flower
HARVESTING OF GLADIOLUS:
 It generally takes 6-8 weeks after harvesting of spikes fro the corms to become mature and
ready for lifting.
 Plant growth stops at this stage.
 Irrigations should normally be withheld at least 2-3 weeks before harvesting of corms.
 In India, lifting of corms is carried out manually with small garden forks or
„khurpas‟.
 After lifting the corms from the soil, the upper leafy portions should be removed by twisting
and breaking the stalk.
 The old withering mother corms attached to the bottom of the newly-formed corms should also
be removed similarly with the thumb.
 The cormels should also be separated simultaneously and handled separately.
 The corms usually get damaged or bruised during harvesting and cleaning operations.
 The corms should be cleaned, dipped for 30 min in 0.3% Captan 50 WP and shade- dried at an
aerated place for about 15 days.
 Corms are then packed in crates or in net bags and cold-stored at 3-7oC.
 From cold storage, these corms should be taken out one month prior to planting and kept at
ambient conditions at an aerated place.
 The corms or cormels of different cultivars must be handled separately and labeling properly so
that they do not get mixed up.
 Before planting, these are once again dipped for one hour in 0.3% Captan solution
HARVESTING OF TUBEROSE:
 Flowers are ready for harvest in about 3 to 3 ½ months of planting.
 August-September is the peak period of flowering.
 Depending on the purpose, harvesting is done by cutting the fully-opened spikes from the base
or single flowers are harvested as they open by day; the picking of individual flowers should be
completed by 8.00 a.m.
 The flowers have a shelf-life of 3 days.
 Flowers yield up to 17-18 t/ha can be expected from a well-maintained crop.
HANDLING AND PACKING OF TUBEROSE FLOWERS

 Loose flowers are transported in poly bags to the nearby whole sale market.
 The flower spikes are graded according to spike length, length of the flowering zone and
quality of individual flowers
 Bunched in round bundles each having about 50-100 spikes
 The stem portion of the bundle has to be wrapped with news paper.
 To avoid damage of the flowers and buds, the whole bundle may be wrapped with soft, white
tissue paper or polythene.
 Bundles have to be packed in cardboard boxes for long distance transportation.
 The fresh flowers can be stored at 10oC.
EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OIL IN TUBEROSE

About 150 kg of flowers are required to produce 1 kg of the brown, semi-solid absolute of
Enfleurage.
 The extracted flowers will contain some natural perfume and are treated with petroleum ether
to obtain the absolute of chassis as a valuable by-product (yield 1.2-1.5%).
 In recent years, the process of Enfleurage has been partly replaced by solvent extraction, which
requires much less labour though the yield of the absolute reduces considerably.
 The extraction of the tuberose flowers with petroleum ether yields 0.08-0.11 % of concrete,
which gives 18-23% of absolute on treatment with alcohol and contains 3% steam distillate.
 The concrete yield is about 17-18 kglha which gives 3.5 kg absolute and 0.8 kg distillable oil.
Harvesting and post harvest handling of loose flowers.
Harvesting and Post Harvest Handling in Jasmine
 Jasmine gives economic yield only from the third year and upto 12-15 years and then starts
declining in their yield.
 The stage of harvest depends on the purpose of flowers to be harvested.
 For fresh flowers, fully developed unopened flower buds are picked in the early morning, while
for extraction of concrete only fully opened fresh picked flowers are required.
 Picking of flowers after 11am will considerably reduce the yield and quality of the concrete.
 Pluckers collect the flowers in a bag.
 Care should be taken to see that the flowers are not badly handled.
 Wrinkled and damaged during harvest and transit will affect fresh flowers and concrete
recovery will be affected and the entire product may be unmarketable.
GRADING IN JASMINE:
 There are no standard grades available for jasmine.
 The flowers may be graded according to the corolla tube length, bud size, shape and freshness.
PACKING IN JASMINE:
 Packing should be functional, economical and attractive besides being acceptable in markets.
 Harvested flower should be given cold treatment before packing.
 Corrugated cardboard boxes are the proper packing materials for distant market.
 The growers also use small bags made out of fertilizer bag material to bring flowers of jasmine
to the market.
 Wholesalers pack flowers in bamboo baskets.
 They are packed so as to maintain some moisture and air circulation in the baskets.
 Water is sprinkled on the newspapers covering the inside of the basket.
 The top is covered with paper again and closed with a bamboo basket cover or gunny stack
which is stitched at the edges.
EXTRACTION OF JASMINE CONCRETE:
 Jasmine concrete obtained from Jasminum grandiflorum (Jathi Malli/Pitchi) – is a wax like
substance containing the natural flower perfume together with some plant waxes, albumin and
colouring matter.
 The natural perfume is available in very small quantity (0.25%) in jasmine flowers in the form
of volatile oil.
 The usual and simple method of steam distillation for the extraction of the volatile oil could not
be adopted in this case as jasmines do not yield the perfume oil on steam distillation.
 Hence, the solvent extraction method is practiced in which the principle is that the odoriferous
substances of the flower are allowed to be absorbed by a highly volatile solvent and then the
solvent is evaporated leaving the odoriferous principles.
PROCESSING IN JASMINE:
 Processing of jasmine flowers involves two steps.
1. Dissolving the perfume material by treating the flowers with the solvent.
2. Removal of the solvent from the perfume material by evaporation.
TREATMENT OF FLOWERS WITH SOLVENT:
 The fully opened flowers are treated with the solvent so that all the odoriferous material in the
flowers gets dissolved in the solvent.
 In this process, the solvent penetrates the flowers and dissolves the waxes, albumin and
colouring matter also, which have to be removed later to get pure perfume oil.
 In solvent extraction process, the most important factor is the quality of solvent used.
 Though there is no solvent possessing all the qualities, the commercial food grade hexane has
found to satisfy many of the requirements of good solvent and hence used in large scale for the
extraction of floral concrete throughout the world.
 Food grade hexane available in the market has to be purified before using it as solvent.
 Food grade hexane is treated with liquid paraffin at 5% and distilled at 700C. The residue
which is not evaporating at 700C is rejected as impurities.
 The purified hexane is a colourless liquid with a boiling point ranging from 600C to 800C.
 The flowers are treated with purified hexane at 2 liters per kg of flower for about 30 minutes.
HARVESTING IN MARIGOLD:
 Marigold flower should be plucked when they attain the full size depending upon the variety.
 Plucking of flowers should be done in cool hours of the day i.e, either in the morning or
evening.
 Field should be irrigated before harvesting so that, flowers keep well for longer period after
plucking.
 Plucked flowers should be covered with moist gunny bags if kept overnight before taking to
market.
 Productivity of plants increases considerably by regular plucking of flowers.
PROCESSING OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
GENERAL METHODS OF EXTRACTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

1.Maceration :
In this process, the whole or coarsely powdered crude drug is placed in a stoppered
container with the solvent and allowed to stand at room temperature for a period of at least
3 days with frequent agitation until the soluble matter has dissolved. The mixture then is
strained, the marc (the damp solid material) is pressed, and the combined liquids are
clarified by ltration or decantation after standing.
2 Infusion
Fresh infusions are prepared by macerating the crude drug for a short period of time
with cold or boiling water. These are dilute solutions of the readily soluble constituents of
crude drugs.
3 Digestion
This is a form of maceration in which gentle heat is used during the process of
extraction. It is used when moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable. The
solvent efficiency of the menstruum is thereby increased.
4 Decoction : In this process, the crude drug is boiled in a specified volume of water for a
defined time; it is then cooled and strained or filtered. This procedure is suitable for
extracting water-soluble, heat-stable constituents.
This process is typically used in preparation of Ayurvedic extracts called “quath” or
“kawath”. The starting ratio of crude drug to water is fixed, e.g. 1:4 or 1:16; the volume is
then brought down to one-fourth its original volume by boiling during the extraction
procedure. Then, the concentrated extract is filtered and used as such or processed further.
5 Percolation
This is the procedure used most frequently to extract active ingredients in the
preparation of tinctures and uid extracts. A percolator (a narrow, cone-shaped vessel open
at both ends) is generally used (Figure 1). The solid ingredients are moistened with an
appropriate amount of the specified menstruum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h
in a well-closed container, after which the mass is packed and the top of the percolator is
closed. Additional menstruum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass, and the
mixture is allowed to macerate in the closed percolator for 24 h. The outlet of the
percolator then is opened and the liquid contained therein is allowed to drip slowly.
Additional menstruum is added as required, until the percolate measures about three-
quarters of the required volume of the nished product. The marc is then pressed and the
expressed liquid is added to the percolate. Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the
required volume, and the mixed liquid is clarified by filtration or by standing followed by
decanting.
6. Hot Continuous Extraction (Soxhlet)
In this method, the finely ground crude drug is placed in a porous bag or “thimble”
made of strong lter paper, which is placed in chamber E of the Soxhlet apparatus (Figure
2). The extracting solvent in ask A is heated, and its vapors condense in condenser D. The
condensed extractant drips into the thimble containing the crude drug, and extracts it by
contact. When the level of liquid in chamber E rises to the top of siphon tube C, the liquid
contents of chamber E siphon into ask A. This process is continuous and is carried out
until a drop of solvent from the siphon tube does not leave residue when evaporated. The
advantage of this method, compared to previously described methods, is that large amounts
of drug can be extracted with a much smaller quantity of solvent. This effects tremendous
economy in terms of time, energy and consequently nancial inputs. At small scale, it is
employed as a batch process only, but it becomes much more economical and viable when
converted into a continuous extraction procedure on medium or large scale
7 Aqueous Alcoholic Extraction by Fermentation

Some medicinal preparations of Ayurveda (like asava and arista) adopt the
technique of fermentation for extracting the active principles. The extraction procedure
involves soaking the crude drug, in the form of either a powder or a decoction (kasaya), for
a speci ed period of time, during which it undergoes fermentation and generates alcohol in
situ; this facilitates the extraction of the active constituents contained in the plant material.
The alcohol thus generated also serves as a preservative. If the fermentation is to be carried
out in an earthen vessel, it should not be new: water should tbe boiled in the vessel. In
large-scale manufacture, wooden vats, porcelain jars or metal vessels are used in place of
earthen vessels. Some examples of such preparations are karpurasava, kanakasava,
dasmularista. In Ayurveda, this method is not yet standardized but, with the extraordinarily
high degree of advancement in fermentation technology, it should not be dif cult to
standardize this technique of extraction for the production of herbal drug extracts.
8 Counter-current Extraction
In counter-current extraction (CCE), wet raw material is pulverized using toothed
disc disintegrators to produce a ne slurry. In this process, the material to be extracted is
moved in one direction (generally in the form of a slurry) within a cylindrical extractor
where it comes in contact with extraction solvent. The further the starting material moves,
the more concentrated the extract becomes. Complete extraction is thus possible when the
quantities of solvent and material and their ow rates are optimized. The process is highly
efficient, requiring little time and posing no risk from high temperature. Finally,
sufficiently concentrated extract comes out at one end of the extractor while the marc
(practically free of visible solvent) falls out from the other end.
This extraction process has significant advantages:
i) A unit quantity of the plant material can be extracted with much smaller volume of
solvent as compared to other methods like maceration, decoction, percolation.
ii) CCE is commonly done at room temperature, which spares the thermolabile constituents
from exposure to heat which is employed in most other techniques.
iii) As the pulverization of the drug is done under wet conditions, the heat generated during
comminution is neutralized by water. This again spares the thermolabile constituents from
exposure to heat.
iv) The extraction procedure has been rated to be more efficient and effective than
continuous hot extraction.
9 Ultrasound Extraction (Sonication)
The procedure involves the use of ultrasound with frequencies ranging from 20
kHz to 2000 kHz; this increases the permeability of cell walls and produces cavitation.
Although the process is useful in some cases, like extraction of rauwolfia root, its large-
scale application is limited due to the higher costs. One disadvantage of the procedure is the
occasional but known deleterious effect of ultrasound energy (more than 20 kHz) on the
active constituents of medicinal plants through formation of free radicals and consequently
undesirable changes in the drug molecules
10 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is an alternative sample preparation method
with general goals of reduced use of organic solvents and increased sample throughput. The
factors to consider include temperature, pressure, sample volume, analyte collection,
modifier (cosolvent) addition, low and pressure control, and restrictors. Generally,
cylindrical extraction vessels are used for SFE and their performance is good beyond any
doubt. The collection of the extracted analyte following SFE is another important step:
significant analyte loss can occur during this step, leading the analyst to believe that the
actual efficiency was poor.
There are many advantages to the use of CO2 as the extracting uid. In addition to
its favorable physical properties, carbon dioxide is inexpensive, safe and abundant. But
while carbon dioxide is the preferred uid for SFE, it possesses several polarity limitations.
Solvent polarity is important when extracting polar solutes and when strong analyte-matrix
interactions are present. Organic solvents are frequently added to the carbon dioxide
extracting uid to alleviate the polarity limitations. Of late, instead of carbon dioxide, argon
is being used because it is inexpensive and more inert. The component recovery rates
generally increase with increasing pressure or temperature: the highest recovery rates in
case of argon are obtained at 500 atm and 150° C.
The extraction procedure possesses distinct advantages:

i) The extraction of constituents at low temperature, which strictly avoids damage from
heat and some organic solvents.
ii) No solvent residues.
iii) Environmentally friendly extraction procedure.
The largest area of growth in the development of SFE has been the rapid expansion
of its applications. SFE nds extensive application in the extraction of pesticides,
environmental samples, foods and fragrances, essential oils, polymers and natural
products. The major deterrent in the commercial application of the extraction process is its
prohibitive capital investment.
11 Phytonics Process
A new solvent based on hydro uorocarbon-134a and a new technology to optimize
its remarkable properties in the extraction of plant materials offer significant environmental
advantages and health and safety benefits over traditional processes for the production of
high quality natural fragrant oils, flavors and biological extracts.
Advanced Phytonics Limited (Manchester, UK) has developed this patented
technology termed “phytonics process”. The products mostly extracted by this process are
fragrant components of essential oils and biological or phytopharmacological extracts
which can be used directly without further physical or chemical treatment.
The properties of the new generation of fluorocarbon solvents have been applied to the
extraction of plant materials. The core of the solvent is 1,1,2,2-tetra uoroethane, better
known as hydro uorocarbon-134a (HFC-134a). This product was developed as a
replacement for chloro fluorocarbons. The boiling point of this solvent is -25° C. It is not
ammable or toxic. Unlike chloro fluorocarbons, it does not deplete the ozone layer. It has a
vapor pressure of 5.6 bar at ambient temperature. By most standards this is a poor solvent.
For example, it does not mix with mineral oils or triglycerides and it does not dissolve plant
wastes.
DISTILLATION PROCEDURES FOR AROMATIC PLANTS
Steam and Hydro Distillation of essential oils
Steam distillation, the most common method of extracting essential oil, involves
the flow of steam into a chamber holding the raw plant material. The steam causes small
sacs containing essential oil to burst. The oil is then carried by the steam out of the
chamber and into a chilled condenser, where the steam once again becomes water.
(Hydro-distillation is a similar process where the plant material is boiled, with the
resultant steam being captured and condensed.)
The oil and water are then separated; the water, referred to as a 'hydrosol,’ can
be retained as it will have some of the plant essence. Rose hydrosol, for example, is
commonly used for its mild antiseptic and soothing properties, as well as its pleasing
floral aroma.
A number of factors determine the final quality of a steam-distilled essential oil.
Aside from the plant material itself, most important are time, temperature, and pressure,
and the quality of the distillation equipment. Essential oils are very complex products;
each is made up of many, sometimes hundreds, of distinct molecules which come
together to form the oil's aroma and therapeutic properties. Some of these molecules are
fairly delicate structures that can be altered or destroyed by adverse environmental
conditions. So, much like a fine meal is more flavorful when made with patience, most
oils benefit from a long, slow 'cooking' process.
The temperature of the extraction chamber cannot be too high, lest some
components of the oil be altered or destroyed. The same is true of the chamber's
pressure. Lavender, for example, should not be processed at over 245 degrees F and
three pounds per square inch of pressure (3 psi). Higher temperatures and/or pressures
result in a 'harsh' aroma – more chemical than floral – and lessen the oil's therapeutic
effects.
Also, the essential oil extraction period must be allowed to continue for a certain
period of time in order to flush ALL the oil's components from the plant, as some are
released more quickly than others.
Despite the drawbacks of aggressive processing, high temperatures and
pressures are often used to produce large quantities of oil in a short period of time.
These oils are usually destined for use in cosmetic and processed food manufacturing,
but are sometimes sold to final consumers as essential oils for use in aromatherapy.
These oils will be less expensive, but are of limited therapeutic value, and the difference
is apparent when the aromas are compared side-by-side.
Absolutes
Some plants, and particularly flowers, do not lend themselves to steam distilling.
They are too delicate, or their fragrance and therapeutic essences cannot be completely
released by water alone. These oils will be produced as 'absolutes' – and while not
technically considered essential oils they can still be of therapeutic value. Jasmine and
Rose in particular are delicate flowers whose oils are often found in 'absolute' form.
The processing of an absolute first involves the hydrocarbon solvent extraction
of a 'concrete' from the plant material, a semi-solid mixture of typically 50% wax and
50% volatile oil. The concrete is again processed using ethyl alcohol (the same alcohol
found in beer, wine, etc.) in which the wax is only slightly soluble.
The volatile plant oil separates into the alcohol and this mixture is removed. The
alcohol is then evaporated and the result is an almost pure plant extract – depending on
the care taken in the evaporation process, sometimes 2% or less of the ethyl alcohol may
remain. The use of solvents in the essential oil extraction process notwithstanding,
absolutes can have incredibly deep and complex aromas.
CO2's and SCO2's
And now for the most modern methods of extracting essential oils, Carbon
Dioxide and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide extraction. Both methods of extracting
essential oils involve the use of carbon dioxide as the 'solvent' which carries the
essential oil away from the raw plant material.
The lower pressure Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extraction involves chilling carbon
dioxide to between 35 and 55 degrees F, and pumping it through the plant material at
about 1000 psi. The carbon dioxide in this condition is condensed to a liquid.
Supercritical CO2 extraction (SCO2) involves carbon dioxide heated to 87
degrees F and pumped through the plant material at around 8,000 psi – under these
conditions, the carbon dioxide is likened to a 'dense fog' or vapor. With release of the
pressure in either process, the carbon dioxide escapes in its gaseous form, leaving the
essential oil behind.
These carbon dioxide methods of extracting essential oil have a couple of
advantages: Like steam distillation, there are no solvent residues left behind, and the
resultant product is quite pure. Like solvent extraction, there is no heat applied to the
plant material or essential oil to alter it in any way. The oil produced is very accurate
with respect to the original state of the plant.
The CO2 methods of extracting essential oil are also the most efficient, producing
the most oil per amount of plant (one of the reasons for the high cost of essential oils is
the low yield of oil from most plants – one ton of Rose petals produces less than 1
pound of oil, for example). The efficiency of CO2 extraction is particularly important
when rare or endangered plant species are involved, such as Indian Sandalwood – less
of the precious plant is needed to produce an equivalent amount of oil.
Cold Pressing
Finally, there is the 'cold pressing' of citrus oils from the peels of fruit, as is done
with Bergamot, Orange, Lemon, and the like. This method of extracting essential oil
involves the simple pressing of the rind at about 120 degrees F to extract the oil. Little,
if any, alteration from the oil's original state occurs – these citrus oils retain their bright,
fresh, uplifting aromas like that of smelling a wonderfully ripe fruit.

Ornamental Hort Manual Final

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UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD

Prepared by: Course offered by:

Name: _________________________________ ID No:________

Year: _____ Section:____ Semester __________

College of Agriculture, Dharwad-580005

College of Agriculture, Dharwad

Certified that Mr./Miss. __________________________ bearing I.D.

Signature of the Course Teacher

Sl. No. Date Title of the exercise Page No.

Table 4. Shade trees

Table 5. Flowering Trees

29. Ashoka S. asoca=Saraca indica Fabaceae Seed Orange - Feb.-April, Evergreen

PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES IN AROMATIC PLANTS

Training and pruning of Ornamental plants

Classification of greenhouse based on suitability and cost

2. SPECIAL CULTURAL PRACTICES TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF ROSES:

HARVEST AND POST HARVEST CARNATION :

POST HARVEST OPERATIONS IN CARNATION:

HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST HANDLING OF GERBERA

HANDLING AND PACKING OF TUBEROSE FLOWERS

EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OIL IN TUBEROSE

GENERAL METHODS OF EXTRACTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

7 Aqueous Alcoholic Extraction by Fermentation

10 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

The extraction procedure possesses distinct advantages:

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