The actual resistance of a moving-coil meter depends to a large extent on the

quality of the meter movement. A low-cost meter usually has a coil of relatively low
resistance and the series resistor has a correspondingly low value. The resistance of
an inexpensive moving-coil meter is 20 kΩ when switched to its 10 V range. Such a
meter draws an appreciable current from a high-resistance test circuit. On page 61,
we showed how connecting a low-resistance circuit to a potential divider results in
a fall in potential at the connection point. The same happens when a low-cost meter
is used for measuring potential in a test circuit. The meter draws excessive current
from the circuit, leading to a fall in potential at the point to which it is connected. It
reduces the potential that it is trying to measure, giving a falsely low reading. This
effect is much less important when using an expensive meter with a high-resistance
coil (typically, 200 kΩ on the 10 V range), but with any moving-coil meter this effect
can lead to errors. By contrast, a digital multimeter with its FET input presents an
input resistance of at least 2 MΩ and, more usually, as high as a million megohms.
Such a meter has almost no effect on the test circuit and an accurate reading of
potential is obtained.
 The actual resistance of a moving-coil meter depends to a large extent on the
quality of the meter movement. A low-cost meter usually has a coil of relatively low
resistance and the series resistor has a correspondingly low value. The resistance of
an inexpensive moving-coil meter is 20 kΩ when switched to its 10 V range. Such a
meter draws an appreciable current from a high-resistance test circuit. On page 61,
we showed how connecting a low-resistance circuit to a potential divider results in
a fall in potential at the connection point. The same happens when a low-cost meter
is used for measuring potential in a test circuit. The meter draws excessive current
from the circuit, leading to a fall in potential at the point to which it is connected. It
reduces the potential that it is trying to measure, giving a falsely low reading. This
effect is much less important when using an expensive meter with a high-resistance
coil (typically, 200 kΩ on the 10 V range), but with any moving-coil meter this effect
can lead to errors. By contrast, a digital multimeter with its FET input presents an
input resistance of at least 2 MΩ and, more usually, as high as a million megohms.
Such a meter has almost no effect on the test circuit and an accurate reading of
potential is obtained.

Digital meters are the

Digital
product
metersof the
are latest
the product
developments
of the latest
in electronic
developments
technology
in electronic
so technology so
it is to be expecteditthat
is tothey
be expected
will incorporate
that they
many
will features
incorporate
thatmany
are not
features
available
thatonare not available on
the typical moving-coil
the typical
meter.moving-coil
As well as a meter.
wide selection
As well as
of avoltage,
wide selection
current ofandvoltage,
re- current and re-
sistance ranges (including
sistanceaccurate
ranges (including
low-resistance
accurate
range)
low-resistance
many of these range)
meters
many also
of these meters also
provide for measurements
provide for of capacitance
measurements andoffrequency.
capacitance
A continuity
and frequency.
tester,Awhich
continuity tester, which
produces a ‘beep’ when
produces
thereais‘beep’
an electrical
when thereconnection
is an electrical
between connection
the probesbetween
is almostthe probes is almost
a standard feature.aThestandard
meterfeature.
may have Thea temperature
meter may have probe
a temperature
(a thermocouple)
probeand (a thermocouple) and
display the temperature
display inthe
degrees
temperature
Celsius orin degrees
Fahrenheit.
Celsius
The or more
Fahrenheit.
expensiveThe digital
more expensive digital
meters include circuits
meters forinclude
testing circuits
diodes andfor testing
transistors,
diodesincluding
and transistors,
measurementincluding measurement
of transistor gain. of transistor gain.

As well as indicating
Asinstantaneous
well as indicating
readings,
instantaneous
the morereadings,
expensivethe
digital
moremeters
expensive
havedigital meters have
the ability to process
thea ability
series of
to readings
process ataken
seriesover
of readings
a given period
taken over
of time.
a given
At the
period
end of time. At the end
of the period they can
of the
display
periodthethey
minimum,
can display
thethe
maximum,
minimum,thethe
difference
maximum,between
the difference between
the minimum andthe maximum,
minimum andand
themaximum,
average ofandthe the
readings
average
it has
of the
taken
readings
since itit has taken since it
was last reset. was last reset.

In spite of the advantages

In spite of the digital
advantages
meter,
of some
the digital
engineers
meter,
prefer
sometheengineers
mov- prefer the mov-
ing-coil meter for investigating
ing-coil meterfluctuating
for investigating
p.d.s and
fluctuating
currents.p.d.s
Useful
andinformation
currents. Useful information
may be gained by watching
may be gained
the wayby the
watching
needlethe
moves
way across
the needle
the scale.
movesIt across
is far the scale. It is far
from easy to extractfrom
this easy
information
to extractfrom
thisainformation
set of rapidly
from
changing
a set ofdigits.
rapidly However,
changing digits. However,
the more expensivethe digital
moremeters
expensive
havedigital
a way meters
of presenting
have a this
way information
of presentingasthis a information as a
bargraph. Watching bargraph.
the end of
Watching
the bar the
moving
end of
to the
andbar
fro moving
is equivalent
to andtofrowatching
is equivalent to watching
the needle of the moving-coil
the needle ofmeter.
the moving-coil meter.
Electrical Indicating and Test Instru-
ments
inherently more accurate than some analogue types, this form of display enables
measurements to be recorded with much greater accuracy than that obtainable by
reading an analogue meter scale.
 inherently more accurate than some analogue types, this form of display enables
measurements to be recorded with much greater accuracy than that obtainable by
reading an analogue meter scale.

Digital voltmeters differ

Digitalmainly
voltmeters
in thediffer
technique
mainlyused
in the
to affect
technique
the analogue-to-dig-
used to affect the analogue-to-dig-
ital conversion between
ital conversion
the measured
between
analogue
the measured
voltage and
analogue
the output
voltage
digital
and the output digital
reading. As a general
reading.
rule, the
As more
a general
expensive
rule, the
andmore
complicated
expensiveconversion
and complicated
methodsconversion methods
achieve a faster conversion
achieve aspeed.
faster Some
conversion
commonspeed.
types
Someof DVM
commonare discussed
types of DVM
here.are discussed here.

7.2.1 Voltage-to-Time
7.2.1 Voltage-to-Time
Conversion Digital
Conversion
Voltmeter
Digital Voltmeter
This is the simplestThis
formis of
theDVMsimplest
and form
is a ramp
of DVMtypeandof instrument.
is a ramp typeWhenof instrument.
an When an
unknown voltage signal
unknown is applied
voltagetosignal
input is
terminals
applied to of input
the instrument,
terminals of a negative
the instrument, a negative
slope ramp waveform slopeis ramp
generatedwaveform
internally
is generated
and compared
internally
withand
thecompared
input signal.with the input signal.
When the two are equal,
Whenathe pulse
twoisare
generated
equal, a pulse
that opens
is generated
a gate, and
thatatopens
a latera gate,
point and
in at a later point in
time a second pulsetime
closes
a second
the gatepulse
whencloses
the negative
the gate ramp
when voltage
the negative
reaches
rampzero.
voltage
The reaches zero. The
length of time between
lengththe of gate
timeopening
betweenandthe closing
gate opening
is monitored
and closing
by aniselectronic
monitored by an electronic
counter, which produces
counter, a digital
which produces
display according
a digital todisplay
the level
according
of the input
to thevoltage
level of the input voltage
signal. Its main drawbacks
signal. Itsare main
nonlinearities
drawbacks in arethenonlinearities
shape of theinrampthe shape
waveformof the ramp waveform
used and lack of noise
usedrejection;
and lack of these
noise
problems
rejection;lead
these
to aproblems
typical inaccuracy
lead to a oftypical
± inaccuracy of ±
0.05%. It is relatively
0.05%.
inexpensive,
It is relatively
however.
inexpensive, however.

7.2.2 Potentiometric
7.2.2 Digital
Potentiometric
Voltmeter
Digital Voltmeter
This uses a servo principle,
This usesina servo
whichprinciple,
the error inbetween
which the unknown
error between
inputthe
voltage
unknown input voltage
level and a reference
level
voltage
and aisreference
applied tovoltage
a servo-driven
is appliedpotentiometer
to a servo-driven
thatpotentiometer
adjusts that adjusts
the reference voltage
theuntil
reference
it balances
voltagetheuntil
unknown
it balances
voltage.
the The
unknown
outputvoltage.
readingThe
is output reading is
produced by a mechanical
produced drum-type
by a mechanical
digital display
drum-type
driven
digital
by the
display
potentiometer.
driven by the potentiometer.
This is also a relatively
This inexpensive
is also a relatively
form ofinexpensive
DVM that form
gives of
excellent
DVM that
performance
gives excellent performance
for its price. for its price.

7.2.3 Dual-Slope7.2.3
Integration
Dual-Slope
Digital
Integration
Voltmeter
Digital Voltmeter
This is another relatively
This issimple
another form
relatively
of DVM simple
that has
formbetter
of DVMnoise-rejection
that has bettercapabil-
noise-rejection capabil-
ities than many other
itiestypes
thanandmanygives
other
correspondingly
types and gives better
correspondingly
measurement better
accuracy
measurement accuracy
(inaccuracy as low (inaccuracy
as ± 0.005%). as Unfortunately,
low as ± 0.005%). it isUnfortunately,
quite expensive.it is
The
quite
unknown
expensive. The unknown
voltage is applied to
voltage
an integrator
is appliedfortoa an
fixedintegrator
time, T1,forfollowing
a fixed time,
whichT1a, reference
following which a reference
voltage of oppositevoltage
sign is of applied
opposite
to the
sign
integrator,
is appliedwhich
to thedischarges
integrator,down
whichtodischarges
a zero down to a zero
output in an interval,
output
T2, measured
in an interval,
by a Tcounter.
2, measured
The output–time
by a counter.relationship
The output–timefor relationship for
the integrator is shown
the integrator
in Figureis7.1,shown
frominwhich
Figurethe7.1,
unknown
from which
voltage,
the unknown
Vi, can be voltage, Vi, can be
calculated geometrically
calculated
fromgeometrically
the triangle as from the triangle as
Figure 7.1. Output–time
Figure relationship
7.1. Output–time
for anrelationship
integrator infor
a dual-slope
an integrator
digital
in a volt-
dual-slope digital volt-
meter. meter.

(7.1) (7.1)
appropriate electrical circuits to convert current or resistance measurement signals
into voltage signals. Digital multimeters are also essentially DVMs that contain
several conversion circuits, thus allowing the measurement and display of voltage,
current, and resistance magnitudes within one instrument.
that opens a gate, and at a later point in time a second pulse closes the gate
when the negative ramp voltage reaches zero. The length of time between the gate
opening and closing is monitored by an electronic counter, which produces a digital
display according to the level of the input voltage signal. Its main drawbacks are
nonlinearities in the shape of the ramp waveform used and lack of noise rejection,
and these problems lead to a typical inaccuracy of ±0.05%. It is relatively cheap,
however.
 that opens a gate, and at a later point in time a second pulse closes the gate
when the negative ramp voltage reaches zero. The length of time between the gate
opening and closing is monitored by an electronic counter, which produces a digital
display according to the level of the input voltage signal. Its main drawbacks are
nonlinearities in the shape of the ramp waveform used and lack of noise rejection,
and these problems lead to a typical inaccuracy of ±0.05%. It is relatively cheap,
however.

Potentiometric DVM:
Potentiometric
This uses a servo
DVM:principle,
This usesina servo
whichprinciple,
the error inbetween
which the error between the
unknown input voltage
unknownlevel input
and avoltage
referencelevel
voltage
and aisreference
applied tovoltage
a servo-driven
is applied to a servo-driven
potentiometer thatpotentiometer
adjusts the reference
that adjusts
voltage
theuntil
reference
it balances
voltagetheuntil
unknown
it balances the unknown
voltage. The outputvoltage.
readingThe output
is produced reading
by a mechanical
is produced drum-type
by a mechanical
digital display
drum-type digital display
driven by the potentiometer.
driven by the This
potentiometer.
is also a relatively
This cheap
is alsoform
a relatively
of DVM cheap
that form
gives of DVM that gives
excellent performance
excellent
for itsperformance
price. for its price.

Dual-slope integration
Dual-slope
DVM: This
integration
is another
DVM:relatively
This issimple
another form
relatively
of DVM simple
that has
form of DVM that has
better noise-rejection
bettercapabilities
noise-rejection
than many
capabilities
other types
than and
many give
other
correspondingly
types and give correspondingly
better measurement better
accuracy
measurement
(inaccuracy accuracy
as low (inaccuracy
as ±0.005%).asUnfortunately,
low as ±0.005%). it isUnfortunately, it is
quite expensive. The
quite
unknown
expensive.
voltage
Theisunknown
applied to voltage
an integrator
is appliedfortoa an
fixedintegrator
time for a fixed time
T1, following whichT1a, reference
following voltage
which aof reference
oppositevoltage
sign is of
applied
opposite
to the
signintegrator,
is applied to the integrator,
which discharges down
whichtodischarges
a zero outputdownin to
anainterval
zero output
T2 measured
in an interval
by a counter.
T2 measuredThe by a counter. The
output time relationship
outputfor time
therelationship
integrator isforshown
the integrator
in Figure 9.1,
is shown
frominwhich
Figure 9.1,
the from which the
unknown voltage Vi unknown
can be calculated
voltage Vigeometrically
can be calculated
fromgeometrically
the triangle as: from the triangle as:

Figure 9.1. Output–time
Figure 9.1.
relationship
Output–time
for integrator
relationship
in a dual-slope
for integrator
digital
in avoltmeter.
dual-slope digital voltmeter.

(9.1) (9.1)

Voltage-to-frequency Voltage-to-frequency
conversion DVM: In conversion
this instrument,
DVM: Inthethis
unknown
instrument,
voltage
the unknown voltage
signal is fed via a range
signalswitch
is fed and
via aan
range
amplifier
switchinto
andaan converter
amplifiercircuit
into awhose
converter circuit whose
output is in the formoutput
of a is
train
in the
of voltage
form ofpulses
a trainatofa voltage
frequencypulses
proportional
at a frequency
to theproportional to the
magnitude of the input
magnitude
signal.ofThe
themain
inputadvantage
signal. The ofmain
this type
advantage
of DVMofisthis
its ability
type of DVM is its ability
to reject AC noise. to reject AC noise.

Digital multimeter:Digital
This ismultimeter:
an extensionThis
of the
is anDVM.extension
It canofmeasure
the DVM. bothIt can
AC and
measure both AC and
DC voltages over aDC
number
voltages
of ranges
over a number
through of inclusion
ranges through
within a set
inclusion
of switchable
within a set of switchable
amplifiers and attenuators.
amplifiersIt and
is widely
attenuators.
used in Itcircuit
is widely
test used
applications
in circuitastest
an alterna-
applications as an alterna-
tive to the analog multimeter, and includes protection circuits that prevent damage
if high voltages are applied to the wrong range.
tive to the analog multimeter, and includes protection circuits that prevent damage
if high voltages are applied to the wrong range.
Figure 7.15. Statistical
Figure
distribution
7.15. Statistical
of APC-850
distribution
piezoceramic
of APC-850
wafers
piezoceramic
capacitancewafers capacitance
(mean=3.276 nF, STD=±3.8%).
(mean=3.276 nF, STD=±3.8%).
3 Components
 3 Components
• Smart meters• Smart meters

In a smart grid, timely

In a smart
data isgrid,
highlytimely
important
data isfor
highly
reliable
important
deliveryforof reliable
electricity
delivery
[9]. of electricity [9].
Therefore, smart meters
Therefore,
are essential
smart meterscomponents,
are essential
considered
components,
as the first
considered
build- as the first build-
ing block for two-way
ing communication
block for two-way [10].
communication
Smart meters[10]. are digital
Smart meters
meters with
are digital meters with
communication capabilities
communication
that allow
capabilities
utilities to
thatcollect
allowtheutilities
required
to collect
information
the required information
frequently and communicate
frequently and
withcommunicate
devices used by with
thedevices
consumer used[2].
by Athe
smart
consumer
meter [2]. A smart meter
system consists of system
the meter,
consists
communication
of the meter, capability,
communication
and a control
capability,
deviceand[11].
a control device [11].
They are used to assess
They the
are used
healthtoofassess
the equipment
the health and
of the
theequipment
integrity ofandthethegridintegrity
[4] of the grid [4]
as well as execute control
as well commands
as execute control
remotely commands
and locally remotely
[11]. In and
addition,
locallythey
[11].canIn addition, they can
be useful to supportbeadvanced
useful to protection
support advanced
relaying,protection
eliminaterelaying,
meter estimation,
eliminate meter
and estimation, and
prevent energy theftprevent
[4]. Finally,
energy they
theft
help[4].relieve
Finally,power
they help
congestion
relieve power
by controlling
congestion by controlling
demand response demand
[4]. response [4].

Smart meters can distinguish

Smart meters between
can distinguish
the energybetween
supplied thefrom
energy
the supplied
utility andfrom the utility and
the energy suppliedthebyenergy
the distributed
supplied generation
by the distributed
(DG) units
generation
owned by(DG)theunits
user.owned by the user.
Therefore, they only
Therefore,
bill the energy
they only
consumed
bill the from
energytheconsumed
grid, whichfrom
leads
thetogrid,
reducing
which leads to reducing
the energy cost forthe
theenergy
consumercost[11].
for the
In addition,
consumerthey[11].can
In addition,
be used bythey
thecan
utility
be to
used by the utility to
advise the consumeradvise
on the
themost
consumer
efficient on use
the of
most
their
efficient
appliances
use of
totheir
reduceappliances
the to reduce the
energy cost and theenergy
maximum cost and
loadthe
onmaximum
the grid [11].
load on the grid [11].

• Transmission •and distribution

Transmission
devicesand distribution devices

Transmission and distribution

Transmissiondevices
and distribution
can also bedevices
equipped
canwith
also communication
be equipped with communication
capabilities to allowcapabilities
the exchange
to allow
of information
the exchange
as well
of information
as the ability
asto
well
receive
as the ability to receive
commands to modify commands
settings to
formodify
better grid
settings
control
for better
[2]. Transformers,
grid control voltage
[2]. Transformers,
reg- voltage reg-
ulators, capacitors,ulators,
and switches
capacitors,
are used
and to
switches
enhancearethe
usedreliability
to enhance
and availability
the reliability and availability
of power to the consumer
of power[2].
to the consumer [2].

• Network • Network

The data collected Theby thedatasmart

collected
meters byand
the transmission
smart meters and and distribution
transmissiondevicesand distribution devices
require a network to require
exchangea network
the information
to exchange between
the information
different components
between different or components or
between the utility between
grid and thethe utility
consumer
grid and
[2], all
theinconsumer
a timely fashion.
[2], all inInaaddition,
timely fashion.
the In addition, the
network can be used network
for studying
can be the
used impact
for studying
of equipment
the impact
limitations
of equipment
and faults
limitations and faults
[9]. It also helps to [9].
avoid
It also
the natural
helps toaccidents
avoid theand natural
catastrophes
accidentsthatandlimit
catastrophes
its effect that limit its effect
[9]. Furthermore, it[9].helps
Furthermore,
to maintainit thehelps
grid
to safety,
maintainreliability,
the gridandsafety,
protection
reliability,
by and protection by
developing online developing
condition monitoring,
online conditiondiagnostics
monitoring,
and protection
diagnostics [9].and protection [9].

• Consumer devices
• Consumer devices
Currently, there is no way for the consumer to monitor their hourly use of power.
This means they only rely on the monthly bill, which makes it difficult for them to
understand or feel the effect of installing energy-efficient devices [2]. In addition,
such devices can help consumers enhance their energy profiles by disconnecting
some loads at peak energy demand times, therefore helping reduce the monthly
bill [2]. Such devices can be, but are not limited to, an in-house display or a web
portal provided by the utility [2]. Furthermore, installing in-house intelligent devices
that can communicate with smart meters to determine the peak demand time and
control the energy consumption accordingly [2].
 Currently, there is no way for the consumer to monitor their hourly use of power.
This means they only rely on the monthly bill, which makes it difficult for them to
understand or feel the effect of installing energy-efficient devices [2]. In addition,
such devices can help consumers enhance their energy profiles by disconnecting
some loads at peak energy demand times, therefore helping reduce the monthly
bill [2]. Such devices can be, but are not limited to, an in-house display or a web
portal provided by the utility [2]. Furthermore, installing in-house intelligent devices
that can communicate with smart meters to determine the peak demand time and
control the energy consumption accordingly [2].

Those componentsThose form components

the new grid form
infrastructure
the new grid
to achieve
infrastructure
grid reliability,
to achieve
flexi-
grid reliability, flexi-
bility, efficiency, and
bility,
sustainability.
efficiency, and
Those
sustainability.
features are Those
achieved
features
by theare
integration
achieved by the integration
of renewable resources,
of renewable
load management,
resources, load
andmanagement,
enhanced energyandstorage
enhanceddevices
energy storage devices
[12]. Each one of those
[12]. Each
methodsone is
ofdiscussed
those methods
next. is discussed next.
mitigate the environmental impacts and decreasing the risk associate with misman-
aging wastes. This work, the residuals and wastes discarded from power distribution
operation were surveyed and prioritized. The waste inventory was gathered from
MEA- the large scale of power distribution organization that supplies the electricity
for Bangkok and nearby areas. The lighting bulbs and lead-acid battery were selected
based on their hazardous and toxicity levels as target wastes for developing an
alternative solution for their management schemes.
 mitigate the environmental impacts and decreasing the risk associate with misman-
aging wastes. This work, the residuals and wastes discarded from power distribution
operation were surveyed and prioritized. The waste inventory was gathered from
MEA- the large scale of power distribution organization that supplies the electricity
for Bangkok and nearby areas. The lighting bulbs and lead-acid battery were selected
based on their hazardous and toxicity levels as target wastes for developing an
alternative solution for their management schemes.

In line with awareness

In line
of with
environmental
awareness responsibility
of environmental towards
responsibility
and the environ-
towards and the environ-
mental protection mental
policy, waste
protection
management
policy, waste
is currently
managementattractive
is currently
in order to attractive
solve in order to solve
environmental problems
environmental
at both theproblems
national atand
bothinternational
the nationallevels.
and international
Several toolslevels. Several tools
have been developed haveandbeen
applied
developed
to manage
and applied
waste including,
to manageLCA, waste MFA,
including,
and EPR LCA, MFA, and EPR
(Kiddee et al., 2013).
(Kiddee
The tools
et al.,
used
2013).
in this
Theresearch
tools used is Material
in this research
Flow Analysis
is Material
(MFA) Flow Analysis (MFA)
introduced by Brunerintroduced
and Rechberger
by Bruner (2004)
and Rechberger
which is a methodology
(2004) whichfor is adescribing,
methodology for describing,
investigating, and investigating,
estimating theand metabolism
estimating of the
anthropogenic
metabolism systems.
of anthropogenic
Life Cyclesystems. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) also
Assessment
used in (LCA)
this study.
also used
It is one
in this
of the
study.
most
It is
reliable
one ofandthe useful
most reliable and useful
tools for assessingtools
environmental
for assessing impact
environmental
and humanimpact exposure,
and andhumanmanaging
exposure, and managing
environmental policy.
environmental
The purposepolicy.
of thisThe
study
purpose
is to provide
of this study
a material
is to provide
flow of a material flow of
wastes with a focuswastes
on wastes
with generation
a focus on wastes
and time generation
using MFA andtools
timeand
usingevaluate
MFA tools and evaluate
environmental impacts
environmental
of end-of-life
impacts
management
of end-of-life
of these
management
wastes andofpropose
these wastes and propose
alternatives for identifying
alternatives
andformitigating
identifyingproblems
and mitigating
of waste problems
in power distribution
of waste in power distribution
sector. sector.
applications and can be used to integrate efficiency renewable energy sources in
the smart grid by making the electricity grid more robust and scalable.
 applications and can be used to integrate efficiency renewable energy sources in
the smart grid by making the electricity grid more robust and scalable.

This study will focus

This
onstudy
the development
will focus onoftheandevelopment
integrated IoT-Distributed
of an integratedenergy
IoT-Distributed energy
systems (DES) model systems
for the(DES)
efficient
model
energy
for the
management
efficient energy of a microgrid
management underof athe
microgrid under the
integration of the intermittent
integration of renewable
the intermittent
energy resources.
renewable In energy
this work,
resources.
we expand
In this work, we expand
the definition of flexible
the definition
options ofto flexible
include options
demandtoand include
supplydemand
togetherand
with
supply together with
design and operationdesign
strategies
and operation
using internet
strategies
of things
using(IoT).
internet
Ourofframework
things (IoT).
brings
Our framework brings
weather data and sensor
weather information
data and sensor
into a information
virtual energy into
plant
a virtual
optimisation
energy plant
modeloptimisation model
that connects supplier
that and
connects
consumer
supplier
to optimise
and consumer
potential
to optimise
flexibilitypotential
gaps arising
flexibility gaps arising
from supply and demand
from supply
mismatch.
and demand
The problem
mismatch.
is posed
Theasproblem
a hybridismixed-integer
posed as a hybrid mixed-integer
linear programming linear
(MILP)
programming
optimisation (MILP)
model optimisation
combining modelflexibility
combining
analysis and
flexibility analysis and
optimal synthesis for
optimal
integrating
synthesisenergy
for integrating
supply and energy
demand, supply
whereandenvironmental
demand, where environmental
information is addedinformation
to each stage.
is added
Finally,
to each
we combine
stage. Finally,
traditional
we combine
mathematical
traditional mathematical
programming approaches
programming
such asapproaches
flexibility analysis
such asand flexibility
optimalanalysis
network
andsynthesis
optimal network synthesis
and within a singleandoptimisation
within a single
framework
optimisation
combining framework
IoT andcombining
urban DES. IoT and urban DES.
3.
 Smart Substations:
3. Substation
Smart Substations:
equipment isSubstation
connectedequipment
to monitoring is connected
and con- to monitoring and con
trolling circuits to collect
trolling
operational
circuitsdata
to collect
that includes
operational
powerdata factor,
thatbreaker,
includes power factor, breake
transformer, and batterytransformer,
status, etc., and
for operational
battery status, security
etc., for
andoperational
emergencysecurity and emergency
control. control.
4. Smart Distribution:
4. It is aided
Smart by Distribution:
automation It is
andaided
toolsbyfor
automation
analysis which
and tools
have for analysis which hav
the capability of detecting
theandcapability
even predicting
of detecting lineand
or cable
even predicting
failures based
line onor cable failures based o
real-time data pertaining real-time
to weather,
dataoutage
pertaining
history,
to weather,
etc., so that
outage
the history,
system is etc., so that the system
self-healing, self-balancing,
self-healing,
and self-optimizing.
self-balancing, Theanddistribution
self-optimizing.
systemThe maydistribution system ma
contain superconducting contain
cables.superconducting
(High-temperature cables.
super(High-temperature
conductor cables super conductor cables
(HTS) enable cables to carry
(HTS)3–5 enable
timescables
the load
to carry
carried
3–5bytimes
AC cables
the load
andcarried
up to by AC cables and up t
10 times of DC cables). 10 times of DC cables).
5. Smart Generation:
5. The power
Smartgenerating
Generation:units
The power
are enabled
generating
to optimize
units are
energy
enabled to optimize energ
production and automatically
production
maintain
and automatically
voltage, frequency,
maintainand voltage,
power factor
frequency, and power factor
at various specified pointsat various
in the grid
specified
as perpoints
the prescribed
in the grid standards.
as per the prescribed standards.
6. Universal Access:
6. The gridUniversal
is madeAccess:
accessible
The grid
to allisthe
made
players
accessible
including
to allallthe players including all
renewable energy sources, renewable
storageenergy
devices,sources,
and plug-in
storage
electrical
devices,vehicles.
and plug-in electrical vehicles.