Lecture 6 – Strut and wall design

Learning Objectives
► Understand why the lateral earth pressures acting on the
wall are different from conventional retaining walls.
► Understand how the various empirical apparent pressure
diagrams for various soil types were derived.
► Know how to calculate the strut and anchor forces.
► Understand the factors that influence the strut forces.
► Know how to calculate the maximum bending moment in
the wall and walers.
► Understand the various failure modes of anchored wall
systems.

CV4110 1

Strut and Wall Design

wall

struts

walers

kingposts
walers struts

wall

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 LOADS ON STRUTS

♦ Sand
♦ Stiff clay ~ 2 to 3 m
♦ Soft clay

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Strut Failure

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The design pressures acting on a braced retaining
wall are very different from those computed from
conventional walls where the pressure distribution is
usually triangular.
Because of the redistribution due to arching and the
incremental nature of excavation and strut
installation, the pressure distribution does not
linearly increase with depth.

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Stage 1. The wall is subjected to an active earth pressure

and the wall deforms.
Stage 2. A strut is installed and preloaded. Generally the wall
and soil will not be pushed back to its original position, but
since the strut force is larger than the active pressure, this
causes an increase in the wall pressure.

Stage 1 Stage 2

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Stage 3. The excavation in stage 3 causes a new lateral
displacement. The soil moves out of the zone behind the first
strut into the displacement between b and c.
Stage 4. The installation of the second strut in stage 4 will
result in similar changes to the earth pressures.

c Stage 4
Stage 3

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The empirical methods of Terzaghi and Peck (1967) and

Peck (1969) were obtained from field measurements of strut
loads and are envelopes of the maximum measured
pressures.
They are considered to give conservative estimates of earth
pressures and provide estimates of the maximum strut loads
for design purposes.
They are not the actual pressure distributions but correspond
to the maximum values expected. These pressure
envelopes are commonly referred to as apparent pressure
diagrams (APD).

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They do not provide actual loads that might exist on the
wall at any time.

Where an assessment of the actual loads on the wall is

required, staged construction analyses such as soil-
structure interction (eg. Finite element method) may be
used.
Staged construction analyses may also be required
where: (a) the wall is influenced by loadings from nearby
foundations; (b) large surcharge loads need to be resisted
by the wall; or (c) there are pre-existing instabilities or
planes of weakenss in the retained soil.

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Lateral Earth Pressure in Braced Excavations

♦ Redistribution of earth pressure due to arching

♦ Preloading
♦ Incremental excavation and strut installation
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 Development of strut forces

The peak value of the strut load may

correspond to the load prior to the end of
construction

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Empirical methods to determine strut forces

Approximate methods to estimate strut loads

Peck (1969) APD (apparent pressure diagram)

CIRIA C517 (1999) DPL (distributed prop load)

CIRIA C517 (1999) Twine & Roscoe

Temporary propping of deep excavations – guidance
on design
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 Peck (1969) APD

This chart will be provided in

the exam if required. CV4110 13

Apparent Pressure Diagram for Sand

Rankine KA = (1 – sinφ’)/(1 + sinφ’)

Water table below excavation level

Peck (1969) CV4110 14
 Apparent Pressure Diagram for Sand

q
0.65 KA γ H

H
+ +
Hw

0.65 KA γb H KA q γwHw

γb = γ’ = γ - γw
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Apparent Pressure Diagram for Stiff Clay

Peck CV4110 16
 Apparent Pressure Diagram for Stiff Clay

γH/cu2 ≤ 4

cu1

Total stress
analysis cu2
(independent of
water table)
For exam, use 0.3γH.

Peck (1969) CV4110 17

Apparent Pressure Diagram for Soft Clay

Peck (1969) Total stress analysis
γH/cu2 > 4

cu2

For deep deposit of soft clay, use m=0.4; otherwise use m=1.
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 SOFT CLAY

Example: γ = 16 kN/m3; H = 8 m; cu = 20 kPa

If m = 1 ⇒ p = 48 kPa
If m = 0.4 ⇒ p = 96 kPa
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MULTIPLE CLAY LAYERS

cav = [cu1H1 + cu2H2 + …. cunHn]/H

cu1 γ1
H1
γav = [γ1H1+γ2H2+ ….. γnHn]/(H)
H

Hn cun γn

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 MIXED SOILS
Peck (1943) proposed the use of
an equivalent cu (φu = 0)

Hs sand φs cav = [γsHs2tanφs+0.75(H-Hs)(2cu)]/(2H)

γs
H γav = [γsHs+(H-Hs)γc)]/(H)

clay, cu Once the average values of

γc cohesion and unit weight are
determined, the APD in clay is
used to determine the strut forces.

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Strut Forces by Tributary area method

a
PA
Area A
b
b
PB Area B
c
c
PC d
Area C
d
p
e.g. PB = ( b + c ) p in kN/m run
strut force = PB x (horiz strut spacing)
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 Strut Forces by simple beam method

Assume
simply PA
supported PA
beams. All
struts PB1
PB
except the
top and
bottom PC PB2
ones are
assumed p
to be PC
hinged.
PB = PB1 + PB2
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Wall bending moment

The maximum bending moment of the wall
usually governs the required sectional size
and stiffness of the wall.

APD Assuming the wall to be a continuous beam,

H
d the maximum wall bending moment can be
calculated using
p Mmax ≈ p(dmax)2/10

Alternatively, the simple beam method can

be used to locate the section of zero shear
force and subsequently the maximum
bending moment can be calculated.
CV4110 24
 Example - Tributary area method

1m
N = γH/cu = 18x6/20 = 5.4 2m cu = 20 kPa
2m γ = 18 kN/m3
use soft to medium clay 1m
APD. Assume m = 0.4 strut spacing = 2 m
(horiz)

p = γH[1 – 0.4(4x20)/(18x6)] = 0.70γH = 76 kPa

horizontal strut spacing = 2 m

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Example - Tributary area method

1m 0.25H = 1.5 m
PA
1m Area A

1m
PB Area B
1m
1m
PC 0.5 m
Area C
0.5 m

p = 76 kPa

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PA = 0.5(76)1.5 + 76(0.5) = 95 kN/m x 2 m spacing
= 190 kN/strut
1m 0.25H = 1.5 m
PA
1m Area A
0.5 m
1m
PB Area B
1m
1m
PC Area C
0.5 m
0.5 m
p = 76 kPa

PB = 2x76 = 152 kN/m x 2 = 304 kN/strut

PC = 1.5x76 = 114 kN/m x 2 = 228 kN/strut

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Wall bending moment dmax = max vertical spacing

1m 0.25H = 1.5 m
PA
1m Area A
0.5 m
1m
PB Area B
1m
1m
PC Area C
0.5 m
0.5 m
p = 76 kPa

Max BM = p(dmax)2/10 = 76(2)2/10 = 30.4 kNm/m

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Example - Simple
1m 1.5 m
beam method PA
2m

sum forces horizontally PB1

76 kPa
PA + PB1 = 0.5(1.5)76+1.5(76) = 171

Take moments about B

PA(2) = (0.5x1.5x76)(1.5+1.5/3) + (1.5x76)(0.75)

Solving, PA = 99.75 kN/m x 2 = 199.5 kN/strut

PB1 = 71.25 kN/m

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Simple beam method PB2

2m
PC 1m
sum forces horizontally
76 kPa
PC + PB2 = 3x76 = 228

Take moments about B

PC(2) = 3x76(1.5)
Solving, PC = 171 kN/m x 2 = 342 kN/strut
PB2 = 57 kN/m

PB = PB1 + PB2 = 128.25 kN/m x 2 = 256.5 kN/strut

CV4110 30
Simple beam method 1m 1.5 m
PA
to find max BM
2m
y
PB1
Find distance y where
shear force = 0 76 kPa

PB1 = 71.25 kN/m

PB1 – 76y = 0
y = 0.94 m

Max BM = 71.25(0.94) – 76(0.94)(0.94/2) = 33.4 kNm/m

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PB2
Find distance y where
shear force = 0 2m
y
PC 1m
76 kPa
PC = 171 kN/m
PC – 76y = 0
y = 2.3 m

Max BM = 171(2.3 – 1) – 76(2.3)(2.3/2) = 21.3 kNm/m

Design for max BM = 33.4 kNm/m

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 CIRIA C517 (1999) DPL
DPL = distributed prop load

Classification of ground types

Soil Class Description
A Normally and slightly overconsolidated
clay soils (soft to firm clays)
B Heavily overconsolidated clay soils
(stiff and very stiff clays)
C Coarse-grained soils
D Mixed soils (walls retaining both fine-
grained and coarse-grained soils)

Notations
F = Flexible walls; S = Stiff walls;
γ = total unit weight of soil; γ’ = effective unit weight
of soil;
γave = average unit weight of the soil over the
retained height of the excavation
CV4110
H 33

Stable base = adequate basal heave FS

Unstable base = wall needs to penetrate into competent
layer to improve basal heave stability (T/B < 0.5, T/H <
0.8)

These charts will be provided in

the exam if required.
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 CV4110 35

Comparison of APD – Sheetpile Wall

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 Comparison of APD – Diaphragm Wall

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Parametric Study of a Hypothetical Problem

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Effect of Undrained
Shear Strength
(Sheetpile Wall)

Sheetpile
Wall

Diaphragm
Wall

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Effect of
Excavation
Width (B)

Sheetpile Wall Diaphragm Wall

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Effect of Clay
Thickness (T) Sheetpile
Wall
Diaphragm Wall

T/B = 0.33

T/B = 0.5
Diaphragm
Wall

T/B = 1.0
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Wales

The function of the wales (walers) is to transfer the earth

pressure on the wall to the struts. For analysis, it can be
assumed that the earth pressures act directly on the wales.

a
PA
Area A
b
b
PB Area B
c
c
PC d
Area C
d
p
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Wales
Assuming the horizontal waler to be a continuous beam,
the maximum bending moment in the waler can be
calculated using
Mmax ≈ {p(smax)2/10} x {vertical APD distance}

p
a
PA
Area A
b
s
b
strut PB Area B
c
c
PC d
Area C
d
plan view p
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Development of
BM at different
stages of
excavation

CV4352
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 Anchored Walls

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design T = To.SH./cosα

To = computed force per m run α

SH = horizontal rod spacing
T
α = inclination of rod to horiz.

SH usually varies from 1.5 m to 5 m

Design of Walings: The walings can be assumed to be simply
supported between the tie rods. Alternatively use
Mmax = T(b)2/10
where b = tie rod spacing, T = force per m run

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APD for Anchored walls (Sand and stiff clay) – Federal
Highway Administration FHWA (1998) method
► Modification to Peck’s method for sand and stiff clay.
► The earth pressures for anchored walls with flexible wall elements
are greatly influenced by the prestressing of each anchor.
► Earth pressures concentrate at the anchor locations. The apparent
earth pressure diagram for anchored walls in sands and stiff to hard
fissured clays requires that the location of the uppermost and lowermost
anchor be known.
► The distribution of earth pressure in addition to being influenced by
excavation depth (as is the case for Peck’s diagrams), is also
influenced by the location of the anchors.

► A nonsymmetrical trapezium pressure is assumed.

► The location of the upper and lowest anchors must be known.

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APD for Anchored Walls Sand

(Sand and stiff clay)

H1 (2/3)H1

Th1 Stiff clay (γH/cu < 4)

H2 p
H p ≈ 0.2γH – 0.4γH
Th2
Hn
Thn
H1 = distance from ground surface to
uppermost ground anchor
Hn+1
(2/3)Hn+1 Hn+1 = distance from base of excavation
to lowermost ground anchor
Thi = horizontal load in ground anchor i
R
R = reaction force to be resisted by
subgrade (i.e., below base of
This chart will be provided in excavation)
the exam if required. p = maximum ordinate of APD
CV4110 48
 strut
anchor

compression tension

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H
Pullout force
on wall
V
force
acting on
raker raker

Wall is pushed
down (check
bearing capacity)
V

CV4110 50
 PH
PH
PV
θ θ
R = force
acting on
raker

Force PH calculated from APD

cos(θ) = PH/R
force R = PH/cos(θ)

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Wall Yielding

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cracked measured

cracked
Uncracked

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