CONTENT UPDATE: EARTH SCIENCE

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 The earth is the third planet from the sun in the Solar System. The earth is approximately 1.28 x 10 km in
diameter at the equator. The diameter at the poles is approximately 70 km less than at the equator because of its
rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge). These make the shape of the earth an oblate spheroid.
 The earth is divided into the following spheres: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 The lithosphere refers to the solid part of the earth. This is a relatively rigid layer that includes the outermost
layer which is the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. The other layers of the earth below the mantle are
the outer core and the inner core. The outer core is primarily made up of iron and nickel. It is also inferred that it
is liquid and the convections currents in this portion of the earth are responsible for the earth’s magnetic field. On
the other hand, the inner core is primarily made up of iron and is solid.

 ROCKS AND MINERALS

 A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid element or compound composed
of an ordered arrangement of atoms with a specific chemical composition.
 The following are the different properties of minerals: luster, hardness, color, streak, specific gravity,
crystal form, cleavage, and fracture.
 A rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals.
 Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
 Igneous rock is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from hardened magma or lava.
 Sedimentary rock is formed by the process of lithification. The process of lithification involves
compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the pressure exerted by the layers of sediment
above and cementation that involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together.
 Metamorphic rock can be formed form previously existing rock such as igneous and sedimentary rocks.
When they are subjected to heat and pressure, they undergo the process of metamorphism and they are
eventually converted into an igneous rock.
 The earth is a dynamic planet. Its surface continuously undergoes change. Therefore, all the rocks on
earth may have been formed from previously exiting rocks. This is the rock cycle. The rock cycle involves
processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, cementation, melting, crystallization, and
metamorphism.

The Rock Cycle

 DIASTROPHISM
 Diastrophism refers to the movement of the earth’s crust. It involves the formation of faults and folds
which are both involved in mountain building. It also explains the occurrence of earthquakes.
 Forces within the earth cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust of the earth—including
both the continents and ocean basins—consists of separate sections that overlie a hot, almost molten
layer.
 The theory of plate tectonics is a unifying theory of the continental drift and seafloor spreading theories.
The current position of continents on the globe is thought to be the result of the break-up and subsequent
movement of the plates making up the super continent, Pangea, about 250 million years ago. Pangea is
formed from the collision of continents that formed from the original crust of the earth and started moving
around 2 ½ billion years ago.
 The surface of the earth undergoes continuous cycles of building structures and tearing them down.
Weathering is process of wearing structures down while erosion refers to moving the weathered
materials. Canyons, gullies, and valleys are the result of weathering and erosion by rivers and streams.

 The hydrosphere refers to the liquid portion of the earth. Most of the surface of the earth is covered by water.
Almost 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water while the remaining 30% is covered by land. However,
most of this water is not fresh water but salt water found in the oceans. These largest oceans are the Pacific
Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean.
 Fresh water is an essential resource for daily life and industrial processes, obtained from rivers and lakes and
from water that moves below the earth's surface (groundwater). Many sources of fresh water cannot be used
because they have been polluted. It can be very expensive to clean up polluted air and water, restore destroyed
forests and fishing grounds, or restore or preserve eroded soils of poorly managed agricultural areas.
 The hydrologic cycle refers water vapor cycling into and out of the atmosphere through continuous evaporation
of liquid water from the surface and precipitation of water back to the surface.

 The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth. It is made up of different gases in different
amounts. The table below shows the composition of the earth’s atmosphere.

 The
atmosphere of the earth is divided into several layers. From the lowermost to the topmost, they are as follows:
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
 The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere that extends from ground level up to an
altitude of about 16 km. Even though it is the thinnest layer of the atmosphere, it contains 90% of the
atmosphere’s mass and contains almost all of its water vapor and clouds. This is also where the
atmospheric pressure is greatest. All weather phenomenon and disturbances also occur in this layer. The
temperature in this layer decreases with increasing altitude. This is known as the environmental lapse
rate. This is happens because what heats up the troposphere is the terrestrial radiation emitted by the
earth back into the atmosphere.
  The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere. It extends from the topmost
boundary of the troposphere up to an altitude of 50 km. This is where the ozone layer can be found that is
responsible for trapping ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun so that it cannot penetrate the
atmosphere and eventually reach the ground. Because of the presence of the ozone layer which absorbs
ultraviolet radiation, the temperature in this layer increases with increasing altitude.
 The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the stratosphere. It extends from the
topmost boundary of the stratosphere up to an altitude of about 80 km. Unlike in the stratosphere where
the temperature increases with increasing altitude, here the temperature decrease4s with increasing
altitude because the air is very thin. As a result, very little amount of thermal; energy is absorbed by the
air molecules from sunlight that passes through it.
 The thermosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the mesosphere. It extends from the
topmost boundary of the mesosphere up to an altitude of about 500 km. This layer contains very little air.
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As a result, even if the temperature can be as high as 2000 C, this has very little significance because of
its very low density. The boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere is a region called the
ionosphere. This ion – rich region is produced by the interaction between high frequency solar radiation
and atoms of gases in the atmosphere that become ionized.
 The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere that extends beyond the topmost boundary of
the thermosphere and gradually spreads out into the outer space.

 WEATHER VS CLIMATE

 Weather refers to the daily condition of the atmosphere. Climate, on the other hand, refers to the
average of the weather conditions for a specific place that is taken over an extended period of time.
 The different elements of weather are as follows: air temperature, air pressure, humidity, type and amount
of cloudiness, type and amount of precipitation, and speed and direction of wind.
 Today, the most commonly used climate map is the Köppen climate classification, developed by German
climatologist and amateur botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940), which divides the world into five major
climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average
monthly temperature.

 THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF WEATHER

 Air temperature refers to the relative measure of the hotness or coldness of the surrounding air as
measured by a thermometer. Those places near the equator receive more direct sunlight as compared
to those places near the poles so the latter have higher average temperatures.
 Air pressure refers to the force per unit area that the atmosphere exerts. The normal air pressure or
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm or 760 mmHg. As the altitude increases, the air pressure
decreases. This happens because as we gain altitude, lesser amount of air lies above as than before.
The instrument used to measure air pressure is the barometer.
 Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. It is measured in terms of two different
quantities: absolute humidity and relative humidity. Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of
water vapor in a given mass of air. It is typically expressed in terms of the amount of water vapor in grams
contained in a kilogram of air including the water vapor. Relative humidity, on the other hand, refers to
the ratio of the actual water vapor content to its potential water vapor holding capacity at a given
temperature. When the air temperature is high, the atmosphere has a greater capacity to store water
vapor than when the temperature is low. This happens because faster moving water vapor particles just
bounce back from each other during collisions rather than stick together which then results to
condensation. When the relative humidity is 50%, it means that a given amount of air contains only half of
its water vapor holding capacity. It also means that 50% of all the water molecules that evaporated
condense back to liquid. When the relative humidity is 100% percent, it means that the atmosphere is
already saturated. It cannot hold more water vapor; therefore, the amount of water molecules that
evaporate is exactly balanced by the amount of water vapor molecules that condense. The instrument
that measure humidity is the hygrometer. One type of hygrometer is the psychrometer.
 Clouds refer to an aggregate of water droplets, ice crystals, condensation nuclei in the form of salts and
dust, suspended in air. Clouds are colloidal systems supported by rising air such as thermals and
updrafts. Clouds form whenever warm air which holds a certain amount of water vapor is cooled below
the dew point temperature. This can be achieved in a number of ways such as the rising of warm air
because of convection, orographic lifting as a blob of air is forced up the mountain slope by wind, and
radiation cooling at night which results to the formation of fog. Clouds are generally classified according to
their altitude and shape. There are ten principal cloud forms, each of which belongs to one of the four
major groups.

 Clouds that
cannot be
supported by updrafts or thermal usually fall as precipitation. There are different forms of precipitation.
The most common in tropical areas are mist, rain, and drizzle. In temperate countries, precipitation takes
the form of snow, hail, sleet, and gaupel. The instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall is the
rain gauge. The amount of rainfall is typically expressed as inches of rainfall.
 Wind refers to the horizontal movement of air from a region of high pressure to a region with low
pressure. In contrast, in a convection cell, warm air that moves upward is called updraft while cold air
that sinks is called downdraft. An example of local wind is the occurrence of sea breeze and land
breeze. The direction of wind is determined by an instrument known as the wind vane and the speed of
the wind is determined from the anemometer.
 THE MOTIONS
OF THE EARTH AND THE DIFFERENT SEASONS

 The earth rotates about its axis once every 24 hours. The direction of rotation is counterclockwise as
seen above the North Pole or in a direction from west to east. As a consequence, it seems that the sun
rises on the east and sets on the west. This motion of the earth is responsible for the day and night cycle.
 As the earth rotates about its axis, it also revolves around the sun. The revolution of the earth along its
elliptical orbit around the sun lasts for 365 ¼ days. This period of revolution of the earth around the sun is
equal to one year. The distance of the earth from the sun as well as its orbital speed varies depending on
its position in its orbit. If the earth is at its perihelion, it is closest to the sun and thus moves the fastest.
When the earth is at its aphelion, it is farthest from the sun and thus moves the slowest.

 The axis of the earth is tilted with respect to the vertical by an angle of 23 ½ degrees. As a consequence,
different places on the earth receive different amounts of insolation (incoming solar radiation) per unit
area. Areas near the equator receive more direct sunlight than those areas closer to the poles. Also, the
length of daytime and nighttime varies depending on the location of the place and the time of the year.
These factors determine the occurrence of seasons, the periodic variation in the climate in a particular
place.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is directed towards the sun (June 21/22), the northern
hemisphere receives more direct sunlight. In particular, the sun is directly overhead at noontime over the
Tropic of Cancer. Except for those places in the equator, the length of daytime and nighttime are not
equal. This phenomenon is known as the solstice. In the northern hemisphere, the length of daytime is
longer than that of nighttime. Therefore, it is summer solstice in the northern hemisphere. In the
southern hemisphere, the length of nighttime is longer than the length of daytime. Therefore, it is
winter solstice in the southern hemisphere.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is away from the sun (December 21/22), the southern
hemisphere receives more direct sunlight. In particular, the sun is directly overhead at noontime over the
Tropic of Capricorn. Except for those places in the equator, the length of daytime and nighttime are not
equal. This phenomenon is known as the solstice. In the northern hemisphere, the length of nighttime is
longer than that of daytime. Therefore, it is winter solstice in the northern hemisphere. In the southern
hemisphere, the length of daytime is longer than the length of nighttime. Therefore, it is summer
solstice in the southern hemisphere.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is neither towards nor away from the sun (March 21/22 and
September 22/23), the northern and southern hemispheres receive the same amount of insolation. In
particular, the sun is directly overhead at noontime over the Equator. As a consequence, the length of
daytime and nighttime are equal at all latitudes. This phenomenon is known as the equinox. On March
21/22, it is spring equinox in the northern hemisphere and autumnal equinox in the southern hemisphere.
On September 22/23, it is autumnal equinox in the northern hemisphere and spring equinox in the
southern hemisphere.
 The motion of the earth and its position with regard to the sun and the moon has noticeable effects. The position
of the earth, moon, and the sun with respect to one another determines phenomena such as the different
phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides.

 THE PHASES OF THE MOON

 The moon shines because it reflects the light that comes from the sun. At all times, half of the surface of
the sun is illuminated while the other half is darkened. However, the moon shows different amounts of its
sunlit half as it circles around the earth each month. These changes refer to the phases of the moon.
 The moon cycle begins with the new moon. This occurs when the moon is in between the earth and the
sun. In this phase, the dark side faces us. However, we do not see the moon because it is located in the
daytime side of the earth. The light coming from the sum overwhelms our supposed view of the moon.
 During the next seven days, we see more and more of the moons sunlit side. The moon is going through
its waxing crescent phase (“waxing’’ means increasing). At the first quarter, the angle between
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the sun, moon, and earth is 90 . At this time, we see half of the sunlit part of the moon.
 During the next week, we see more and more of the sunlit part. The moon is going through its waxing
gibbous phase. (“gibbous” means more than half). We see a full moon when the sunlit side of the
moon faces us squarely. At this time, the sun, moon, and earth are lined up with the earth in between.
 The cycle reverses the following two weeks, as we see less and less of the sunlit side while the moon
continues in its orbit. This movement produces the waning gibbous, last quarter, and waning
crescent phases.
 The time for one complete cycle of the phases of the moon is 29 ½ days. However, the moon actually
orbits the earth once every 27 1/3 relative to the stars. The 29 ½ day cycle is relative to the sun and is
due to the motion of the earth – moon system as it revolves around the sun.
 The same side of the moon always faces the earth as the moon undergoes through its different phases.
This happens because as the moon revolves around the earth, it also rotates about its axis. The time for
one complete revolution of the moon is the same time for one complete rotation.
 The orbit of the moon around the earth is not exactly circular. The moon is said to be in a position called
apogee is it is farthest from the earth and it is the position called perigee if it is closest to the
earth.

 ECLIPSES
 Although the sun is 400 times larger in diameter than the moon, it is also 400 times farther away. So, from
the earth, both the moon and the earth appear to have the same size in the sky. This allows us to see a
solar eclipse. During the new moon phase, the moon is on the daytime side of the earth. When the sun,
moon, and earth are exactly aligned with each other, the light coming from the sun is blocked by the
moon. Therefore the moon casts a shadow on earth. Because of the large size of the sun, the rays taper
providing two distinct forms of shadow on the earth. The umbra refers to the darker shadow cast by the
moon. This is where total solar eclipse is observed. The less dark shadow is the penumbra. This is
where partial solar eclipse is observed. The solar eclipse typically lasts for minutes only because the
moon casts a relatively small shadow on earth because of the small size of the moon.
 During the full moon phase, the moon is on the nighttime side of the earth. When the sun, earth, and
moon are exactly aligned with each other, the earth blocks the light coming from the sun. Therefore, the
moon is inside the shadow of the earth. Since the moon just reflects the light coming from the sun, it
appears dark. This is a lunar eclipse.
 However, eclipses do not always occur whenever the phase of the moon is either new or full because the
earth, moon, and sun are not always exactly aligned with each other. This is because the plane of the
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orbit of the moon around the earth is tilted by 5 with respect to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of the
orbit of the earth around the sun).
 The usual number of eclipse in a year is four. These occur as a set of one solar and one lunar eclipse,
followed six months later with another set. Occasionally the alignment is such that the three eclipses can
be squeezed into a one month period. This occurs as a solar eclipse flanked by two lunar eclipses, or vice
versa. Furthermore, it occasionally happens that the first set of eclipses occurs at the very beginning of a
year, and the third set occurs before the year ends, resulting in six eclipses in that year. More rarely, if
one of these sets is a three – eclipse kind, the total number of eclipses can reach seven, which is the
maximum.
 SOLAR ECLIPSE

LUNAR
ECLIPSE

 TIDES

 The periodic rising and falling of the water level in seas and in the oceans is called tides. Tides are
caused by differences in the gravitational pull between the moon and the earth on opposite sides of the
earth. Gravitational force between the moon and the earth is stronger on the side of the earth that is
nearest to the moon, and it is weaker on the side of the earth that is farthest from the moon.
 There are two sets of tides that occur in one day, two high tides and two low tides. They are separated by
about six hours.
 There are two different types of ocean tides: the spring tide and the neap tide.
 Spring tide refers to the high tide or low tide that occurs when the sun, earth, and the moon are aligned
so that the tides due to the sun and moon coincide, making the high tides higher than average and the
low tides lower than average.
 Neap tide refers to the tide that occurs when the moon is midway between the new and full, in either
direction. Tides due to the sun and moon partly cancel, making the high tides lower than average and the
low tides higher than average.

 ASTRONOMY
 ASTRONOMY is the scientific probing of the universe to derive the properties of celestial objects and the
laws under which the universe operates.
 The most acceptable theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory by George Gamow.

 THE BIG BANG THEORY

 Accordingly, the entire universe was at one time confined to a dense, hot, super massive ball. Then about
20 billion years ago, a cataclysmic explosion occurred, hurling massive materials in all directions – The
Universe.
 This theory is supported by empirical evidence: the RED – SHIFT phenomenon
 Hubble realized that most galaxies are receding from us. This led to the known “Hubble’s Law:
Galaxies are receding from us at a speed that is proportional to their distance.”

 The universe is made up of basic units known as galaxies. Galaxies are made up of millions and billions of stars.
There are three (3) basic types of galaxies: (1) Spiral Galaxies, (2) Elliptical Galaxies, and (3) Irregular Galaxies.
 Spiral Galaxy:
(1) Appears bluish in color
(2) Has central body and spiral arms
(3) Example: Milky Way
 Elliptical Galaxy:
(1) Appears reddish in color
(2) Appears elliptical
(3) Example: Andromeda
 Irregular Galaxy:
(1) Does not exhibit any regular shape
(2) Appears like clouds
(3) Examples: Small and big Magellanic clouds

 STARS

 Stars are the main components of galaxies. Stars are luminous bodies. Through a process known as
thermonuclear fusion, four (4) hydrogen nuclei combine to form a single helium atom, which becomes
part of the core of the star.
  Stars do exhibit several properties that could give information about the age of the stars. These are color,
temperature, size, brightness or magnitude, and distance from the earth. Blue stars are known to be
young stars while red stars are the old stars.

 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 The Solar System includes the Sun, the eight planets and their moons, the planetoids or the minor
planets, the asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and the interstellar gases, dust, and ice.
 The Sun is a yellow star of average size and temperature. It is a main – sequence star that is around 4.5
billion years old.
 The planets are categorized into two: the terrestrial or the “earth-like” planets and the Jovian or
“Jupiter-like” planets. The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, dense planets with few or no moon at all.
Their rotation about their axes is relatively slow. The terrestrial planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars. The Jovian planets are gas giants with very low densities. They also rotate about their axes
relatively fast. They are also characterized by a large number of moons that each planet has. The Jovian
planets include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto is no longer considered a planet. It is now
just a minor planet. It is believed that Pluto may be the largest body in the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt is
a disk – shaped region of the sky beyond Neptune that is populated by many icy bodies and is a source
of short – period comets.
 In between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies the asteroid belt. It is a region with a large number of big
chunks of rocks that include the asteroids and the meteoroids. An asteroid is a small, rocky, planet-like
fragment that orbits the sun. The largest asteroid is Ceres. Meteoroids are formed from the collision of
asteroids or from the debris left behind by a comet as it grazes very close to the sun. Some meteoroids
that enter that atmosphere of the earth glow because of the burning caused by atmospheric friction. They
are often called “shooting stars” but they should be appropriately called meteors. Most of the meteors
do not survive the burning and they totally disintegrate before they ever reach the surface of the earth.
But for some relatively large meteors, they impact the surface as meteorites.
 A comet is a body composed of ice and dust that orbits the sun, usually in a very eccentric orbit, and that
casts a luminous tail produced by solar radiation pressure when it is close to the sun. The Oort cloud is
the region beyond the Kuiper Belt that is populated by trillions of icy bodies and is a source of long –
period comets.

 MAN’S IMPACT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

 Human activities have changed the earth's land surface, oceans, and atmosphere. For instance, reducing
the amount of forest cover on the earth's surface has led to a dramatic increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide, which in turn may be leading to increased average temperature of the earth's atmosphere and
surface.
 Smoke and other substances from human activity interact chemically with the atmosphere and produce
undesirable effects such as smog, acid rain, and an increase in the damaging ultraviolet radiation that
penetrates the atmosphere.
 Increased emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide which traps infrared radiation has
resulted to an increase in the average temperature of thee earth known as global warming. The
aggravated effects of global warming resulted to climate change in the recent decade.
 Intensive farming has stripped land of vegetation and topsoil, creating virtual deserts in some parts of the
world.