Text and Context Connections
’
Hypertext and Intertext
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to define
intertextuality and hypertextuality. You should also be
able to identify and differentiate various connections
presented by intertextuality and hypertextuality.
Intertextuality
When we read, we try to make meaning of the
material that we are absorbing through many different
processes. Unintentionally, sometimes, we see
patterns in the materials that we are reading that are
apparent in another text. Theorists term this as
intertextuality, as a literary device, "it is the ‘complex
interrelationship between a text and other texts taken
as fundamental to the creation and interpretation of
the text" (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2015). As
readers, our ability to create connections among
various texts enhances the meaning of the reading
material.
Example:
JK Rowling’s "Harry Potter Series" and JRR
Tolkien’s "Lord of the Rings Trilogy."
Explanation:
JK Rowling’s "Harry Potter Series" share similar
events and even characters types similar to JRR
Tolkien’s "Lord of the Rings Trilogy". Both texts use
wise wizards as the protagonist’s mentor (Gandalf in
LOTR and Dumbledore in Harry Potter), this is an
example of intertextuality. As readers, we
understand "Harry Potter’s"journey more because of
the individual connections we can attribute to
the "Lord of the Rings". However, we do not need to
read the "Lord of the Rings" to understand "Harry
Potter."
Hypertextuality
Hypertextuality allows readers to study a text in a
different manner. Typically, a text is written in a linear
fashion. This linear progression only enables the
reader to read the material the way the author
designed it from beginning to end. In a hypertext,
pieces of information are connected semantically.
There is an undefined beginning, middle, and end
(Department of Education, 2013). Hypertext creates a
network of materials linked because of various
connections they share, this encourages and, at
times, requires readers to go through the material at
their pace.
Hypertext allows readers to choose their way of
reading the text that speaks to them in the most
logical manner individually. This process removes the
burden of making meaning from the author to the
reader. As a reader, you are given the chance to
explore other parts of the text or even ideas linked to
the text without being told how and what to read in a
step-by-step process.
Example:
Philippa J. Burne’s wrote "24 Hours." This hypertext
fiction presents a narrative, wherein, readers are
given clickable options that determine the dialog and
action of the text. You may determine the path the
story may take depending on the choices that you
make as the reader.
The girl hesitates, ‘Jess left.
‘Oh.’
‘You a friend?’
‘Cousin.’
‘Didn’t even leave an address.’
She looks you up and down. ‘I suppose you’d
better come in.’ You look up and down the street and
wonder whether you should just leave.
From "24 Hours" by Philippa J. Burne
Explanation:
The passage above gives the reader the option to
click the word ‘come in’ or ‘leave’. Clicking one of the
words would lead you to a different part of the story.
These choices create multiple beginnings and
endings that are determined by the choices made by
the reader.
Key Points
 Intertextuality is the complex connections
between a text and various reading materials
that add to the meaning and analysis of the
text being read.
 Hypertext is the presentation of a reading
material wherein resources are connected to a
specific aspect of a text because of a shared
semantic link which allows the reader to
explore the manuscript or other reading
materials in whatever fashion he or she
believes to be logically acceptable.
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Explicit and Implicit Information
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to identify
and differentiate explicitly and implicitly stated claims
of fact, policy, or value.
Critical Reading Leads to Significant
Understanding:
Readers interact with the material through critical
reading. When you practice critical reading, you are
not just gathering information; you are also judging
the importance and legitimacy of the information you
have gathered by judging the purpose, manner of
presentation, and holistic development of the
arguments presented in the text.
To properly evaluate the ideas you have gathered
while reading, you must be able to know the different
kinds of information which are explicit information and
implicit information.
Two Kinds of Information:
Explicit Information is the information is stated in the
text. Readers can see the piece of information stated
in the given passage.
Implicit information is the information not directly
presented in the text. As readers, we need to read
between the lines to understand the details that the
writer is trying to tell us.
Sometimes, we read because we need to perform a
particular task after reading. The different kinds of
information we have gathered through reading may
be used as a basis for our next task. We can
sufficiently discuss our opinion depending on the
evidence that we have collected from the texts we
have read. Proofs, or claims can be used based on
the type of presentation or argumentation that you
wish to do.
Three Kinds of Claims:
Claims of Fact
Claims of fact are pieces of information which are
grounded on reliable authority such as science or
history.
Example:
The devastation experienced by the Philippines
during Typhoon Yolanda shows the readiness of
disaster relief protocols established by the
government.
Explanation:
This claim can be defended or refuted using events
as proof, and the existence or non-existence of the
protocols may be discussed using specific incidences
as evidence.
Claims of Value
Claims of value are pieces of information that are
focused on relative judgment such as goodness or
badness, and these are usually addressed based on
standards.
Example:
Stem cell research is wrong.
Explanation:
This claim attempts to prove the badness of one idea
based on a moral judgment as specified by various
standards (may be religious or even political).
Claims of Policy
Claims of policy are specific statements on
procedures or laws that need to be modified based on
certain issues or conditions. Most of the time, claims
of policy ask for plans of action to solve current
problems.
Example:
Censorship in the Philippines must be strengthened.
Explanation:
This claim demands that additional amendments on a
specific policy be adopted because present
circumstances are no longer sufficient.
Example:
Childhood obesity in our country has more than tripled
in the past 30 years. Today, one in six children in our
country is obese. This is unacceptable. As parents,
we try to provide a better future for our children, better
than we’ve ever had. We need to stand up and do
what we can. We can start by supporting the passing
of the anti-junk food bill in schools and other child-
friendly areas.
Adapted from Sample Op-Ed on Childhood Obesity
Explanation:
Information such as the tripling of the amount of
obesity is used in an explicit manner. Also, the author
uses this claim of fact to base his ideas on reliable
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authority, which, in this instance is a statistic. The
author also uses the standard of providing a better life
to children as a claim of value before leveraging a
change in policy as stated in this sentence
“supporting the passing of the anti-junk food bill in
schools and other child-friendly areas. “ These pieces
of information explicitly tell us that obesity is a
problem, and this passage is implicitly informing us
that we can contribute to solving this issue.
Summary
Critical reading is necessary for judging the reliability
of the text through the study of implicit and explicit
information. These pieces of information may lead to
various claims such as one rooted in history or
science (claims of fact). There are claims that
demand action because the present conditions for
certain policies are no longer effective (claims of
policy). Also, claims that assert the morality of an idea
based on certain standards or preferences (claims of
value).
Formulating Assertions
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to familiarize
yourself with different types of assertions and
formulate your assertions on a particular topic.
Assertion
An assertion is a statement used to make a
declaration or to express strong belief on a
particular topic, often without evidence. An assertion
can be formulated after reading a story or a poem,
and even after watching a play. The purpose of
writing an assertion is for the writer to convey directly
an idea or feeling and to convince the reader to
accept the writer’s interpretation of a particular literary
work.
Before Writing
Before writing an assertion in literature, the author
must comprehensively read or watch the literary
work. He must take down the part he is for, or he is
opposed to, followed by his explanation of it. It is also
best to collect evidence from the same or other
literary authors that have the same assertion as with
the writer.
Forming Assertions
Different types of assertion can be used in formal or
informal writing. This includes Basic Assertion,
Emphatic Assertion and I-Language Assertion.
Example:
Read and examine the text below before forming
assertions.
Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the culture and
values of the Filipinos are still in tacked. Precolonial
Philippines has their own form of government and
social structure. Every local community is composed
of small kingdom or tribe headed by a chieftain called
the ‘rajah’ or ‘datu’. Social structure also exists and is
composed of three classes namely – the ‘maharlika’
or freeman, ‘timawa’ or the middle class and the
‘alipin’ or the slaves. Judicial, legislative and
executive systems, also known as the branches of the
government, are also present during precolonialism.
The ‘datu’ formulates the law, ‘village elders’ help the
datu in deciding and promulgating laws and the
‘umalohokan’ or town crier is the one who
disseminates new law or ordinances.
Philippines is also known as sea travellers with the
use of their ‘balangay’ or Butuan boat. They also had
smooth foreign relation because of the trading of
minerals and goods. Literacy rate is also high
because of the existence of the ‘baybayin’ or the
ancient writing method. All of these advances were
abolished as the Spaniards fully colonized the
country.
Let us use this short text in formulating different types
of assertion.
Basic Assertion
Basic Assertion is a statement used to express
the writer's feelings, beliefs, and opinions directly.
This type of assertion is usually used in writing formal
papers like thesis and dissertation.
Example:
The Philippines has an advanced civilization before
the colonization of Spain. Form and branches of
government, social structure and the existence of
ancient writing are some of the evidence that proves
the advancement of the precolonial period.
Explanation:
This first sentence is considered as the basic
assertion. The second sentence contains evidence
that support the assertion.
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Emphatic Assertion
Emphatic Assertion is a statement used to
express empathy or on how a person understands
the feelings and emotions of the literary author. This
can be used on writing a formal or informal paper.
It is usually composed of two parts: 1) the first part is
the statement that recognizes the situation or even
the feelings of the characters on the text being read
followed by 2.) the second statement where the writer
states his stand about the situation.
Example:
I know that the Philippines, before pre-Spaniard
colonization, has their system of writing called the
‘baybayin’. This alone proves that the Filipinos are
literate as opposed to the Spaniards claim.
Explanation:
The first part recognizes the situation based on the
text being read. The second part contains the writer’s
stand on the situation presented.
I - Language Assertion
I - Language Assertion is a statement used to
express the feeling and preference of the writer. It
is called I-Language because it focuses on the writer
and is using the pronoun ‘I’. This type of assertion is
recommended if the author wants to express negative
feelings and opinion. This is best used in writing a
review or reflection paper.
It is composed of three parts. The first part contains
the accurate information from literary work, especially
the topic the writer disagrees with (When you. . .). The
second part includes the effect or feeling of the writer
towards the topic (It affects/I feel...). The last part
includes the preference or recommendation of the
writer (Therefore, I prefer/I want...).
Example:
Upon reading that the ancient Filipino civilization is
divided into three social classes namely the
‘maharlika’, ‘timawa’ and ‘alipin’, I feel proud because
of the civilization social advancement and at the same
time sad because of the promulgation of social
differentiation. With this finding, I want to do further
research on the existence of these social classes’
stigma.
Explanation:
The example given is divided into three parts that
includes the feelings and preference of the writer.
Tips
 There are two (2) factors that must be
considered before formulating assertion. First
is to determine the type of paper you are going
to write – and can either be formal or informal
paper. Second is to determine the type of
literary work you are going to examine
including novel, poem, journal article or
theatre play.
 It is best to include facts and evidence after
every assertion. This is done to make a strong
stand on every claimed assertion.
Formulating Evaluative Statements
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to formulate
evaluative statements and assertions about a text
read.
From having casual conversations with your friends
about texts you read for leisure to giving your opinion
about texts read in class, formulating evaluative
statements about a text read is a skill that you should
definitely develop.
This lesson includes what an evaluative statement is,
what part of the text you should include in your
statement, and how you can also formulate one.
Evaluative Statement
An evaluative statement is a statement that you can
make to reflect your judgment and generalization
about a text that you have read.
You may use evidence from the text in formulating
evaluative statements. One way of formulating
evaluative statements is by formulating assertions or
positive statements about the content of a text and
properties of a text that you have read. Another way
of formulating evaluative statements is by
formulating counterclaims. In this lesson, we will
focus on formulating assertions.
For you to be able to formulate assertions about the
properties and content of a text read, you must
identify the claim or claims made in the text.
A claim suggests an idea to the reader who may or
may not agree with it. It is an arguable statement that
reflects the writer’s position about a topic. It is usually
supported by reasons by the writer.
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The content of a text includes the information in the
text and the claim/s of the writer. It is important to
know about the properties of a well-written text so that
you would know what to look for in a text in evaluating
it.
Below are properties of a well-written text:
 organization (clear and logical pattern)
 coherence and cohesion (connection of
ideas)
 language use (choice of words)
 mechanics (capitalization, punctuation,
spelling, grammar, etc.)
In formulating evaluative statements, you must
express your judgment of the text. State if you liked
the text and what you liked about how it was written.
Always quote parts of the text to support your
assertions about it. When quoting, do not forget to
use quotation marks and cite the page if it is from a
book or article.
Example:
An Excerpt of Emma Watson's Speech on Gender
Equality at the UN
"I was appointed as Goodwill Ambassador for UN
Women 6 months ago.
The more I spoke about feminism, the more I realized
that fighting for women’s rights has too often become
synonymous with man-hating. If there is one thing I
know for certain is that this has to stop. For the
record, feminism by definition is the belief that men
and women should have equal rights and
opportunities. It is the theory of political, economic
and social equality of the sexes.
When I was 8, I was called bossy because I wanted to
direct a play we would put on for our parents. When at
14, I started to be sexualized by certain elements of
the media. At 15, my girlfriends started dropping out
of sports teams because they didn’t want to appear
masculine. At 18, my male friends were unable to
express their feelings.
I decided that I was a feminist. This seemed
uncomplicated to me. But my recent research has
shown me that feminism has become an unpopular
word. Women are choosing not to identify as
feminists. Apparently, [women’s expression is] seen
as too strong, too aggressive, isolating, and anti-men,
unattractive even…
Men, I would like to give this opportunity to extend
your formal invitation. Gender equality is your issue,
too. Because to date, I’ve seen my father’s role as a
parent being valued less by society. I’ve seen young
men suffering from mental illness, unable to ask for
help for fear it would make them less of a man. In
fact, in the UK, suicide is the biggest killer of men
between 20 to 49, eclipsing road accidents, cancer,
and heart disease. I’ve seen men fragile and insecure
by what constitutes male success. Men don’t have the
benefits of equality, either...
If you believe in equality, you might be one of the
inadvertent feminists I spoke of earlier and for this I
applaud you. We must strive for a united world but the
good news is we have a platform. It is called
HeForShe. I invite you to step forward, to be seen and
I ask yourself: if not me, who? If not now, when?
Thank you."
Source:
(Gomez, 2014) link
Explanation:
Evaluative statements about An Excerpt of Emma
Watson's Speech on Gender Equality at the UN:
I agree with the content of the text because it is not
just focusing on the rights of girls and women but also
on the rights of boys and men.
 In this evaluative statement, it is explained
why the reader agrees with the content of the
text about equal rights for females and males
and not just for females. By adding “it is not
just focusing on the rights of girls and women
but also on the rights of boys and men” in the
statement above, it is emphasized that there
are also issues on the rights of men.
The writer claims that feminism is not man-hating and
to support this claim, she defines feminism as “by
definition is the belief that men and women should
have equal rights and opportunities.”
 In the evaluative statement above, the reader
emphasizes the writer’s decision to clarify the
definition of the word ‘feminism,’ on what it is
not and what is really means. The reader
highlights the claim in the text that feminism is
not man-hating by quoting “by definition is the
belief that men and women should have equal
rights and opportunities.”
I like how the writer used simple words in the text, so
that it would easily be understood not only by adults
but also by young people like the speaker herself –
who are also part of the target audience or the people
that the text is intended for.
 This evaluative statement evaluates the
choice of words of the writer, how effective it is
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 in being easily understood by the target
audience.
Key Points
 evaluative statement - a statement that you can
make to reflect your judgment and
generalization about a text that you have read
 assertions - positive statements about the text
 claim - suggests an idea to the reader who may
or may not agree with it. It is an arguable
statement that reflects the writer’s position
about a topic.
 properties of a well-written text:
 organization (clear and logical pattern)
 coherence and cohesion (connection of ideas)
 language use (choice of words)
 mechanics (capitalization, punctuation,
spelling, grammar, etc.)
Determining Textual Evidence
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to
determine textual evidence to validate assertions and
counterclaims made about a text read.
Let's Review!
Whenever you are asked to express your ideas about
a text that you have read, there might be claims in the
text that you agree with, and there might be some
claims in the text that you disagree with.
The writer’s claims in the text try to persuade you to
think the way he or she thinks about a topic or issue.
A claim is an arguable statement in a text, and its
purpose is to persuade you to believe the writer’s
position about an issue.
Stating your judgment and generalization about
claims of the writer in a text is called formulating
evaluative statements.
When you make evaluative statements that show how
you agree with claims in a text, you are actually
formulating assertions. Assertions are positive
statements about a text read. When you make
evaluative statements that express how you oppose
with claims in a text, you are formulating
counterclaims. Counterclaims are statements that
oppose the claims of the writer in the text.
Example:
A lot of people waste time driving around when they
are lost, and this can be avoided by asking other
people for directions. The trick is to find a person who
you think would point you to the right direction.
Explanation:
The claim about the text above: People should ask
directions from strangers when they are lost so that
they do not waste time driving around.
The assertion about the text above: I agree with the
claim of the writer that people should ask directions
from strangers to save time by asking someone
reliable such as a gas station attendant.
The counterclaim about the text above: I disagree
with the claim of the writer that people should ask
directions from strangers. People should not ask
strangers for directions because they might end up
getting lost longer if a stranger gives them wrong
directions.
In this lesson, you will learn how to locate and use
textual evidence to strengthen your ideas about a text
should you agree or disagree with some claims in the
text.
Textual Evidence
In formulating assertions and counterclaims about a
text, it is important that you support your statements
with textual evidence. Textual evidence is
information gathered from the text that supports your
assertion or counterclaim about the text.
In expressing your judgment about the text,
1. First, state your idea about the text.
2. To determine evidence from the text, look for
clues and keywords that support your idea
about the text.
3. Quote or paraphrase the part of the text that
helped you come up with your idea.
4. Use quotation marks to quote a part of the
text. If it is from a book, indicate the page
number at the end of your sentence.
5. Lastly, express how the quote supports your
idea.
Below are types of textual evidence:
Paraphrasing is restating the text in your own words.
Summarizing is restating the text in a shorter way
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using your own words.
Referencing is mentioning a specific section of the
text.
Quoting is stating a part of a text in the exact way it
was written.
Support your statements with textual evidence to
come up with strong or solid arguments, and make
your ideas more credible. You can come up with good
textual evidence by selecting the most relevant
section of the text that strongly supports your
statement about the text.
Example:
An excerpt of Meat Culture
By Steve Pavlina
When I see a piece of flesh on someone’s plate, I also
see the processes that brought it to their plate. Some
people argue that plants may be harmed by being
eaten. I happen to agree. If we care about minimizing
harm to plants, then we’ll do much less harm by
eating them directly as opposed to grinding them up,
feeding them to animals, and then grinding up and
eating the animals. If we stopped growing crops to
feed to animals and fed those crops to people directly,
it’s estimated that we’d have enough food to feed the
whole planet five times over. So if you do actually
care about plants, then you can greatly reduce your
plant harm by eating plants directly. Another way to
reduce harm to plants is to favor fruits that can be
eaten without killing the plants. You can eat a wide
variety of fruits, both sweet and non-sweet, without
seriously hurting the plant that spawned it. And that
same plant will often continue to bear even more fruit.
I think a more sensible and realistic approach is to
keep leaning towards a more conscious,
compassionate, and ecologically sound way of eating.
If you want to argue that we should model predators’
diets to justify meat culture, I encourage you to go
ahead and try being a truly predatory person for a
while. Do it consciously. Prey on the weak. See where
that takes you.
Source:
(Pavlina, 2014) link
Explanation:
Determining textual evidences in the excerpt of
Meat Culture:
I agree with the writer that animals are being
subjected to cruelty when they are killed to become
our food. This claim of the writer is reflected in the first
part of the text wherein the writer makes the readers
think of how the meat ended up on their dinner plates.
The writer deliberately chose to say that whenever he
looks at the food on his plate, he also has mental
images of what had to be done to the animal for it to
become someone’s food. By using the phrase
“processes that brought it to their plate,” the readers
are made to imagine what an animal goes through
just to end up on our dinner plates.
In the assertion above, the reader starts by saying
that he or she agrees with the claim of the writer in
the text. This dictates that the statement is an
assertion. The reader used referencing, paraphrasing,
and quoting to support his or her statement. Of all the
words in the text, the reader chooses “processes that
brought it to their plate.” to support his or her
assertion. It is effective because the reader explains
how the quote supports his or her assertion about the
text.
I disagree with the writer when he challenged some
people to copy predatory behavior of animals and
prey on the weak. This is reflected in the sentence
“Prey on the weak. See where that takes you.”
Although he might have been sarcastic to prove a
point when he said this, it paints an unnecessary
violent mental picture for the readers and some
readers might actually take it literally.
In the counterclaim above, the reader states his or her
counterclaim and identifies the statement of the writer
that he or she opposes. The reader determines the
textual evidence that would support his or her
counterclaim by quoting a portion of the text and
explaining how the sentences “Prey on the weak. See
where that takes you.” supports the counterclaim that
the sentences are too violent. Of all the types of
textual evidence, the reader chose quoting to make
his or her statement credible.
Tips
 In locating textual evidence, decide which type
of textual evidence will best support your
statement before locating textual evidence.
 Always look for clues and keywords that
support your evaluative statement/s about the
text.
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