An InDepth Tutorial On Constitutive Equations PDF

NASA/TM–2011-217314
An In-Depth Tutorial on Constitutive Equations

for Elastic Anisotropic Materials
Michael P. Nemeth
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
December 2011
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NASA/TM–2011-217314
An In-Depth Tutorial on Constitutive Equations

for Elastic Anisotropic Materials
Michael P. Nemeth
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Langley Research Center

Hampton, Virginia 23681-2199
December 2011
Available from:
NASA Center for AeroSpace Information

7115 Standard Drive
Hanover, MD 21076-1320
443-757-5802
CONTENTS
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
PREFATORY COMMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Motivation and Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
BASIC CONCEPTS AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Basic Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Basic Notions of Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Notation for Stresses and Strains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Indicial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR ISOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Hooke’s Law for a Homogeneous, Isotropic, Linear-Elastic Solid . . . .24
1
The Duhamel-Neumann Law for a Homogeneous, Isotropic,
Linear-Thermoelastic Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW FOR HOMOGENEOUS, ANISOTROPIC,

LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
General Form of Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Reduction to 21 Independent Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Strain-Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Proof that Cijkl = Cklij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Illustration of the Path-Independence Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Complementary Strain-Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Illustration of Energy Density Functionals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Proof that Sijkl = Sklij . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Standard Forms for Generalized Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Clapeyron’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
2
Positive-Definiteness of the Strain-Energy Density Function . . . . . . . .67
GENERALIZED DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW FOR HOMOGENEOUS,

ANISOTROPIC, LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLIDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
The Generalized Duhamel-Neumann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Equations for the Thermal Moduli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Strain-Energy Density For Thermal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Complementary Strain-Energy Density for Thermal Loading . . . . . . . .84
Illustration of Thermoelastic Energy Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Proof that Sijkl = Sklij for Thermoelastic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Clapeyron’s Formula for Thermoelastic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

Strain-Energy Density Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
ABRIDGED NOTATION AND ELASTIC CONSTANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Abridged Notation for Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
3
Clapeyron’s Formula In Abridged Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Physical Meaning of the Elastic Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Transformation of [C] and [S] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Transformations for Dextral Rotations about the x3 Axis . . . . . . . . . .121
Transformations for Dextral Rotations about the x1 Axis . . . . . . . . . .146
MATERIAL SYMMETRIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Material Symmetries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Mathematical Characterization of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Some Types of Symmetry in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Some Types of Symmetry in Three Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Criteria for Material Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Classes of Material Symmetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
4
MONOCLINIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Monoclinic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About
the Plane x1 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

the Plane x2 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

the Plane x3 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

Orthotropic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About the
Planes x1 = 0 and x2 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Orthotropic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About the

Planes x1 = 0, x2 = 0, and x3 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
Constitutive Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Specially Orthotropic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
Generally Orthotropic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
5
TRIGONAL MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
Trigonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry About Planes that
Contain the x3 axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255


Summary of Trigonal Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
TETRAGONAL MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324

Tetragonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry Planes that
Tetragonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry Planes that Contain

the x1 axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Tetragonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry Planes that

6
Summary of Tetragonal Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347

Transversely Isotropic Materials - Isotropy Plane x3 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . .348
Transversely Isotropic Materials - Isotropy Plane x1 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . .359
CUBIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
COMPLETELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

CLASSES OF MATERIAL SYMMETRY - SUMMARY OF
INDEPENDENT MATERIAL CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS FOR ELASTIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . .388

Constitutive Equations in Terms of Engineering Constants . . . . . . . .389
Engineering Constants of a Specially Orthotropic Material . . . . . . . . .421
Engineering Constants of a Transversely Isotropic Material . . . . . . . .425
Engineering Constants of a Generally Orthotropic Material . . . . . . . .431
7
REDUCED CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
Constitutive Equations for Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Stress and Strain Transformation Equations for Plane Stress . . . . . .474
Transformed Constitutive Equations for Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
Constitutive Equations for Generalized Plane Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
Constitutive Equations for Inplane Deformations of Thin Plates . . . .509
Constitutive Equations for Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
Stress and Strain Transformation Equations for Plane Strain. . . . . . .557
Transformed Constitutive Equations for Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
LINES AND CURVES OF MATERIAL SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
8
SUMMARY
An in-depth tutorial on the thermoelastic constitutive equations for elastic,
anisotropic materials is presented. First, basic concepts are introduced that
are used to characterize materials, and then notions about how anisotropic
material deform are presented. Next, a common notation used to describe
stresses and strains is given, followed by the rules of indicial notation used
herein. Based on this notation, Hooke’s law and the Duhamel-Neuman law
for isotropic materials are presented and discussed.
After discussing isotropic materials, the most general form of Hooke’s law
for elastic anisotropic materials is presented and symmetry requirements
that are based on symmetry of the stress and strain tensors are given.
Additional symmetry requirements are then identified based on the
reversible nature of the strain energy and complimentary strain energy
densities of elastic materials. A similar presentation is then given for the
generalized Duhamel-Neuman law for elastic, anisotropic materials that
includes thermal effects. Next, a common abridged notation for the
constitutive equations is introduced and physical meanings of the elastic
constants are discussed.
9
SUMMARY - CONCLUDED
As a prelude to establishing various material symmetries, the
transformation equations for stress and strains are presented, the most
general form of the transformation equations for the constitutive matrices
are presented. Then, specialized transformation equations are presented for
dextral rotations about the coordinate axes. Next, the concepts of material
symmetry are introduced, the mathematical process used to describe
symmetries is discussed, and examples are given. After describing the
mathematics of symmetry, the criteria for the existence of material
symmetries are presented and the classes of material symmetries are given.
Then, the invariance conditions and simplifications to the constitutive
equations are presented for monoclinic, orthotropic, trigonal, tetragonal,
transversely isotropic, and completely isotropic materials.
After establishing a broad range of material symmetries, the engineering

constants of fully anisotropic, elastic materials are derived from first
principles and then specialized to several cases of practical importance.
Lastly, reduced constitutive equations are derived for states of plane stress,
generalized plane stress, plane strain and generalized plane strain.
Transformation equations are also derived for these special cases.
10
PREFATORY
COMMENTS
11
!!!!!
MOTIVATION AND APPROACH

" Knowledge of anisotropic materials has become prominent in the last
few decades because of the applications of advanced, lightweight fiber-
reinforced composite materials to aircraft and spacecraft
" The material presented herein is redundant in several sections, by

design
" First, to reinforce concepts and enhance learning
" Second, to provide stand-alone sections that can be used

independently for various reasons
" Third, to serve as a comprehensive reference document
12
! ! ! !
DEDICATION
" To Manuel Stein - Wisdom, knowledge, humility, and kindness

incarnate
" To James H. Starnes, Jr. - The embodiment of scientific thirst and

curiosity, leadership, and professional excellence
" To Harold G. Bush - The epitome of common sense and sound

engineering practice, and a constant source of advice and
entertainment
" To The Men and Women of the NACA - The premier examples of
government researchers
13
BASIC CONCEPTS
AND NOTATIONS
14
! !! ! ! !
BASIC CONCEPTS
" The macroscopic physical, or material, properties of a body are

specified by constitutive equations
" For example, a relationship between stress, strain, and temperature

is commonly specified for solid materials
" The material properties of a solid, regardless of its shape, are generally
functions of the coordinates of the material particles
" Solids for which the material properties vary pointwise are
described as inhomogeneous (e.g., a bi-metallic strip)
" For homogeneous solids, the material properties are the same for
every particle of the solid
" The material properties of a homogeneous solid are described

mathematically as invariant with respect to coordinate-frame
translations
15
! ! !! ! !
BASIC CONCEPTS - CONCLUDED
" A body is described as isotropic at a point if its properties at that point

are independent of direction
" A body that is not isotropic is described, in the most general case,
as anisotropic
" A body that is isotropic at a given point is described mathematically as

invariant with respect to coordinate-frame rotations (for that point)
" A body is described as homogeneous and isotropic if its properties are

independent of direction, and identical, at every point of the body
" Distortion is defined as deformation that consists of a change in

shape without a change in volume (pure shearing deformation)
" Dilatation is defined as deformation that consists of a change in

volume without a change in shape (pure expansion-contraction-type
deformation)
16
! !
BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION
" Pure normal stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

produce only volumetric, extensional (dilatational) deformations
" The angle between every pair of intersecting material line elements,
that lie in the planes that are perpendicular to the normal stresses
in the solid, remains unchanged during deformation (no shearing)
Deformed shape of Deformed shape of

an anisotropic solid Normal stress
an isotropic solid
17
BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION - CONTINUED
" Pure shearing stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

produce only distortional, shearing (deviatoric) deformations
" The angle between every pair of intersecting material line elements
that lie in the planes of the shearing stresses in the solid change
during deformation, but the length of the line elements does not
change (no dilatation)
Shearing stress
an anisotropic solid an isotropic solid
18
! !
BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION - CONTINUED
" Pure shearing stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

produce only distortional, shearing (deviatoric) deformations that are
only in the plane of the shearing stresses

an anisotropic solid an isotropic solid
" All unrestrained thermal expansion is volumetric and uniform within

a homogeneous, isotropic solid; not so in a homogeneous, generally
anisotropic solid
19
BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION - CONCLUDED
" Strains that are caused by unconstrained thermal expansions, that

do not produce stresses, are defined as free thermal strains
" A solid is described as ideally elastic (usually just called elastic)

when it recovers to its initial, stress- and strain-free configuration upon
removal of the applied loads or temperature field
" For this case, there exists a one-to-one (unique) mathematical

relationship between the stresses and strains that act within the
loaded solid
20
NOTATION FOR STRESSES AND STRAINS
" In the development that follows, stresses and strains are defined
relative to standard rectangular Cartesian coordinates x 1, x 2, x 3
σ 33
x3 σ 13 σ 23
σ 22
x2
O σ 12
σ 11 x1
Shearing stresses
Normal stresses
" The normal strains ε 11, ε 22, and ε 33 correspond to the normal stresses
σ 11, σ 22, and σ 33 , respectively
" The shearing strains 2εε12 = γ 12, 2εε13 = γ 13, and 2εε23 = γ 23 correspond to the
shearing stresses σ 12, σ 13, and σ 23 , respectively
21
INDICIAL NOTATION
" The rules of indicial notation associated with Cartesian tensors are
used herein
" In particular, all indices appear as subscripts, unless noted otherwise
1
" For example, ε ij = E 1 + ν σ ij − νδ ijσ kk
" Latin indices take on the values 1, 2, 3 , and repeated latin indices
3
Σ
imply summation over this set; e. g.; σ kk = k = 1 σ kk = σ 11 + σ 22 + σ 33
" Indices that are not summed in an equation are called free indices and
take on the complete set of possible values
" The symbol δ jk is known as the Kronecker Delta Symbol and is

equal to one when j = k and is equal to zero otherwise
22
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
FOR ISOTROPIC MATERIALS
23
HOOKE’S LAW
HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC, LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLID
" In the 17th century, Robert Hooke began developing a constitutive

law for elastic, isotropic solids
" The concept of elastic deformation was introduced by Hooke in

1676
" Hooke’s work led to the following equations that are in use today
2 1+ν
ε 11 = 1 σ 11 − ν σ 22 + σ 33 2ε
ε 12 = γ 12 = E
σ 12
E
2 1+ν
ε 22 = 1 σ 22 − ν σ 11 + σ 33 2ε
ε 13 = γ 13 = E
σ 13
E
2 1+ν
ε 33 = 1 σ 33 − ν σ 11 + σ 22 2ε
ε 23 = γ 23 = E
σ 23
E
or in indicial notation ε ij = 1
E 1 + ν σ ij − νδ ijσ kk
24
HOOKE’S LAW - CONCLUDED
HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC, LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLID
" The inverted form of Hooke’s law is given by
σ 11 = E 1 − ν ε 11 + ν ε 22 + ε 33 σ 12 = E γ 12 = E ε 12
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 2 1+ν 1+ν
σ 22 = E 1 − ν ε 22 + ν ε 11 + ε 33 σ 13 = E γ 13 = E ε 13
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 2 1+ν 1+ν
σ 33 = E 1 − ν ε 33 + ν ε 11 + ε 22 σ 23 = E γ 23 = E ε 23
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 2 1+ν 1+ν
or in indicial notation
σ ij = E 1 − 2ν
ν ε ij + νδ ijε kk
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν
ν)
" For these equations, it is important to remember that the strains are
caused by the externally applied loads and displacements
" Strains of this type are called (stress-induced) mechanical
strains and are the result of the internal stresses
25
THE DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW
HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC, LINEAR-THERMOELASTIC SOLID
" Hooke’s law was extended by J. M. C. Duhamel (circa 1838) and

F. E. Neumann (circa 1888) to include the first-order effects of thermal
loading
" This law is based, in part, on the premise that the total strain ε ij at a
point of a solid, subjected to thermomechanical loading, consists of
σ T
mechanical strain ε ij and strain caused by free thermal expansion ε ij
σ
" The mechanical strain ε ij is the stress-induced strain caused by the
externally applied loads and displacements, and the stress-induced
strain caused by nonuniformity in the temperature field or in the
thermal expansion properties of the material
σ T σ 1 T
" ε ij = ε ij + ε ij where ε ij = E
1 + ν σ ij − νδ ijσ kk , ε ij = αδ ij T − Tref , T is
the temperature field, and Tref is the temperature field at which the
body is deemed stress and strain free (or negligible)
26
THE DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW - CONTINUED
" The temperature fields T and Tref are, in general, functions of position
within the body; that is, T = T x 1, x 2, x 3 and Tref = Tref x 1, x 2, x 3
" T is, in general, also time dependent and Tref is typically uniform,
with a value equal to a nominal ambient temperature
" Thermal stresses are caused by two effects:
" The spatial nonuniformity in the field α T − Tref and
" Geometric restraints that prevent stress-free thermal expansion
" When a solid is subjected to a nonuniform temperature field or its

thermal expansion properties vary, there arises a mismatch in the
thermal expansion of neighboring material particles
" Internal, "thermal stresses" develop to maintain continuity of the

material body, which induces mechanical strains
27
" The work of Hooke, Duhamel, and Neumann led to the following
thermoelastic constitutive equations that are used today
2 1+ν
ε 11 = 1 σ 11 − ν σ 22 + σ 33 + α T − Tref 2ε
ε 12 = γ 12 = E
σ 12
E
2 1+ν
ε 22 = 1 σ 22 − ν σ 11 + σ 33 + α T − Tref 2ε
ε 13 = γ 13 = E
σ 13
E
2 1+ν
ε 33 = 1 σ 33 − ν σ 11 + σ 22 + α T − Tref 2ε
ε 23 = γ 23 = E
σ 23
E
ε ij = 1 1 + ν σ ij − νδ ijσ kk + αδ ij T − Tref
E
28
" The inverted form of the Duhamel-Neumann law is given by
E Eα
α T − Tref
σ 11 = 1 − ν ε 11 + ν ε 22 + ε 33 −
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 1 − 2ν
ν
E Eα
α T − Tref
σ 22 = 1 − ν ε 22 + ν ε 11 + ε 33 −
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 1 − 2ν
ν
E Eα
α T − Tref
σ 33 = 1 − ν ε 33 + ν ε 11 + ε 22 −
1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν 1 − 2ν
ν
σ 12 = E γ 12 = E ε 12 σ 13 = E γ 13 = E ε 13
2 1+ν 1+ν 2 1+ν 1+ν
E γ 23 = E ε 23
σ 23 =
2 1+ν 1+ν
E Eα
α T − Tref
σ ij = 1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ν
1 − 2ν
ν ε ij + νδ ijε kk − δ ij 1 − 2ν
ν
29
THE DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW - CONCLUDED
" The constitutive equations show that an isotropic material is

characterized fully by two independent elastic constants E and ν, and
by one thermal expansion coefficient α
" E is the modulus of elasticity, which is also called Young’s

modulus and the elastic modulus
" ν is Poisson’s ratio and α is the coefficient of linear thermal

expansion
E
" E and ν are related by G = 2 1+ν
, where G is called the
shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity
30
GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW
FOR
HOMOGENEOUS,
ANISOTROPIC,
LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLIDS
31
GENERAL FORM OF HOOKE’S LAW
" The generalization of Hooke’s law to anisotropic materials is attributed
to Cauchy (in 1829) and postulates that every component of the stress
tensor is coupled linearly with every component of the strain tensor;
i.e.,
S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 S 1123 S 1113 S 1112 S 1132 S 1131 S 1121 σ 11

ε 11
ε 22 S 2211 S 2222 S 2233 S 2223 S 2213 S 2212 S 2232 S 2231 S 2221 σ 22
ε 33 S 3311 S 3322 S 3333 S 3323 S 3313 S 3312 S 3332 S 3331 S 3321 σ 33
ε 23 S 2311 S 2322 S 2333 S 2323 S 2313 S 2312 S 2332 S 2331 S 2321 σ 23
ε 13 = S 1311 S 1322 S 1333 S 1323 S 1313 S 1312 S 1332 S 1331 S 1321 σ 13
ε 12 S 1211 S 1222 S 1233 S 1223 S 1213 S 1212 S 1232 S 1231 S 1221 σ 12
ε 32 S 3211 S 3222 S 3233 S 3223 S 3213 S 3212 S 3232 S 3231 S 3221 σ 32
ε 31 S 3111 S 3122 S 3133 S 3123 S 3113 S 3112 S 3132 S 3131 S 3121 σ 31
ε 21 σ 21
S 2111 S 2122 S 2133 S 2123 S 2113 S 2112 S 2132 S 2131 S 2121
or in indicial notation by ε ij = S ijklσ kl

" Note that Sijkl have units of stress-1; e.g., in2/lb
32
GENERAL FORM OF HOOKE’S LAW - CONTINUED
" Sijklare called the components of the (4th-order) compliance tensor

and are often called compliances or compliance coefficients
" Without further simplication, there are 34 (or 81) independent

compliance coefficients that must be determined from experiments,
to fully characterize a given homogeneous material
" The previous equation indicates that each normal-stress component

produces shearing strains in all three coordinate planes, in addition to
three extensional strains
" Similarly, each shearing-stress component produces extensional

strains along all three coordinate directions and shearing strains in the
two planes perpendicular to the plane of the shearing stress, in addition
to a shearing strain in the plane of the shearing stress
33
" Thus, dilatational deformation (expansion-contraction) and
distortional deformation (shearing) are fully coupled in an
anisotropic material, unlike common isotropic materials
" The inverted form of generalized Hooke’s law is given by
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 C 1132 C 1131 C 1121

ε 11
σ 22 C 2211 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 C 2232 C 2231 C 2221 ε 22
σ 33 C 3311 C 3322 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 C 3332 C 3331 C 3321 ε 33
σ 23 C 2311 C 2322 C 2333 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 C 2332 C 2331 C 2321 ε 23
σ 13 = C 1311 C 1322 C 1333 C 1323 C 1313 C 1312 C 1332 C 1331 C 1321 ε 13
σ 12 C 1211 C 1222 C 1233 C 1223 C 1213 C 1212 C 1232 C 1231 C 1221 ε 12
σ 32 C 3211 C 3222 C 3233 C 3223 C 3213 C 3212 C 3232 C 3231 C 3221 ε 32
σ 31 C 3111 C 3122 C 3133 C 3123 C 3113 C 3112 C 3132 C 3131 C 3121 ε 31
σ 21 ε 21
C 2111 C 2122 C 2133 C 2123 C 2113 C 2112 C 2132 C 2131 C 2121
or in indicial notation by σ ij = C ijklε kl

" Note that Cijkl have units of stress; e.g., lb/in2
34
" Cijkl are called the components of the (4th-order) elasticity or stiffness
tensor and are often called stiffness coefficients
" Note that Sijkl and Cijkl are constants for a homogeneous material
" The number of independent coefficients in ε ij = S ijklσ kl can be reduced

by enforcing symmetry of the stress and strain tensors
" ε ij = S ijklσ kl is the same as ε ji = S jiklσ kl
" ε ij = ε ji gives S ijklσ kl = S jiklσ kl , which implies S ijkl = S jikl for a general
stress state at a point in a body
" σ kl = σ lk can be used to show that S ijkl = S ijlk
" S ijkl = S jikl and S ijkl = S ijlk yield 36 independent compliance coefficients
35
" The proof that Sijkl = Sijlk is given as follows
" The constitutive equation ε ij = S ijklσ kl can be expressed as ε ij = S ijlkσ lk

because l and k are summation indices and interchanging them
doesn’t alter the content of the equation
" Equating ε ij = S ijklσ kl and ε ij = S ijlkσ lk gives S ijklσ kl = S ijlkσ lk
" Next, enforcing σ kl = σ lk gives S ijklσ kl = S ijlkσ kl , which implies
S ijkl = S ijlk
for a general stress state at a point in a body
36
" The number of independent coefficients in σ ij = C ijklε kl can also be

reduced directly by enforcing symmetry of the stress and strain tensors
" σ ij = C ijklε kl is the same as σ ji = C jiklε kl
" σ ij = σ ji gives C ijklε kl = C jiklε kl , which implies C ijkl = C jikl for a general
strain state at a point in a body
" ε kl = ε lk can be used to show that C ijkl = C ijlk
" C ijkl = C jikl and C ijkl = C ijlk yield 36 independent stiffness coefficients
" Cauchy’s generalized form of Hooke’s Law ends up with 36

independent compliance or stiffness coefficients
37
" The expanded form of Cauchy’s generalized Hooke’s law ε ij = S ijklσ kl is

obtained as follows
" First, expanding the last summation index gives

ε ij = S ijk1σ k1 + S ijk2σ k2 + S ijk3σ k3
" Then, expanding the summation index k gives
ε ij = S ij11σ 11 + S ij21σ 21 + S ij31σ 31 + S ij12σ 12 + S ij22σ 22 + S ij32σ 32 +

S ij13σ 13 + S ij23σ 23 + S ij33σ 33
" Next, enforcing σ kl = σ lk yields
ε ij = S ij11σ 11 + S ij22σ 22 + S ij33σ 33 +

S ij23 + S ij32 σ 23 + S ij13 + S ij31 σ 13 + S ij12 + S ij21 σ 12
38
" Then, enforcing the conditions S ijkl = S ijlk give the result
ε ij = S ij11σ 11 + S ij22σ 22 + S ij33σ 33 + 2S ij23σ 23 + 2S ij13σ 13 + 2S ij12σ 12
" Applying this equation for all, independent values of the free indices i
and j results in the following matrix representation of Cauchy’s
generalized Hooke’s law ε ij = S ijklσ kl :
ε 11 S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 2S 1123 2S 1113 2S 1112 σ 11

ε 22 S 2211 S 2222 S 2233 2S 2223 2S 2213 2S 2212 σ 22
ε 33 S 3311 S 3322 S 3333 2S 3323 2S 3313 2S 3312 σ 33
=
2εε23 2S 2311 2S 2322 2S 2333 4S 2323 4S 2313 4S 2312 σ 23
2εε13 2S 1311 2S 1322 2S 1333 4S 1323 4S 1313 4S 1312 σ 13
2εε12 σ 12
2S 1211 2S 1222 2S 1233 4S 1223 4S 1213 4S 1212
39
" Similarly, the expanded form of Cauchy’s generalized Hooke’s law

σ ij = C ijklε kl is obtained as follows
" First, expanding the last summation index gives

σ ij = C ijk1ε k1 + C ijk2ε k2 + C ijk3ε k3
" Then, expanding the summmation index k gives
σ ij = C ij11ε 11 + C ij21ε 21 + C ij31ε 31 + C ij12ε 12 + C ij22ε 22 + C ij32ε 32 +
C ij13ε 13 + C ij23ε 23 + C ij33ε 33
" Next, enforcing ε kl = ε lk yields
σ ij = C ij11ε 11 + C ij22ε 22 + C ij33ε 33 +

C ij23 + C ij32 ε 23 + C ij13 + C ij31 ε 13 + C ij12 + C ij21 ε 12
40
" Then, enforcing the conditions C ijkl = C ijlk give the result
σ ij = C ij11ε 11 + C ij22ε 22 + C ij33ε 33 + 2C ij23ε 23 + 2C ij13ε 13 + 2C ij12ε 12
" Applying this equation for all, independent values of the free indices i
and j results in the following matrix representation of Cauchy’s
generalized Hooke’s law σ ij = C ijklε kl :
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 ε 11

σ 22 C 2211 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 ε 22
σ 33 C 3311 C 3322 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 ε 33
=
σ 23 C 2311 C 2322 C 2333 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 2εε23
σ 13 C 1311 C 1322 C 1333 C 1323 C 1313 C 1312 2εε13
σ 12 2εε12
C 1211 C 1222 C 1233 C 1223 C 1213 C 1212
41
" The compliance coefficients Sijkl and the stiffness coefficients Cijkl
are described as components of a fourth-order tensor (field) because
each are the components of a linear transformation that relates
components of the second-order stress tensor (field) to components of
the second-order strain tensor (field)
42
REDUCTION TO 21 INDEPENDENT CONSTANTS
" The number of independent elastic, compliance and stiffness

coefficients is reduced from 36 to 21 by enforcing the
thermodynamic properties of reversible, elastic deformations
" The key quantity to be examined is the strain-energy density of
an elastic solid
" The reduction to 21 is attributed to George Green (1793-1841)
" The strain-energy density U of a generally elastic solid is defined as

the work of the internal stresses, done through stress-induced
mechanical deformations, that is stored in a loaded body
" In an ideally elastic solid, experimental evidence indicates that all of

the work done by external forces is converted into elastic-strain energy
that can be recovered upon unloading, thus a loaded body has the
potential to perform work
43
REDUCTION TO 21 INDEPENDENT CONSTANTS
CONCLUDED
" The existence of a strain-energy density function for linear- and

nonlinear-elastic materials can be shown directly by using the first and
second laws of thermodynamics
" The term "density" is used herein to indicate that the strain energy
is defined per unit volume of material
" The expression for the strain-energy density function U is obtained by

determining the strain-energy-density increment dU associated with
an infinitesimal change in the deformation of a body
" dU can be obtained directly from the laws of thermodynamics or by

determining the work done by the internal forces of a body on a
differential volume element of material
44
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY
" The strain-energy-density increment dU is given by
d U = σ 11dε
ε 11 + σ 22dε
ε 22 + σ 33dε
ε 33 + 2σ
σ 23dε
ε 23 + 2σ
σ 13dε
ε 13 + 2σ
σ 12dε
ε 12
where the stresses depend on the mechanical strains; that is,
σ ij = σ ij ε 11,ε
ε 22,ε
ε 33,ε
ε 23,ε
ε 13,ε
ε 12
" This expression is written compactly in indicial form as
d U = σ ij ε pq dε
ε ij
" The strain-energy density U is obtained by integrating dU over the

deformation associated with a loading process, that starts at a strain-
free state and ends at a particular strain state; that is,
ε pq
U= σ ij ε 11,ε
ε 22,ε
ε 33,ε
ε 23,ε
ε 13,ε
ε 12 dε
ε ij = U ε pq
0
45
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY - CONTINUED
" For an arbitrary process that involves loading followed by total
unloading, the strain-energy density U is given by the circuit integral
U= σ ij ε pq dε
ε ij
" In addition, because strain-energy density is not lost during an arbitrary

elastic loading-unloading process (conservation of energy - first law
of thermodynamics), it follows that
U= σ ij ε pq dεεij = 0
" For the condition that U = 0 for an elastic loading-unloading process to

be true, it requires that there must exist a strain-energy density function
U for which dU is an exact differential; that is, U = dU = 0
46
ILLUSTRATION OF ELASTIC LOADING-UNLOADING PROCESSES
Two Independent Loading Systems
O
A
Stress
A O B
Elastic loading-unloading cycle A
C C
B
O
C Strain
B
47
ILLUSTRATION OF ELASTIC LOADING-UNLOADING PROCESSES
One Loading System
O Stress
A
A
A O
Elastic loading-unloading cycle

O
Strain
48
" Because U=U ε pq , it follows mathematically that an exact
∂U
differential has the property that d U = ∂ε dεεij
ij
" A function with this property is described in mathematics as a

potential function, thus U is sometimes referred to as the elastic
potential
∂U
= U dε
∂
" Equating d U = σ ij ε pq dεεij with d U ∂ε ij
ε ij gives ∂ε = σ ij
ij
" The last equation on the right indicates that the stress-strain
relations are derivable from a potential function when the
deformation process is elastic
" A material of this type is called a hyperelastic or a Green-
elastic material
49
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY - CONCLUDED
" The statement U = d U = 0 also indicates that an arbitrary elastic
loading-unloading process is a path-independent process
" This result arises because the integral of an exact differential

depends only on the limits of integration (end points of the
process), according to the fundamental theorem of calculus
" A necessary condition for a function U = U ε pq to be path independent
∂ U ∂ U
2 2
is for the following condition to be valid: ∂ε ∂ε =

ij kl ∂ε kl ∂ε ij
" This condition arises from the connection of the path integral with
Stokes’ integral theorem
50
PROOF THAT Cijkl = Cklij
∂ U
2
∂ U
2
∂U ∂σ ij ∂σ kl
" First, note that = and ∂ε = σ ij give =
∂ε ij ∂ε kl ∂ε kl ∂ε ij ij ∂ε kl ∂ε ij
∂σij ∂ ∂ε
rs
" Then, σ ij = C ijrsε rs gives ∂ε = ∂ε C ijrsε rs = C ijrs ∂ε = C ijrsδ rkδ sl = C ijkl
kl kl kl
∂σ
kl ∂ pq ∂ε
" Also, σ kl = C klpqε pq gives ∂ε = ∂ε C klpqε pq = C klpq ∂ε = C klpqδ piδ qj = C klij
ij ij ij
∂σ ij ∂σ kl
" Thus, ∂ε = ∂ε yields C ijkl = C klij , which reduces the number of
kl ij
independent stiffness coefficients to 21
51
ILLUSTRATION OF THE PATH-INDEPENDENCE CONDITION
" The function U = U ε 11,εε22,εε33,εε23,εε13,εε12 can be viewed as an ordinary,

simply connected, continuous, smooth function of six independent
variables
" To enable visualization of the path-independence condition, consider

the case of a similar function of two independent variables, F x 1, x 2
∂F ∂F
" The chain rule of differentiation gives dF = ∂x dx 1 + ∂x dx 2
1 2
" The vector form of dF is given by
∂F ∂F
dF = i 1 + i2 • dx 1 i 1 + dx 2 i 2 ≡ ∇F • dx
∂x 1 ∂x 2
52
CONTINUED
" Let P denote a path traversed in a loading-unloading cycle, then
dF = 0 becomes ∇F •dx = 0
P P
" Recall that Stokes’ Theorem is given by g • dx = n • ∇ × g dA

∂S S
where
" g x 1, x 2 is an arbitrary vector field with continuous first derivatives
" n x 1, x 2 is the unit-magnitude normal-vector field for any smooth

surface S enclosed by the curve ∂S
53
CONTINUED
" Applying Stokes’ theorem to ∇F •dx = 0 gives

P
∇F • dx = n • ∇ × ∇F dA = 0
P S(P)
where S(P) is the surface enclosed by the path P
" For a simply connected region, the necessary and sufficient conditions
for the line integral to vanish are given by the requirement that the
integrand in the double integral vanish; that is,
n • ∇ × ∇F = 0
54
CONTINUED
" Because the unit-magnitude normal-vector field for an arbitrary

smooth surface S ( P ) is generally nonzero, the necessary and
sufficient conditions for the line integral to vanish become
∇ × ∇F = 0
∂ ∂ ∂F ∂F
" Expanding ∇ × ∇F = 0 gives i1
∂x 1
+ i2
∂x 2
× i1
∂x 1
+ i2
∂x 2
=0
∂F ∂F
2 2
which simplifies to ∂x ∂x i 1 ×i 2 + i
∂x 2∂x 1 2
×i 1 =0
1 2
∂F ∂F
2 2
" Simplifying further gives −

∂x 1∂x 2 ∂x 2∂x 1
i1 ×i 2 =0 which yields
∂F ∂F
2 2
the condition ∂x ∂x =
1 2 ∂x 2∂x 1
55
CONTINUED
∂F ∂F
2 2
" The condition ∂x ∂x = is, in fact, a statement of path

1 2 ∂x 2∂x 1
independence at the local level, which is illustrated in the following
figure
F (x ,x )
1in the
2
neighborhood F (x ,x )
∂F
1 2
of point P
F+ dx
∂x 2 2
A
∂F
F+ dx
∂x 1 1 D
B C
x2
i1 i2
P: (x1,x2)
x1
56
CONCLUDED
" By following path ABC, the value of F at point C is given by
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
2
F +
∂x 1
dx 1 + ∂
∂x 2
F + dx dx 2 =
∂x 1 1
F +
∂x 1
dx 1 +
∂x 2
dx 2 + dx dx
∂x 2∂x 1 1 2
" By following path ADC, the value of F at point C is given by
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F ∂F
2
F +
∂x 2
dx 2 + ∂
∂x 1
F + dx dx 1 =
∂x 2 2
F +
∂x 2
dx 2 +
∂x 1
dx 1 + dx dx
∂x 1∂x 2 2 1
" For path independence, it follows that these two expressions must be
equal, hence
∂F ∂F
2 2
=
∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 1
57
COMPLEMENTARY STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY
" The symmetry condition Sijkl = Sklij is obtained by examining the

complementary strain-energy density functional U*
" The strain-energy density functional U was obtained by expressing

the stresses in terms of the strains and integrating d U = σ ijdεεij from the
initial stress- and strain- free state to the current strain state
" An expression for U * is obtained by first requiring that a one-to-one

relationship exists between the stresses and strains, and by using the
product rule of differentiation to get d σ ijε ij = σ ijdεεij + ε ijdσ
σ ij
" In the part σ ijdεεij , the strains are taken as the independent variables
" In the part ε ijdσ

σ ij , the stresses are taken as the independent
variables
58
CONTINUED
" Next, the expression d σ ijε ij = σ ijdεεij + ε ijdσ

σ ij is integrated from the
initial stress- and strain- free state to the current stress and strain state;
i.e.,
ε pq ε pq σ pq
d σ ijε ij = σ ij ε pq dε
ε ij + ε ij σ pq dσ
σ ij
0 0 0
ε pq
" In the term d σ ijε ij , it is presumed that the stresses are known as
0
functions of the strains

σ pq
" This term can also be expressed as d σ ijε ij , where it is
0
presumed that the strains are known as functions of the stresses
" Both terms yield σ ijε ij , the product of the current values of the
stresses and strains
59
CONCLUDED
" Using the previous expression and the definition of the strain-energy
σ pq
density function U gives σ ijε ij = U ε pq + ε ij σ pq dσ
σ ij
0
" The complementary (or conjugate) strain-energy density function U *

σ pq
is defined as U* = σ ij such that σ ijε ij = U ε pq + U * σ pq
ε ij σ pq dσ
0
" Note that d U * = ε ij σ pq dσ

σ ij
" The form U * σ pq = σ ijε ij − U ε pq is known as the Legendre

transformation
" The complementary or conjugate relationship of the strain-energy

density function and the complementary strain-energy density function
are illustrated on the next chart for a one-dimensional case
60
ILLUSTRATION OF ENERGY DENSITY FUNCTIONALS
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE
σε = U ε + U* σ Single-parameter
loading system
Stress Stress Stress

σ = σ(εε)
dσ
σ
σ σ σ
= + ε = ε(σ
σ)
dεε
ε ε ε
Strain Strain Strain
ε σ
Area = σε Area = σ(εε) dεε = U (εε) Area = ε(σ
σ) dσ
σ= U *(σ
σ)
0 0
61
ILLUSTRATION OF ENERGY DENSITY FUNCTIONALS
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE - CONCLUDED
" The previous figure indicates that because strain-energy density is not
lost in an arbitrary elastic loading process, neither is the
complementary strain-energy density
" Thus, the complementary strain-energy density function is also
path independent and conserved in an elastic loading-unloading
process
∂U *
" Thus, U * = dU * = 0 and d U * = ∂σ dσσ ij
ij
∂U * ∂U *
" Equating d U * = ε ij σ pq dσ
σ ij with d U * = ∂σ dσσ ij gives = ε ij
ij ∂σ ij
" The equations given above indicate that the strain-stress relations
are derivable from a potential function when the deformation
process is elastic (hyperelastic material)
62
PROOF THAT Sijkl = Sklij
" The necessary and sufficient conditions for U * = U * σ pq to be path

∂ U* ∂ U*
2 2
independent are for the conditions = to be valid

∂σ ij ∂σ kl ∂σ kl ∂σ ij
∂ U*
2
∂ U*
2
∂U * ∂ε ij ∂ε kl
" First note that = and ∂σ = ε ij give =
∂σ ij ∂σ kl ∂σ kl ∂σ ij ij ∂σ kl ∂σ ij
∂ε
ij ∂ ∂σ
rs
" Then, ε ij = S ijrsσ rs gives ∂σ = ∂σ S ijrsσ rs = S ijrs ∂σ = S ijrsδ rkδ sl = S ijkl
kl kl kl
kl∂ε ∂ pq ∂σ
" And, ε kl = S klpqσ pq gives ∂σ = ∂σ S klpqσ pq = S klpq ∂σ = S klpqδ piδ qj = S klij
ij ij ij
∂ε ij ∂ε kl
" Thus, ∂σ = ∂σ yields S ijkl = S klij , which reduces the number of
kl ij
independent compliance coefficients to 21
63
STANDARD FORMS FOR GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW
" The standard forms of the generalized Hooke’s law are now given by
ε 11 S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 2S 1123 2S 1113 2S 1112 σ 11

ε 22 S 1122 S 2222 S 2233 2S 2223 2S 2213 2S 2212 σ 22
ε 33 S 1133 S 2233 S 3333 2S 3323 2S 3313 2S 3312 σ 33
=
2εε23 2S 1123 2S 2223 2S 3323 4S 2323 4S 2313 4S 2312 σ 23
2εε13 2S 1113 2S 2213 2S 3313 4S 2313 4S 1313 4S 1312 σ 13
2εε12 σ 12
2S 1112 2S 2212 2S 3312 4S 2312 4S 1312 4S 1212
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 ε 11

σ 22 C 1122 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 ε 22
σ 33 C 1133 C 2233 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 ε 33
=
σ 23 C 1123 C 2223 C 3323 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 2εε23
σ 13 C 1113 C 2213 C 3313 C 2313 C 1313 C 1312 2εε13
σ 12 2εε12
C 1112 C 2212 C 3312 C 2312 C 1312 C 1212
64
CLAPEYRON’S FORMULA
" For a linear-elastic solid, strain-energy-density increment
ε ij is combined with σ ij = C ijklε kl to get d U = C ijklε kldεεij
1 d C ε ε = 1 C dε
" Now consider, ijkl ij kl ijkl ε ijε kl + C ijkl ε ijdε
ε kl
2 2
" Because all indices are summation indices, this expression can be
expressed as
1 d C ε ε = 1 C ε dε ε ij = 1 C ijkl + C klij ε kldε
ijkl ij kl ijkl kl ε ij + C klij ε kldε ε ij
2 2 2
" By using the path-independence condition C ijkl = C klij , it follows

that
1 d C ε ε = C ε dε
2 ijkl ij kl ijkl kl ε ij and that d U = 12 d C ijklε ijε kl
65
CLAPEYRON’S FORMULA - CONCLUDED
" Integrating the last expression gives U = 12 C ijkl ε ijε kl + K where K is a

constant of integration
" Noting that U = 0 when the strain field is zero-valued gives K=0
" Next, using σ ij = C ijklε kl gives the desired result, U = 12 σ ε

ij ij
" This expression for the strain-energy density of a homogeneous, linear-

elastic, anisotropic solid is attributed to B. P. E. Clapeyron (1799-1864)
" A similar procedure can be followed to show that U * = 12 σ ε ij ij = U

for a homogeneous, linear-elastic, anisotropic solid
66
POSITIVE-DEFINITENESS OF THE STRAIN-ENERGY
DENSITY FUNCTION
" The strain-energy density of a solid in its stress- and strain-free
state is defined to be zero-valued
" As a solid deforms under load, it stores strain energy and develops
the potential to perform work upon removal of the loads
" Thus, it follows that the strain-energy density function is a non-

negative-valued function for all physically admissible elastic strain
states
ε pq
" Hence, U= σ ij(ε

ε pq) dε
ε ij ≥0 for a nonlinear-elastic material
0
" For a linear-elastic material, U = 12 C ijklε ijε kl ≥

0 must hold, which places
some thermodynamic restrictions on the stiffness coefficients that

must hold for reversible (elastic) loading-unloading processes
67
DENSITY FUNCTION - CONTINUED
" The strain-energy density of a linear-elastic material can be

expressed in matrix form by
T
ε 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 ε 11
ε 22 C 1122 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 ε 22
U= 1
2
ε 33
2εε23
C 1133 C 2233 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312
C 1123 C 2223 C 3323 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312
ε 33
2εε23
2εε13 C 1113 C 2213 C 3313 C 2313 C 1313 C 1312 2εε13
2εε12 C 1112 C 2212 C 3312 C 2312 C 1312 C 1212 2εε12
" Positive-definiteness of the strain-energy density is satisfied by

positive-definiteness of the matrix containing the stiffness coefficients
" Enforcing positive-definiteness defines relationships that the

stiffness coefficients must obey; e.g., all the diagonal elements of
the matrix must be positive-valued
68
DENSITY FUNCTION - CONCLUDED
" Positive-definiteness of the strain-energy density is used in the linear

theory of elasticity to establish:
" Uniqueness of solutions
" The theorem of minimum potential energy
" The theorem of minimum complementary energy
" Some aspects of St. Venant’s principle
69
GENERALIZED
DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW
FOR
HOMOGENEOUS,
ANISOTROPIC,
LINEAR-ELASTIC SOLIDS
70
THE GENERALIZED DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW
" In general, when an elastic solid is subjected to heating or cooling, the

equations of elasticity are coupled with the equations of
thermodynamics and heat transfer
" When the heat generated by deformations is negligible, the

equations uncouple and the temperature field can be solved for
independently of the structural deformations
" The temperature field becomes a known quantity (loading) in the

solution of the linear thermoelasticity equations
" In general, when an elastic solid is subjected to heating or cooling, the

stress-strain relations depend on the temperature of the body
" The extent of the temperature dependence depends on the extent of

the heating or cooling
71
CONTINUED
" To obtain a simple working theory that is linear and that includes
thermal effects, a constitutive law was developed with the following
attributes:
" Thermal expansion effects are included
" Variations in the elastic constants and coefficients of thermal

expansion with temperature are neglected
" Inertial effects associated with heating rates are neglected
" A relatively simple extension of Hooke’s law that predicted

accurately experimentally observed phenomenon was the desired
result
" The resulting equations are typically referred to as the linear-

thermoelastic constitutive equations
72
CONTINUED
" The generalized Hooke’s law was extended by J. M. C. Duhamel

(1797- 1872) and F. E. Neumann (1798-1895) to include the first-order,
linear effects of thermal loading
" This law states, in part, that the total strain ε ij at a point of a solid,
subjected to thermomechanical loading, consists of stress-induced
σ T
mechanical strain ε ij and strain caused by free thermal expansion ε ij
σ
" The mechanical strain ε ij is the strain caused by the externally
applied loads and displacements, and the strain caused by
nonuniformity in the temperature field or in the thermal
expansion properties of the material, or both
σ T σ T
" ε ij = ε ij + ε ij where ε ij = S ijrsσ rs , ε ij = α ij T − Tref , T is the temperature
field, and Tref is the temperature field at which the body is stress
and strain free
73
CONTINUED
" The general form of the Duhamel-Neumann law is given in expanded

form by
S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 S 1123 S 1113 S 1112 S 1132 S 1131 S 1121 σ 11

ε 11 α 11
ε 22 S 2211 S 2222 S 2233 S 2223 S 2213 S 2212 S 2232 S 2231 S 2221 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 3311 S 3322 S 3333 S 3323 S 3313 S 3312 S 3332 S 3331 S 3321 σ 33 α 33
ε 23 S 2311 S 2322 S 2333 S 2323 S 2313 S 2312 S 2332 S 2331 S 2321 σ 23 α 23
ε 13 = S 1311 S 1322 S 1333 S 1323 S 1313 S 1312 S 1332 S 1331 S 1321 σ 13 + α 13 T − Tref
ε 12 S 1211 S 1222 S 1233 S 1223 S 1213 S 1212 S 1232 S 1231 S 1221 σ 12 α 12
ε 32 S 3211 S 3222 S 3233 S 3223 S 3213 S 3212 S 3232 S 3231 S 3221 σ 32 α 32
ε 31 S 3111 S 3122 S 3133 S 3123 S 3113 S 3112 S 3132 S 3131 S 3121 σ 31 α 31
ε 21 σ 21 α 21
S 2111 S 2122 S 2133 S 2123 S 2113 S 2112 S 2132 S 2131 S 2121
and in indicial form by ε ij = S ijklσ kl + α ij T − Tref
" Sijkl are the components of the (4th-order) compliance tensor, at T = Tref,
that appear in the generalized Hooke’s law and αij are the coefficients
of linear thermal expansion (with units of temperature-1)
74
CONTINUED
" The inverted form of the Duhamel-Neumann law is given in expanded

form by
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 C 1132 C 1131 C 1121

ε 11 α 11
σ 22 C 2211 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 C 2232 C 2231 C 2221 ε 22 α 22
σ 33 C 3311 C 3322 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 C 3332 C 3331 C 3321 ε 33 α 33
σ 23 C 2311 C 2322 C 2333 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 C 2332 C 2331 C 2321 ε 23 α 23
σ 13 = C 1311 C 1322 C 1333 C 1323 C 1313 C 1312 C 1332 C 1331 C 1321 ε 13 − α 13 T − Tref
σ 12 C 1211 C 1222 C 1233 C 1223 C 1213 C 1212 C 1232 C 1231 C 1221 ε 12 α 12
σ 32 C 3211 C 3222 C 3233 C 3223 C 3213 C 3212 C 3232 C 3231 C 3221 ε 32 α 32
σ 31 C 3111 C 3122 C 3133 C 3123 C 3113 C 3112 C 3132 C 3131 C 3121 ε 31 α 31
σ 21 ε 21 α 21
C 2111 C 2122 C 2133 C 2123 C 2113 C 2112 C 2132 C 2131 C 2121
σ
and in indicial form by σ ij = C ijkl ε kl − α kl T − Tref = C ijklε kl
" Cijkl are the components of the (4th-order) stiffness tensor, at T = Tref,
that appear in the generalized Hooke’s law and the column vector on
right-hand side of the matrix equation contains the mechanical strains
75
CONTINUED
" The inverted form of the Duhamel-Neumann law is also expressed often
in matrix form by
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 C 1132 C 1131 C 1121 β 11

ε 11
σ 22 C 2211 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 C 2232 C 2231 C 2221 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 3311 C 3322 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 C 3332 C 3331 C 3321 ε 33 β 33
σ 23 C 2311 C 2322 C 2333 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 C 2332 C 2331 C 2321 ε 23 β 23
σ 13 = C 1311 C 1322 C 1333 C 1323 C 1313 C 1312 C 1332 C 1331 C 1321 ε 13 + β 13 T − Tref
σ 12 C 1211 C 1222 C 1233 C 1223 C 1213 C 1212 C 1232 C 1231 C 1221 ε 12 β 12
σ 32 C 3211 C 3222 C 3233 C 3223 C 3213 C 3212 C 3232 C 3231 C 3221 ε 32 β 32
σ 31 C 3111 C 3122 C 3133 C 3123 C 3113 C 3112 C 3132 C 3131 C 3121 ε 31 β 31
σ 21 ε 21
C 2111 C 2122 C 2133 C 2123 C 2113 C 2112 C 2132 C 2131 C 2121 β 21
and in indicial form by σ ij = C ijklε kl + β ij T − Tref
" βij are called the thermal moduli
76
CONTINUED
" By noting that the Duhamel-Neumann law becomes the generalized

Hooke’s law when T = Tref , the following symmetry conditions must
hold
S ijkl = S jikl S ijkl = S ijlk S ijkl = S klij

C ijkl = C jikl C ijkl = C ijlk C ijkl = C klij
which indicates 21 independent compliance or stiffness coefficients
" Symmetry of the strain tensor also yields α ij = α ji , and reduces the
number of independent coefficients of linear thermal expansion from
9 to 6
" Likewise, symmetry of the stress tensor also yields β ij = β ji , and

reduces the number of independent thermal moduli from 9 to 6
77
CONCLUDED
" The expanded forms of the Duhamel-Neumann law are now given by
ε 11 S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 2S 1123 2S 1113 2S 1112 σ 11 α 11

ε 22 S 1122 S 2222 S 2233 2S 2223 2S 2213 2S 2212 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 1133 S 2233 S 3333 2S 3323 2S 3313 2S 3312 σ 33 α 33
2εε23
=
2S 1123 2S 2223 2S 3323 4S 2323 4S 2313 4S 2312 σ 23 + 2α
α 23
T − Tref
2εε13 2S 1113 2S 2213 2S 3313 4S 2313 4S 1313 4S 1312 σ 13 2α
α 13
2εε12 2S 1112 2S 2212 2S 3312 4S 2312 4S 1312 4S 1212 σ 12 2α
α 12
σ 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 ε 11 β 11

σ 22 C 1122 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 1133 C 2233 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
=
C 1123 C 2223 C 3323 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 2εε23
+ β 23
T − Tref
σ 13 C 1113 C 2213 C 3313 C 2313 C 1313 C 1312 2εε13 β 13
σ 12 C 1112 C 2212 C 3312 C 2312 C 1312 C 1212 2εε12 β 12
78
EQUATIONS FOR THE THERMAL MODULI
" The thermal moduli βij are related to the coefficients of linear thermal
expansion by β ij = − C ijklα kl or by
β 11 C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 α 11

β 22 C 1122 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 α 22
β 33 C 1133 C 2233 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 α 33
=−
β 23 C 1123 C 2223 C 3323 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 2α
α 23
β 13 C 1113 C 2213 C 3313 C 2313 C 1313 C 1312 2α
α 13
β 12 C 1112 C 2212 C 3312 C 2312 C 1312 C 1212 2α
α 12
" Note that βij have units of stress/ temperature; e.g., lb/in2-oF
" Similarly, αij have units of temperature-1
79
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY FOR THERMAL LOADING
" The symmetry relations C ijkl = C klij for a thermoelastic solid can also be
obtained from first principles by enforcing path independence of the
strain-energy density function U
" The strain-energy density U of a generally thermoelastic solid is

defined as the work of the internal stresses done through
mechanical deformations
" The strain-energy-density increment dU is given for this case by
d U = σ 11dεεσ11 + σ 22dεεσ22 + σ 33dεεσ33 + 2σ

σ 23dεεσ23 + 2σ
σ 12dεεσ12
σ T
where the stress-induced, mechanical strains are given by ε ij = ε ij − ε ij
and the stresses depend on the mechanical strains; that is,
σ σ σ σ σ σ
σ ij = σ ij ε 11, ε 22, ε 33, ε 23, ε 13, ε 12
80
CONTINUED
It is important to emphasize that the mechanical strains ε ij = ε ij − ε ij

σ T
"
include strains generated by thermal stresses associated with a
nonuniform temperature field or spatial variations in the coefficients of
thermal expansion
" The expression
d U = σ 11dεεσ11 + σ 22dεεσ22 + σ 33dεεσ33 + 2σ

σ 12dεεσ12
is written compactly in indicial form as
σ σ
ε ij
81
CONTINUED
" The strain-energy density U is obtained by integrating dU over the

deformation associated with a thermomechanical loading process
that starts at a stress- and strain-free state and ends at a particular
stress and strain state; that is,
σ
ε pq
U= σ σ
σ ij ε pq dεεij = U ε pq
σ
" Because no mechanical work of the internal forces within a body is

lost during a conservative, elastic, thermomechanical loading-
unloading process, it follows that U= σ

σ ij ε pq dε
σ
ε ij = 0 , which
implies
∂U ∂U
= Uσ dε
2 2
∂
dU
σ
ε ij and σ σ = σ σ
∂ε ij ∂ε ij ∂ε kl ∂ε kl ∂ε ij
82
CONCLUDED
∂U ∂U
Equating d U = σ ij ε pq dεεij and d U = σ dεεij gives
σ σ σ σ
" σ = σ ij ε pq
∂ε ij ∂ε ij
∂U ∂σ ij ∂σ kl
Then, σ U σ = σ U σ
2 2
∂ ∂ σ
=
" and σ = σ ij ε pq give σ σ
∂ε ij ∂ε kl ∂ε kl ∂ε ij ∂ε ij ∂ε kl ∂ε ij
σ
σ ∂σ ij ∂ σ ∂ε rs
" σ ij = C ijrsε rs gives σ = σ C ijrsε rs = C ijrs σ = C ijrsδ rkδ sl = C ijkl
∂ε kl ∂ε kl ∂ε kl
σ
σ ∂σ kl ∂ σ ∂ε pq
" σ ij = C ijpqε pq gives σ = σ C klpqε pq = C klpq σ = C klpqδ piδ qj = C klij
∂ε ij ∂ε ij ∂ε ij
∂σ ij ∂σ kl
" Thus, ∂ε σ = ∂ε σ yields C ijkl = C klij
kl ij
83
COMPLEMENTARY STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY FOR
THERMAL LOADING
" The symmetry condition S ijkl = S klij is obtained by examining the

complementary strain-energy density function U *
" An expression for U * is obtained by first requiring that a one-to-one

relationship exists between the stresses and strains, and by expressing
σ σ
σ ijε ij = σ ij ε ij + α ij T − Tref or σ ijε ij = σ ijε ij + σ ijα ij T − Tref
" Next, the product rule of differentiation is used to get

σ σ
d σ ijε ij = σ ijdε
ε ij + ε ij dσ
σ ij + d σ ijα ij T − Tref
" In the part σ ijdεεσij , the stress-induced, mechanical strains are taken
as the independent variables
" In the part ε ijσdσ

σ ij , the stresses are taken as the independent
variables
84
THERMAL LOADING - CONTINUED
σ σ
" Next, the expression d σ ijε ij = σ ijdεεij + ε ij dσ
σ ij + d σ ijα ij T − Tref is
integrated from the initial stress- and strain- free state to the current
stress and strain state; i.e.,
σ
ε pq ε pq σ pq ε pq
σ σ σ
d σ ijε ij = σ ij ε pq dε
ε +
ij ε σ pq dσ
ij σ ij + d σ ijα ij T − Tref
0 0 0 0
ε pq
" In the term d σ ijε ij it is presumed that the stresses are known as
0
functions of the strains

σ pq
" This term can also be expressed as d σ ijε ij , where it is
0
presumed that the strains are known as functions of the stresses
" Both terms yield σ ijε ij , the current values of the stresses and
strains
85
THERMAL LOADING - CONCLUDED
" Using the previous expression and the definition of the strain-energy
σ pq
density function U gives σ ijε ij = U ε
σ
pq +
σ
ε ij σ pq dσ
σ ij + σ ijα ij T − Tref
0
" The complementary strain-energy density function U * is defined as

σ pq
U* = σ
ε ij σ pq dσ
σ ij + σ ijα ij T − Tref such that σ ijε ij = U ε pq + U * σ pq,T
σ
Note that d U * = ε ij dσ
σ
" σ ij + d σ ijα ij T − Tref
Legendre’s transformation takes the form U * σ pq,T = σ ijε ij − U ε pq

σ
"
" The complementary relationship of the strain-energy density function

and the complementary strain-energy density function for the
thermoelastic case are illustrated on the next two charts for a one-
dimensional stress and strain state
86
ILLUSTRATION OF THERMOELASTIC ENERGY DENSITIES
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE
σε = U ε +
σ
U * σ,T
Stress Stress σ
Stress
σ=σε
σ σ σ dσ
σ
α T − Tref
= + α T − Tref
σ
ε =ε σ
σ
dεεσ
εσ ε εσ εσ ε
Total strain Total strain Total strain
εσ
σ
Area = σε Area = ε =U ε
σ σ σ
σ ε dε σ + σα T − Tref = U * σ,T
σ
Area = ε σ dσ
0 0
Loading process = mechanical loading followed by thermal loading
87
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE - CONTINUED
σε = U σ
ε + U * σ,T
Stress Stress Stress σ σ
σ=σε
σ
ε =ε σ
σ σ dσ
σ
σ
εσ = dεεσ
+
α T − Tref ε εσ α T − Tref ε
Total strain Mechanical strain Total strain
σ
ε σ
Area = σε Area = ε =U ε σ + σα T − Tref = U * σ,T
σ σ σ σ
σ ε dε Area = ε σ dσ
0 0
Loading process = thermal loading followed by mechanical loading
88
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE - CONTINUED
" The previous figures illustrate that path independence of the elastic
loading-unloading process implies path independence of the
complementary strain-energy density function
" If the material were inelastic, the quantity of complementary strain-

energy density function would depend on the loading process
∂U *
σ ij + U dT
∂ *
" Thus, U * σ pq,T = dU * = 0 and d U * = ∂σ dσ ∂T
ij
d U * = ε ij dσ gives d U * = ε ij + α ij T − Tref dσ
σ σ
" σ ij + d σ ijα ij T − Tref σ ij + σ ijα ijdT
which reduces to d U * = ε ijdσ

σ ij + σ ijα ijdT
89
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE - CONCLUDED
∂U *
σ ij + U dT with d U * = ε ijdσ
∂ *
" Equating d U * = ∂σ dσ ∂T
σ ij + σ ijα ijdT gives
ij
∂U * σ ∂U *
= ε ij = ε ij + α ij T − Tref and = σ ijα ij
∂σ ij ∂T
" Now, U * σ pq,T = d U * = 0 implies, and is implied by, the conditions
∂ U* ∂ U* ∂ U* ∂ U*
2 2 2 2
= and =
∂σ ij ∂σ kl ∂σ kl ∂σ ij ∂σ ij ∂T ∂T ∂σ ij
∂ U*
2
∂ U*
2
∂U * ∂ε ij ∂ε kl
" = and ∂σ = ε ij give =
∂σ ij ∂σ kl ∂σ kl ∂σ ij ij ∂σ kl ∂σ ij
90
PROOF THAT Sijkl = Sklij FOR THERMOELASTIC SOLIDS
∂U * ∂U * ∂ U* ∂ U*
2 2
σ
" First, ∂σ = ε ij + α ij T − Tref and ∂T = σ ijα ij satisfy =
ij ∂σ ij ∂T ∂T ∂σ ij
identically
" ε ij = S ijrsσ rs + α ij T − Tref gives
∂ε ij ∂ ∂σ rs
= S σ + α ij T − Tref = S ijrs = S ijrsδ rkδ sl = S ijkl
∂σ kl ∂σ kl ijrs rs ∂σ kl
" ε ij = S ijpqσ pq + α ij T − Tref gives
∂ε kl ∂ ∂σ pq
= S σ + α ij T − Tref = S klpq = S klpqδ piδ qj = S klij
∂σ ij ∂σ ij klpq pq ∂σ ij
∂ε ∂ε
yields S ijkl = S klij
ij kl
" Thus, ∂σ = ∂σ
kl ij
91
CLAPEYRON’S FORMULA FOR THERMOELASTIC SOLIDS
" Clapeyron’s formula U

= 12 σ ijε ijσ remains the same because the
strain-energy density is based on stress-induced, mechanical work
" Clapeyron’s formula is expressed in terms of the total strains by using

σ
ε ij = ε ij − α ij T − Tref to get
U = 12 σ ijε ij − 12 σ ijα ij T − Tref
92
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY EXPRESSIONS
By definition, U = 2 σ ijε σij for a homogeneous, anisotropic, linear-

1
"
thermoelastic solid
"
σ
Using ε ij = S ijrsσ rs gives U = 12 S ijrsσ ijσ rs
For isotropic materials, U = 2E
2
"
1 1+ν σ σ −ν σ
ij ij kk
" In expanded form,
U = 2E − ν σ 11σ 22 + σ 22σ 33 + σ 11σ 33 +

2 2 2
1 σ 11 + σ 22 + σ 33
E
1+ν σ 2+ σ 2+ σ 2
12 23 13
E
93
STRAIN-ENERGY DENSITY EXPRESSIONS
CONCLUDED
Using σ ij = C ijklε kl gives U = 12 C ijklε ij ε kl

σ σ σ
"
σ
" Further, using ε ij = ε ij − α ijΘ , Θ = T − Tref and C klij = C ijkl gives
U= 1 C ε ε − 2ε 2
ijkl ij kl ε ijα klΘ + α ijα klΘ
2
" For isotropic materials,
U= E E 3E 2
ε ijε ij + ε kk ν ε kk − αΘ +
2
αΘ
2 1+ν 2 1 − 2ν 1+ν 2 1 − 2ν
or
2
U = νE
2 1 + ν 1 − 2ν
ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ E ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 + 2 ε 12 + 2 ε 23 + 2 ε 13
2 1+ν
2
3α E
− αE
2
ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 Θ + Θ
1 − 2ν 2 1 − 2ν
94
ABRIDGED NOTATION
AND
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
95
ABRIDGED NOTATION FOR CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
" The abridged notation presented subsequently is attributed to

Woldemar Voigt (1850-1919), and was developed for expressing the
constitutive equations in the simpler, more intuitive matrix notation
" The components of the stress, strain, thermal expansion, and thermal
moduli tensors are written as column vectors
" The order of the elements is obtained from cyclic permutations

of the numbers 1, 2, and 3
ε 11 β 11 β1 α 11
σ 11 σ1 ε1 α1
σ 22 σ2 ε 22 ε2 β 22 β2 α 22 α2
β 33 β3
σ 33
σ 23 → σ3
σ4
ε 33
2εε23 → ε3
ε4 β 23 → β4
α 33
2α
α 23 → α3
α4
σ 13 σ5 2εε13 ε5 β 13 β5 2α
α 13 α5
σ 12 σ6 ε6 α6
2εε12 β 12 β6 2α
α 12
" The term "tensor," as it is used today, was introduced by Voigt in 1899
96
CONTINUED
" The components of the compliance and stiffness tensors are

expressed as
S 1111 S 1122 S 1133 2S 1123 2S 1113 2S 1112 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16

S 2211 S 2222 S 2233 2S 2223 2S 2213 2S 2212 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26
S 3311 S 3322 S 3333 2S 3323 2S 3313 2S 3312 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36
2S 2311 2S 2322 2S 2333 4S 2323 4S 2313 4S 2312 → S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46
2S 1311 2S 1322 2S 1333 4S 1323 4S 1313 4S 1312 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56
2S 1211 2S 1222 2S 1233 4S 1223 4S 1213 4S 1212 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66
C 1111 C 1122 C 1133 C 1123 C 1113 C 1112 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16

C 2211 C 2222 C 2233 C 2223 C 2213 C 2212 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
C 3311 C 3322 C 3333 C 3323 C 3313 C 3312 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
C 2311 C 2322 C 2333 C 2323 C 2313 C 2312 → C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 C 45 C 46
C 1311 C 1322 C 1333 C 1323 C 1313 C 1312 C 51 C 52 C 53 C 54 C 55 C 56
C 1211 C 1222 C 1233 C 1223 C 1213 C 1212 C 61 C 62 C 63 C 64 C 65 C 66
" Materials that can be characterized by the matrices given above when
they are symmetric are said to possess complete Voigt symmetry
97
CONTINUED
" The constitutive equations are often expressed in a nontensorial,

indicial form given by
ε i = S ijσ j + α i T − Tref σ i = C ijε j + β i T − Tref
" Similarly, the constitutive equations are often expressed in matrix form
given by
ε = S σ + α T − Tref
and
σ = C ε − α T − Tref
or
σ = C ε + β T − Tref
98
CONTINUED
ε1 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 σ1 α1
ε2 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ2 α2
ε3 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ3 α3
= + T − Tref
ε4 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 σ4 α4
ε5 S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 σ5 α5
ε6 S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 σ6 α6
ε = S σ + α T − Tref
σ1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε1 β1
σ2 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε2 β2
σ3 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε3 β3
= + T − Tref
σ4 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 ε4 β4
σ5 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 ε5 β5
σ6 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 ε6 β6
σ = C ε + β T − Tref
99
CONTINUED
" Often, the following mixed-abridged notation is used
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 2α
α 23
2εε13 σ 13 2α
α 13
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56
2εε12 σ 12 2α
α 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2εε23 β 23
σ 13 2εε13 β 13
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2εε12 β 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
100
CONCLUDED
" The thermal moduli are given by
β1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 α1
β2 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 α2
β3 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 α3
=−
β4 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2α 4
β5 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 2α 5
β6 2α 6
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
or
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 α 22
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 α 33
=−
β 23 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2α 23
β 13 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 2α 13
β 12 2α 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
101
CLAPEYRON’S FORMULA IN ABRIDGED NOTATION
" Clapeyron’s formula for the strain-energy density of a linear-
thermoelastic solid was given previously by = 12 σ ijε σij or U

U = 12 σ ε ij ij − 12 σ ijα ij T − Tref σ
where ε ij = ε ij − α ij T − Tref
" A convenient matrix form of Clapeyron’s formula is obtained by

using the following notation
T σ T
σ = σ 11 σ 22 σ 33 σ 23 σ 13 σ 12 ε = σ σ σ σ σ σ
ε 11 ε 22 ε 33 2εε23 2εε13 2εε12
T T
ε = ε 11 ε 22 ε 33 2εε23 2εε13 2εε12 α = α 11 α 22 α 33 2α
α 23 2α
α 13 2α
α 12
where the superscript T denotes matrix or vector transposition
σ
" First, by inspection, it follows that ε = ε − α Θ where
Θ = T − Tref
102
CONTINUED
σ
" Next, noting that σ ijε ij = σ 11ε σ11 + σ 22ε σ22 + σ 33ε σ33 + σ 232εεσ23 + σ 132εεσ13 + σ 122εεσ12 it
σ T σ σ T
follows that σ ijε ij = σ ε = ε σ in matrix notation
" Therefore,Clapeyron’s formula for the strain-energy density of a

linear-thermoelastic solid is given in matrix from by
T T
U= U= 1 1
T
1
2
σ ε
σ
or 2
σ ε − 2
σ α Θ
" An alternate form of Clapeyron’s formula is obtained as follows
Θ σ
" First, define σ = C α Θ such that σ = C ε becomes
Θ
σ = C ε − σ
103
CONTINUED
Θ −1 Θ
" Then, σ = C α Θ gives α Θ= C σ
σ σ −1 Θ
" Next, ε = ε − α Θ becomes ε = ε − C σ
T σ T T −1 Θ
" Also, σ ε = σ ε − σ C σ
Θ T T Θ T
" Transposition of σ = C ε − σ gives σ = ε C − σ ,
where symmetry of [C] has been used
T σ T T −1 Θ
" Using the last expression with σ ε = σ ε − σ C σ gives
T σ T T −1 Θ Θ T −1 Θ
σ ε = σ ε − ε C C σ + σ C σ which simplifies
T σ T Θ Θ T −1 Θ
to σ ε = σ − σ ε + σ C σ
104
CONCLUDED
Θ Θ T −1 Θ T 2
" Next, using σ = C α Θ gives σ C σ = α C α Θ
T σ T Θ Θ T −1 Θ
" Using the last equation with σ ε = σ − σ ε + σ C σ
T σ T Θ T 2
gives σ ε = σ − σ ε + α C α Θ
Therefore, Clapeyron’s formula U = 12 σ

T σ
" ε becomes
T T T
U= 1 + 1
Θ 2
2
σ − σ ε 2
α C α Θ
105
PHYSICAL MEANING OF THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS
" The shaded terms shown below correspond to independent interaction
between pure extensional stresses and strains
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
" The shaded terms shown below correspond to independent interaction

between pure shearing stresses and strains
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
106
CONTINUED
" The shaded terms shown below correspond to coupling of interactions
between pure extensional stresses and strains
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
" The shaded terms shown below correspond to coupling of interactions

between pure shearing stresses and strains
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
107
CONCLUDED
" The shaded terms shown below correspond to coupling or interactions
between extensional and shearing behavior
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
108
TRANSFORMATION
EQUATIONS
109
TRANSFORMATION OF [C] AND [S]
" Consider a general orthogonal transformation between the Cartesian

coordinates x 1, x 2, x 3 and x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ at a fixed point P of a body
" The orthonormal bases for the two coordinate systems, for an
arbitrary point P of a body, are indicated on the figure below
" Because only a fixed point P Anisotropic

is considered, coordinate body, B i3
translations are excluded i 3′′
i 2′′
P
" Although two right-handed i2
coordinate systems are i1
i 1′′
shown in the figure, there is
no such restriction on the
following development of the
transformation equations
110
TRANSFORMATION OF [C] AND [S] - CONTINUED
" The general relationship between the two orthonormal bases is given
by the following matrix representations
i 1′′ a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 i1

" i 2′′ = a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 i2 or, in abridged form, i′′ = a i
i 3′′ a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 i3
i1 a 1′′1 a 2′′1 a 3′′1 i 1′′

− 1
" i2 = a 1′′2 a 2′′2 a 3′′2 i 2′′ or, in abridged form, i = a i′′
i3 a 1′′3 a 2′′3 a 3′′3 i 3′′
−1 T
" Examining these two matrices indicates that a = a
" Transformations of this type are known as orthogonal
transformations and preserve the lengths of, and the angles
between, vectors
" a p′′q ≡ i p′′ • i q = i q • i p′′ = a qp′′ and a p′′q = a qp′′ ≠ a pq′′ = a q′′p
111
" The matrix equation i′′ = a i is expressed in indicial notation by

i k′′ = a k′′q i q
−1
" Likewise, i = a i′′ is expressed in indicial notation by i p = a r′′p i r′′
" Important relationships between the direction cosines a k′′q are obtained
by enforcing the two orthonormality conditions i k′′ • i p′′ = δ kp and
i m • i n = δ mn
" These conditions yield the relationships
a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp and a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp

" Each indicial equation possesses six independent relations
112
" The total of twelve independent relations are given in tabular form
below:
k p a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp k p a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 a 1′′1 + a 1′′2 + a 1′′3 =1 1 1 a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 =1
2 1 a 2′′1a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 1′′3 = 0 2 1 a 1′′2a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 3′′1 = 0
3 1 a 3′′1a 1′′1 + a 3′′2a 1′′2 + a 3′′3a 1′′3 = 0 3 1 a 1′′3a 1′′1 + a 2′′3a 2′′1 + a 3′′3a 3′′1 = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 a 2′′1 + a 2′′2 + a 2′′3 =1 2 2 a 1′′2 + a 2′′2 + a 3′′2 =1
3 2 a 3′′1a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 2′′3 = 0 3 2 a 1′′3a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 3′′2 = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 a 3′′1 + a 3′′2 + a 3′′3 =1 3 3 a 1′′3 + a 2′′3 + a 3′′3 =1
113
" By using the abridged notation, matrix forms of the stress and strain
transformation equations can be obtained that are given by
σ′ = Tσ σ and ε′ = Tε ε
where
σ 11 σ1 ε 11 ε1
σ 22 σ2 ε 22 ε2
σ 33 σ3 ε 33 ε3
σ = σ 23 = σ4 ε = 2εε23
= ε4
σ 13 σ5 2εε13 ε5
σ 12 σ6 2εε12 ε6
σ 1′′1′′ σ 1′′ ε 1′′1′′ ε 1′′

σ 2′′2′′ σ 2′′ ε 2′′2′′ ε 2′′
σ 3′′3′′ σ 3′′ ε 3′′3′′ ε 3′′
σ′ = σ 2′′3′′
= σ 4′′ ε′ = 2εε2′′3′′
= ε 4′′
and
σ 1′′3′′ σ 5′′ 2εε1′′3′′ ε 5′′
σ 1′′2′′ σ 6′′ 2εε1′′2′′ ε 6′′
114
2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tσ =
a 2′′1a 3′′1 a 2′′2a 3′′2 a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1
2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 a 1′′2a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 a 2′′2a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 a 3′′2a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tε = 2a 2′′1a 3′′1 2a 2′′2a 3′′2 2a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1
2a 1′′1a 3′′1 2a 1′′2a 3′′2 2a 1′′3a 3′′3 a 1′′2a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′2 a 1′′1a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′1 a 1′′1a 3′′2 + a 1′′2a 3′′1
a j′′p ≡ i j′′ • i p
" Inspection of the matrices shown above indicates that when the off-
diagonal terms vanish, which happens for certain transformations,
the two matrices are identical
115
x 3′′
x3
x3
a j′′p ≡ i j′′ • i p
i 3′′ i 2′′ x 2′′

i3 x2
i2 P
i1 x2
P i 1′′
x1
x1 x 1′′
Initial coordinate frame Initial and new

coordinate frame
116
" Recall that the thermoelastic constitutive equations are

expressed in symbolic form by
ε = S σ + α Θ and σ = C ε + β Θ
where Θ = T − Tref
" In the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinate frame the thermoelastic constitutive
equations are expressed in symbolic form by
ε′ = S′′ σ′ + α′ Θ and σ′ = C′′ ε′ + β′ Θ
" By using the matrix form of the stress and strain transformation
equations,
−1 −1
σ = C ε + β Θ becomes Tσ σ′ = C Tε ε′ + β Θ
117
!!!
" Premultiplying by Tσ gives
−1
σ′ = Tσ C Tε ε′ + Tσ β Θ
" Comparing this equation with σ′ = C′′ ε′ + β′ Θ it follows

that
−1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε and β′ = Tσ β
−1
" Thus, C = Tσ C′′ Tε
118
!!!!

" Next, by using the matrix form of the stress and strain transformation
equations, ε = S σ + α Θ becomes
−1 −1
Tε ε′ = S Tσ σ′ + α Θ
" Premultiplying by Tε gives
−1
ε′ = Tε S Tσ σ′ + Tε α Θ
" Comparing this equation with ε′ = S′′ σ′ + α′ Θ it follows

that
−1
S′′ = Tε S Tσ and α′ = Tε α
−1 −1
" Thus, S′′ = Tε S Tσ gives S = Tε S′′ Tσ
119
TRANSFORMATION OF [C] AND [S]
CONCLUDED
" In summary:
−1 −1
S′′ = Tε S Tσ S = Tε S′′ Tσ
−1 −1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε C = Tσ C′′ Tε
α′ = Tε α β′ = Tσ β
120
TRANSFORMATIONS FOR DEXTRAL ROTATIONS
ABOUT THE x3 AXIS
x 3 , x 3′′
a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
i 3 , i 3′′ x 2′′
i 2′′ θ3
x2
i1 i2
i 1′′
θ3
Plane x3 = 0
x 1′′
x1
" The term "dextral" refers to a right-handed rotation
121
ABOUT THE x3 AXIS - CONTINUED
" The matrix form of the stress-tensor transformation law is given by
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
σ 1′′1′′ sin θ 3 cos θ 3
2
0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 11
σ 2′′2′′ σ 22
σ 3′′3′′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 33
=
σ 2′′3′′ 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0 σ 23
σ 1′′3′′ σ 13
σ 1′′2′′ 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0 σ 12
2 2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
and is expressed symbolically by
σ′ = Tσ θ 3 σ
122
" Similarly, the matrix form of the inverse transformation law is given by
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
σ 11 sin θ 3 cos θ 3
2
0 0 0 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 1′′1′′
σ 22 σ 2′′2′′
σ 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 3′′3′′
=
σ 23 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ3 0 σ 2′′3′′
σ 13 σ 1′′3′′
σ 12 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0 σ 1′′2′′
2 2
sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3

−1
σ = Tσ θ 3 σ′
−1
where Tσ θ 3 = Tσ − θ 3
123
!!

" By using the second-order, symmetric tensor transformation equations,

the transformation law for the vector of engineering strains is given by
2 2
cos # 3 sin # 3 0 0 0 sin#
# 3cos#
#3
! 1""1"" 2 2
! 11
sin # 3 cos # 3 0 0 0 $ sin#
# 3cos#
#3 ! 22
! 2""2""
! 3""3"" 0 0 1 0 0 0 ! 33
=
2!!2""3"" 0 0 0 cos#
# 3 $ sin#
#3 0 2!!23
2!!1""3"" 0 0 0 sin#
# 3 cos#
#3 0 2!!13
2!!1""2"" 2 2 2!!12
$ 2sin#
# 3cos#
# 3 2sin#
# 3cos#
#3 0 0 0 cos # 3 $ sin # 3
which is expressed symbolically by
!" = T! # 3 !
T $1
" Note that T! # 3 = T% # 3 = T% $ # 3
124
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 11 2 2
ε 1′′1′′
sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 ε 2′′2′′
ε 22
ε 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 ε 3′′3′′
=
2εε23 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ3 0 2εε2′′3′′
2εε13 2εε1′′3′′
0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2εε12 2 2 2εε1′′2′′
2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3

−1
ε = Tε θ 3 ε′
−1 T
where Tε θ 3 = Tε − θ 3 = Tσ θ 3
125
" The general expression for the transformation of the stiffness

coefficients and thermal moduli are
−1
−1 T
" Noting that Tε = Tσ for a dextral rotation about the x3 axis gives
T
C′′ = Tσ C Tσ
" Similarly, the general expression for the inverse transformation of the
−1
stiffness coefficients is C = Tσ C′′ Tε
−1 T
" Noting that Tσ = Tε for a dextral rotation about the x3 axis gives
T
C = Tε C′′ Tε
126
" The general expression for the transformation of the compliance

coefficients and thermal expansion coefficients are
−1
−1 T
T
S′′ = Tε S Tε
−1
compliance coefficients is S = Tε S′′ Tσ
−1 T
T
S = Tσ S′′ Tσ
127
TRANSFORMATIONS FOR DEXTRAL ROTATIONS ABOUT
THE x3 AXIS - SUMMARY
T T
S!! = T" S T" S = T# S!! T#
T T
C!! = T# C T# C = T" C!! T"
2 2
cos $ 3 sin $ 3 0 0 0 2sin$
$ 3cos$
$3
2 2
sin $ 3 cos $ 3 0 0 0 % 2sin$
$ 3cos$
$3
0 0 1 0 0 0
T# = 0 0 0 cos$
$ 3 % sin$
$3 0
0 0 0 sin$
$ 3 cos$
$3 0
2 2
% sin$
$ 3cos$
$3 sin$
$ 3cos$
$3 0 0 0 cos $ 3 % sin $ 3
2 2
cos $ 3 sin $ 3 0 0 0 sin$
$ 3cos$
$3
2 2
sin $ 3 cos $ 3 0 0 0 % sin$
$ 3cos$
$3
0 0 1 0 0 0
T" =
0 0 0 cos$
$ 3 % sin$
$3 0
0 0 0 sin$
$ 3 cos$
$3 0
2 2
% 2sin$
$ 3cos$
$3 2sin$
$ 3cos$
$3 0 0 0 cos $ 3 % sin $ 3
128
T
!" = T# ! ! = T$ !"
T
%" = T$ % % = T# %"
2 2
cos & 3 sin & 3 0 0 0 2sin&
& 3cos&
&3
2 2
sin & 3 cos & 3 0 0 0 ' 2sin&
& 3cos&
&3
0 0 1 0 0 0
T$ = 0 0 0 cos&
& 3 ' sin&
&3 0
0 0 0 sin&
& 3 cos&
&3 0
2 2
' sin&
& 3cos&
&3 sin&
& 3cos&
&3 0 0 0 cos & 3 ' sin & 3
2 2
cos & 3 sin & 3 0 0 0 sin&
& 3cos&
&3
2 2
sin & 3 cos & 3 0 0 0 ' sin&
& 3cos&
&3
0 0 1 0 0 0
T# =
0 0 0 cos&
& 3 ' sin&
&3 0
0 0 0 sin&
& 3 cos&
&3 0
2 2
' 2sin&
& 3cos&
&3 2sin&
& 3cos&
&3 0 0 0 cos & 3 ' sin & 3
129
" Let m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 for convenience
T
" Performing the calculations given by C′′ = Tσ C Tσ yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 1′′1′′ = m C 11 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 + 4mn m C 16 + n C 26 + n C 22
2 2 2 2 4 4
C 1′′2′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 4C 66 − 2mn m − n C 16 − C 26 + m + n C 12
2 2
C 1′′3′′ = m C 13 + n C 23 + 2mnC 36
3 2 2 3
C 1′′4′′ = m C 14 + m n 2C 46 − C 15 − mn 2C 56 − C 24 − n C 25
3 2 2 3
C 1′′5′′ = m C 15 + m n 2C 56 + C 14 + mn 2C 46 + C 25 + n C 24
2 2 2 3
C 1′′6′′ = m m − 3n C 16 − m n C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66 − n n − 3m C 26
130
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 2′′2′′ = m C 22 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 − 4mn m C 26 + n C 16 + n C 11
2 2
C 2′′3′′ = m C 23 + n C 13 − 2mnC 36
3 2 2 3
C 2′′4′′ = m C 24 − m n 2C 46 + C 25 + mn 2C 56 + C 14 − n C 15
3 2 2 3
C 2′′5′′ = m C 25 − m n 2C 56 − C 24 − mn 2C 46 − C 15 + n C 14
2 2 2 3
C 2′′6′′ = m m − 3n C 26 + m n C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66
3 2 2 2
− mn C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66 − n n − 3m C 16
C 3′′3′′ = C 33
C 3′′4′′ = mC 34 − nC 35
C 3′′5′′ = mC 35 + nC 34
131
2 2
C 3′′6′′ = m − n C 36 + mn C 23 − C 13
2 2
C 4′′4′′ = m C 44 + n C 55 − 2mnC 45
2 2
C 4′′5′′ = m − n C 45 + mn C 44 − C 55
3 2 2 3
C 4′′6′′ = m C 46 − m n C 56 + C 14 − C 24 − mn C 46 − C 15 + C 25 + n C 56
2 2
C 5′′5′′ = m C 55 + n C 44 + 2mnC 45
3 2 2 3
C 5′′6′′ = m C 56 + m n C 46 + C 25 − C 15 − mn C 56 + C 14 − C 24 − n C 46
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 6′′6′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 2C 12 − 2mn m − n C 16 − C 26 + m − n C 66
132
" Again, let m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3
T
" Performing the calculations given by C = Tε C′′ Tε yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 11 = m C 1′′1′′ + 2m n C 1′′2′′ + 2C 6′′6′′ − 4mn m C 1′′6′′ + n C 2′′6′′ + n C 2′′2′′
2 2 2 2 4 4
C 12 = m n C 1′′1′′ + C 2′′2′′ − 4C 6′′6′′ + 2mn m − n C 1′′6′′ − C 2′′6′′ + m + n C 1′′2′′
2 2
C 13 = m C 1′′3′′ + n C 2′′3′′ − 2mnC 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
C 14 = m C 1′′4′′ − m n 2C 4′′6′′ − C 1′′5′′ − mn 2C 5′′6′′ − C 2′′4′′ + n C 2′′5′′
3 2 2 3
C 15 = m C 1′′5′′ − m n 2C 5′′6′′ + C 1′′4′′ + mn 2C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ − n C 2′′4′′
2 2 2 3
C 16 = m m − 3n C 1′′6′′ + m n C 1′′1′′ − C 1′′2′′ − 2C 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
− mn C 2′′2′′ − C 1′′2′′ − 2C 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m C 2′′6′′
133
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 22 = m C 2′′2′′ + 2m n C 1′′2′′ + 2C 6′′6′′ + 4mn m C 2′′6′′ + n C 1′′6′′ + n C 1′′1′′
2 2
C 23 = m C 2′′3′′ + n C 1′′3′′ + 2mnC 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
C 24 = m C 2′′4′′ + m n 2C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ + mn 2C 5′′6′′ + C 1′′4′′ + n C 1′′5′′
3 2 2 3
C 25 = m C 2′′5′′ + m n 2C 5′′6′′ − C 2′′4′′ − mn 2C 4′′6′′ − C 1′′5′′ − n C 1′′4′′
2 2 2 3
C 26 = m m − 3n C 2′′6′′ − m n C 2′′2′′ − C 1′′2′′ − 2C 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 1′′1′′ − C 1′′2′′ − 2C 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m C 1′′6′′
C 33 = C 3′′3′′ C 34 = mC 3′′4′′ + nC 3′′5′′ C 35 = mC 3′′5′′ − nC 3′′4′′
2 2
C 36 = m − n C 3′′6′′ − mn C 2′′3′′ − C 1′′3′′
2 2
C 44 = m C 4′′4′′ + n C 5′′5′′ + 2mnC 4′′5′′
134
2 2
C 45 = m − n C 4′′5′′ − mn C 4′′4′′ − C 5′′5′′
3 2 2 3
C 46 = m C 4′′6′′ + m n C 5′′6′′ + C 1′′4′′ − C 2′′4′′ − mn C 4′′6′′ − C 1′′5′′ + C 2′′5′′ − n C 5′′6′′
2 2
C 55 = m C 5′′5′′ + n C 4′′4′′ − 2mnC 4′′5′′
3 2 2 3
C 56 = m C 5′′6′′ − m n C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ − C 1′′5′′ − mn C 5′′6′′ + C 1′′4′′ − C 2′′4′′ + n C 4′′6′′
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 66 = m n C 1′′1′′ + C 2′′2′′ − 2C 1′′2′′ + 2mn m − n C 1′′6′′ − C 2′′6′′ + m − n C 6′′6′′
" Note that C′′ and C can be expressed as
C′′ = Tσ θ 3 C Tε − θ 3 and C = Tσ − θ 3 C′′ Tε θ 3
" Thus, one set of transformed stiffness expressions can be

obtained from the other by simply interchanging the primed and
unprimed indices and replacing n with -n
135
" Let m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3

T
" Performing the calculations given by S′′ = Tε S Tε yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
S 1′′1′′ = m S 11 + m n 2S 12 + S 66 + 2mn m S 16 + n S 26 + n S 22
2 2 2 2 4 4
S 1′′2′′ = m n S 11 + S 22 − S 66 − mn m − n S 16 − S 26 + m + n S 12
2 2
S 1′′3′′ = m S 13 + n S 23 + mnS 36
3 2 2 3
S 1′′4′′ = m S 14 + m n S 46 − S 15 − mn S 56 − S 24 − n S 25
3 2 2 3
S 1′′5′′ = m S 15 + m n S 56 + S 14 + mn S 46 + S 25 + n S 24
2 2 2 3
S 1′′6′′ = m m − 3n S 16 − m n 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 26
136
4 2 2 2 2 4
S 2′′2′′ = m S 22 + m n 2S 12 + S 66 − 2mn m S 26 + n S 16 + n S 11
2 2
S 2′′3′′ = m S 23 + n S 13 − mnS 36
3 2 2 3
S 2′′4′′ = m S 24 − m n S 46 + S 25 + mn S 56 + S 14 − n S 15
3 2 2 3
S 2′′5′′ = m S 25 − m n S 56 − S 24 − mn S 46 − S 15 + n S 14
2 2 2 3
S 2′′6′′ = m m − 3n S 26 + m n 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 16
S 3′′3′′ = S 33
S 3′′4′′ = mS 34 − nS 35
S 3′′5′′ = mS 35 + nS 34
137
2 2
S 3′′6′′ = m − n S 36 + 2mn S 23 − S 13
2 2
S 4′′4′′ = m S 44 + n S 55 − 2mnS 45
2 2
S 4′′5′′ = m − n S 45 + mn S 44 − S 55
3 2 2 3
S 4′′6′′ = m S 46 − m n S 56 + 2S 14 − 2S 24 − mn S 46 − 2S 15 + 2S 25 + n S 56
2 2
S 5′′5′′ = m S 55 + n S 44 + 2mnS 45
3 2 2 3
S 5′′6′′ = m S 56 + m n S 46 + 2S 25 − 2S 15 − mn S 56 + 2S 14 − 2S 24 − n S 46
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
S 6′′6′′ = 4m n S 11 + S 22 − 2S 12 − 4mn m − n S 16 − S 26 + m − n S 66
138
T
" Performing the calculations given by S = Tσ S′′ Tσ yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
S 11 = m S 1′′1′′ + m n 2S 1′′2′′ + S 6′′6′′ − 2mn m S 1′′6′′ + n S 2′′6′′ + n S 2′′2′′
2 2 2 2 4 4
S 12 = m n S 1′′1′′ + S 2′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′ + mn m − n S 1′′6′′ − S 2′′6′′ + m + n S 1′′2′′
2 2
S 13 = m S 1′′3′′ + n S 2′′3′′ − mnS 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
S 14 = m S 1′′4′′ − m n S 4′′6′′ − S 1′′5′′ − mn S 5′′6′′ − S 2′′4′′ + n S 2′′5′′
3 2 2 3
S 15 = m S 1′′5′′ − m n S 5′′6′′ + S 1′′4′′ + mn S 4′′6′′ + S 2′′5′′ − n S 2′′4′′
2 2 2 3
S 16 = m m − 3n S 1′′6′′ + m n 2S 1′′1′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m S 2′′6′′
139
4 2 2 2 2 4
S 22 = m S 2′′2′′ + m n 2S 1′′2′′ + S 6′′6′′ + 2mn m S 2′′6′′ + n S 1′′6′′ + n S 1′′1′′
2 2
S 23 = m S 2′′3′′ + n S 1′′3′′ + mnS 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
S 24 = m S 2′′4′′ + m n S 4′′6′′ + S 2′′5′′ + mn S 5′′6′′ + S 1′′4′′ + n S 1′′5′′
3 2 2 3
S 25 = m S 2′′5′′ + m n S 5′′6′′ − S 2′′4′′ − mn S 4′′6′′ − S 1′′5′′ − n S 1′′4′′
2 2 2 3
S 26 = m m − 3n S 2′′6′′ − m n 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 1′′1′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m S 1′′6′′
S 33 = S 3′′3′′ S 34 = mS 3′′4′′ + nS 3′′5′′ S 35 = mS 3′′5′′ − nS 3′′4′′
2 2
S 36 = m − n S 3′′6′′ − 2mn S 2′′3′′ − S 1′′3′′
2 2
S 44 = m S 4′′4′′ + n S 5′′5′′ + 2mnS 4′′5′′
140
2 2
S 45 = m − n S 4′′5′′ − mn S 4′′4′′ − S 5′′5′′
3 2 2 3
S 46 = m S 4′′6′′ + m n S 5′′6′′ + 2S 1′′4′′ − 2S 2′′4′′ − mn S 4′′6′′ − 2S 1′′5′′ + 2S 2′′5′′ − n S 5′′6′′
2 2
S 55 = m S 5′′5′′ + n S 4′′4′′ − 2mnS 4′′5′′
3 2 2 3
S 56 = m S 5′′6′′ − m n S 4′′6′′ + 2S 2′′5′′ − 2S 1′′5′′ − mn S 5′′6′′ + 2S 1′′4′′ − 2S 2′′4′′ + n S 4′′6′′
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
S 66 = 4m n S 1′′1′′ + S 2′′2′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ + 4mn m − n S 1′′6′′ − S 2′′6′′ + m − n S 6′′6′′
" Note that S′′ and S can be expressed as
S′′ = Tε θ 3 S Tσ − θ 3 and S = Tε − θ 3 S′′ Tσ θ 3
" Thus, one set of transformed compliance expressions can be

141
" Performing the calculations given by α′ = Tε α yields
2 2
α 1′′1′′ = m α 11 + 2mnα
α 12 + n α 22
2 2
α 2′′2′′ = m α 22 − 2mnα
α 12 + n α 11
α 3′′3′′ = α 33
α 2′′3′′ = mα
α 23 − nα
α 13
α 1′′3′′ = mα
α 13 + nα
α 23
2 2
α 1′′2′′ = m − n α 12 + mn α 22 − α 11
142
!!

T
" Performing the calculations given by α = Tσ α′ yields
2 2
α 11 = m α 1′′1′′ − 2mnα
α 1′′2′′ + n α 2′′2′′
Note that
T
2
α 22 = m α 2′′2′′ + 2mnα
2
α 1′′2′′ + n α 1′′1′′ Tσ θ 3 = Tε − θ3
and hence
α 33 = α 3′′3′′
α = Tε − θ3 α′
α 23 = mα
α 2′′3′′ + nα
α 1′′3′′ So, the expressions given here
for α ij can be obtained from the
α 13 = mα
α 1′′3′′ − nα
α 2′′3′′ those previously given for α i′′j′′
by switching the primed and
2 2
unprimed indices and replacing
α 12 = m − n α 1′′2′′ − mn α 2′′2′′ − α 1′′1′′ n with -n
143
" Performing the calculations given by β′ = Tσ β yields
2 2
β 1′′1′′ = m β 11 + 2mnβ
β 12 + n β 22
2 2
β 2′′2′′ = m β 22 − 2mnβ
β 12 + n β 11
β 3′′3′′ = β 33
β 2′′3′′ = mβ
β 23 − nβ
β 13
β 1′′3′′ = mβ
β 13 + nβ
β 23
2 2
β 1′′2′′ = m − n β 12 + mn β 22 − β 11
144
ABOUT THE x3 AXIS - CONCLUDED
T
" Performing the calculations given by β = Tε β′ yields
2 2
β 11 = m β 1′′1′′ − 2mnβ
β 1′′2′′ + n β 2′′2′′
Note that
T
2
β 22 = m β 2′′2′′ + 2mnβ
2
β 1′′2′′ + n β 1′′1′′ Tε θ 3 = Tσ − θ3
and hence
β 33 = β 3′′3′′
β = Tσ − θ3 β′
β 23 = mβ
β 2′′3′′ + nβ
β 1′′3′′ So, the expressions given here
for β ij can be obtained from the
β 13 = mβ
β 1′′3′′ − nβ
β 2′′3′′ those previously given for β i′′j′′
2 2 unprimed indices and replacing
β 12 = m − n β 1′′2′′ − mn β 2′′2′′ − β 1′′1′′ n with -n
145
ABOUT THE x1 AXIS
x 3′′ x3
θ1 Plane x1 = 0
i3 x 2′′
i 3′′ i 2′′
θ1 x2
i2
i 1 , i 1′′
a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
x 1 , x 1′′
" The term "dextral" refers to a right-handed rotation
146
" The matrix form of the stress-tensor transformation law is given by
1 0 0 0 0 0
2
σ 1′′1′′ 0 cos θ 1
2
sin θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 σ 11
σ 2′′2′′ 2 2
σ 22
σ 3′′3′′ 0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 σ 33
= 2
σ 2′′3′′ 0 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
2
θ 1 cos θ 1 – sin θ 1 0 0 σ 23
σ 1′′3′′ σ 13
σ 1′′2′′ 0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1 σ 12
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
σ′ = Tσ θ 1 σ
147
1 0 0 0 0 0
2
σ 11 0 cos θ 1
2
sin θ 1 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 σ 1′′1′′
σ 22 2 2
σ 2′′2′′
σ 33 0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 σ 3′′3′′
= 2
σ 23 0 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
2
θ 1 cos θ 1 − sin θ 1 0 0 σ 2′′3′′
σ 13 σ 1′′3′′
σ 12 0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 sinθ
θ1 σ 1′′2′′
0 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1

−1
σ = Tσ θ 1 σ′
−1
where Tσ θ 1 = Tσ − θ 1
148
" By using the second-order, symmetric tensor transformation equations,
the transformation law for the vector of engineering strains is given by
1 0 0 0 0 0
ε 1′′1′′ 2 2 ε 11
0 cos θ 1 sin θ 1 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
ε 2′′2′′ 2 2
ε 22
ε 3′′3′′ 0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 ε 33
= 2
2εε2′′3′′ 0 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 cos θ 1 − sin θ 1
2
0 0 2εε23
2εε1′′3′′ 2εε13
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1
2εε1′′2′′ 2εε12
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
which is expressed symbolically by
ε′ = Tε θ 1 ε
T −1
" Note that Tε θ 1 = Tσ θ 1 = Tσ − θ 1
149
1 0 0 0 0 0
ε 11 2 2 ε 1′′1′′
0 cos θ 1 sin θ 1 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
ε 22 2
ε 2′′2′′
2
ε 33 0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0 ε 3′′3′′
= 2
2εε23 0 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
2
0 0 2εε2′′3′′
2εε13 2εε1′′3′′
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 sinθ
θ1
2εε12 2εε1′′2′′
0 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1

−1
ε = Tε θ 1 ε′
−1 T
150
" The general expression for the transformation of the stiffness

coefficients and thermal moduli are
−1
−1 T
T
C′′ = Tσ C Tσ
−1
stiffness coefficients is C = Tσ C′′ Tε
−1 T
T
C = Tε C′′ Tε
151
" The general expression for the transformation of the compliance

coefficients and thermal expansion coefficients are
−1
−1 T
T
S′′ = Tε S Tε
−1
compliance coefficients is S = Tε S′′ Tσ
−1 T
T
S = Tσ S′′ Tσ
152
T T
S!! = T" S T" S = T# S!! T#
T T
C!! = T# C T# C = T" C!! T"
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos $ 1 sin $ 1 2sin$
$ 1cos$
$1 0 0
2 2
0 sin $ 1 cos $ 1 % 2sin$
$ 1cos$
$1 0 0
T# = 0 % sin$
$ 1cos$
$ 1 sin$
$ 1cos$
2 2
$ 1 cos $ 1 % sin $ 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 cos$
$ 1 % sin$
$1
0 0 0 0 sin$
$ 1 cos$
$1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos $ 1 sin $ 1 sin$
$ 1cos$
$1 0 0
2 2
0 sin $ 1 cos $ 1 % sin$
$ 1cos$
$1 0 0
T" = 0 % 2sin$
$ 1cos$
$ 1 2sin$
$ 1cos$
2
$ 1 cos $ 1 % sin $ 1
2
0 0
0 0 0 0 cos$
$ 1 % sin$
$1
0 0 0 0 sin$
$ 1 cos$
$1
153
T
!" = T# ! ! = T$ !"
T
%" = T$ % % = T# %"
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos & 1 sin & 1 2sin&
& 1cos&
&1 0 0
2 2
0 sin & 1 cos & 1 ' 2sin&
& 1cos&
&1 0 0
T$ = 0 ' sin&
& 1cos&
& 1 sin&
& 1cos&
2
& 1 cos & 1 ' sin & 1
2
0 0
0 0 0 0 cos&
& 1 ' sin&
&1
0 0 0 0 sin&
& 1 cos&
&1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos & 1 sin & 1 sin&
& 1cos&
&1 0 0
2 2
0 sin & 1 cos & 1 ' sin&
& 1cos&
&1 0 0
T# = 0 ' 2sin&
& 1cos&
& 1 2sin&
& 1cos&
2
& 1 cos & 1 ' sin & 1
2
0 0
0 0 0 0 cos&
& 1 ' sin&
&1
0 0 0 0 sin&
& 1 cos&
&1
154
T
" Performing the calculations given by C′′ = Tσ C Tσ yields
C 1′′1′′ = C 11
2 2
C 1′′2′′ = m C 12 + n C 13 + 2mnC 14
2 2
C 1′′3′′ = m C 13 + n C 12 − 2mnC 14
2 2
C 1′′4′′ = m − n C 14 + mn C 13 − C 12
C 1′′5′′ = mC 15 − nC 16
C 1′′6′′ = mC 16 + nC 15
155
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 2 4 4
C 2′′3′′ = m n C 22 + C 33 − 4C 44 − 2mn m − n C 24 − C 34 + m + n C 23
2 2 2 3
C 2′′4′′ = m m − 3n C 24 − m n C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 − n n − 3m C 34
3 2 2 3
C 2′′5′′ = m C 25 + m n 2C 45 − C 26 − mn 2C 46 − C 35 − n C 36
3 2 2 3
C 2′′6′′ = m C 26 + m n 2C 46 + C 25 + mn 2C 45 + C 36 + n C 35
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 3′′3′′ = m C 33 + 2m n C 23 + 2C 44 − 4mn m C 34 + n C 24 + n C 22
2 2 2 3
C 3′′4′′ = m m − 3n C 34 + m n C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44
3 2 2 2
− mn C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44 − n n − 3m C 24
156
3 2 2 3
C 3′′5′′ = m C 35 − m n 2C 45 + C 36 + mn 2C 46 + C 25 − n C 26
3 2 2 3
C 3′′6′′ = m C 36 − m n 2C 46 − C 35 − mn 2C 45 − C 26 + n C 25
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 4′′4′′ = m n C 22 + C 33 − 2C 23 − 2mn m − n C 24 − C 34 + m − n C 44
3 2 2 3
C 4′′5′′ = m C 45 − m n C 46 + C 25 − C 35 − mn C 45 − C 26 + C 36 + n C 46
3 2 2 3
C 4′′6′′ = m C 46 + m n C 45 + C 36 − C 26 − mn C 46 + C 25 − C 35 − n C 45
2 2
C 5′′5′′ = m C 55 + n C 66 − 2mnC 56
2 2
C 5′′6′′ = m − n C 56 + mn C 55 − C 66
2 2
C 6′′6′′ = m C 66 + n C 55 + 2mnC 56
157
T
" Performing the calculations given by C = Tε C′′ Tε yields
C 11 = C 1′′1′′
2 2
C 12 = m C 1′′2′′ + n C 1′′3′′ − 2mnC 1′′4′′
2 2
C 13 = m C 1′′3′′ + n C 1′′2′′ + 2mnC 1′′4′′
2 2
C 14 = m − n C 1′′4′′ − mn C 1′′3′′ − C 1′′2′′
C 15 = mC 1′′5′′ + nC 1′′6′′
C 16 = mC 1′′6′′ − nC 1′′5′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 22 = m C 2′′2′′ + 2m n C 2′′3′′ + 2C 4′′4′′ − 4mn m C 2′′4′′ + n C 3′′4′′ + n C 3′′3′′
158
2 2 2 2 4 4
C 23 = m n C 2′′2′′ + C 3′′3′′ − 4C 4′′4′′ + 2mn m − n C 2′′4′′ − C 3′′4′′ + m + n C 2′′3′′
2 2 2 3
C 24 = m m − 3n C 2′′4′′ + m n C 2′′2′′ − C 2′′3′′ − 2C 4′′4′′
3 2 2 2
− mn C 3′′3′′ − C 2′′3′′ − 2C 4′′4′′ − n n − 3m C 3′′4′′
3 2 2 3
C 25 = m C 2′′5′′ − m n 2C 4′′5′′ − C 2′′6′′ − mn 2C 4′′6′′ − C 3′′5′′ + n C 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
C 26 = m C 2′′6′′ − m n 2C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ + mn 2C 4′′5′′ + C 3′′6′′ − n C 3′′5′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
C 33 = m C 3′′3′′ + 2m n C 2′′3′′ + 2C 4′′4′′ + 4mn m C 3′′4′′ + n C 2′′4′′ + n C 2′′2′′
2 2 2 3
C 34 = m m − 3n C 3′′4′′ − m n C 3′′3′′ − C 2′′3′′ − 2C 4′′4′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 2′′2′′ − C 2′′3′′ − 2C 4′′4′′ − n n − 3m C 2′′4′′
3 2 2 3
C 35 = m C 3′′5′′ + m n 2C 4′′5′′ + C 3′′6′′ + mn 2C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ + n C 2′′6′′
3 2 2 3
C 36 = m C 3′′6′′ + m n 2C 4′′6′′ − C 3′′5′′ − mn 2C 4′′5′′ − C 2′′6′′ − n C 2′′5′′
159
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 44 = m n C 2′′2′′ + C 3′′3′′ − 2C 2′′3′′ + 2mn m − n C 2′′4′′ − C 3′′4′′ + m − n C 4′′4′′
3 2 2 3
C 45 = m C 4′′5′′ + m n C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ − C 3′′5′′ − mn C 4′′5′′ − C 2′′6′′ + C 3′′6′′ − n C 4′′6′′
3 2 2 3
C 46 = m C 4′′6′′ − m n C 4′′5′′ + C 3′′6′′ − C 2′′6′′ − mn C 4′′6′′ + C 2′′5′′ − C 3′′5′′ + n C 4′′5′′
2 2 2 2
C 55 = m C 5′′5′′ + n C 6′′6′′ + 2mnC 5′′6′′ C 56 = m − n C 5′′6′′ − mn C 5′′5′′ − C 6′′6′′
2 2
C 66 = m C 6′′6′′ + n C 5′′5′′ − 2mnC 5′′6′′
" Note that C′′ and C can be expressed as

C′′ = Tσ θ 1 C Tε − θ 1 and C = Tσ − θ 1 C′′ Tε θ 1

160
T
" Performing the calculations given by S′′ = Tε S Tε yields
S 1′′1′′ = S 11
2 2
S 1′′2′′ = m S 12 + n S 13 + mnS 14
2 2
S 1′′3′′ = m S 13 + n S 12 − mnS 14
2 2
S 1′′4′′ = m − n S 14 + 2mn S 13 − S 12
S 1′′5′′ = mS 15 − nS 16
S 1′′6′′ = mS 16 + nS 15
4 2 2 2 2 4
161
2 2 2 2 4 4
2 2 2 3
S 2′′4′′ = m m − 3n S 24 − m n 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44 − n n − 3m S 34
3 2 2 3
S 2′′5′′ = m S 25 + m n S 45 − S 26 − mn S 46 − S 35 − n S 36
3 2 2 3
S 2′′6′′ = m S 26 + m n S 46 + S 25 + mn S 45 + S 36 + n S 35
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 3
S 3′′4′′ = m m − 3n S 34 + m n 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44 − n n − 3m S 24
3 2 2 3
S 3′′5′′ = m S 35 − m n S 45 + S 36 + mn S 46 + S 25 − n S 26
162
3 2 2 3
S 3′′6′′ = m S 36 − m n S 46 − S 35 − mn S 45 − S 26 + n S 25
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 2 2 3
S 4′′5′′ = m S 45 − m n S 46 + 2S 25 − 2S 35 − mn S 45 − 2S 26 + 2S 36 + n S 46
3 2 2 3
S 4′′6′′ = m S 46 + m n S 45 + 2S 36 − 2S 26 − mn S 46 + 2S 25 − 2S 35 − n S 45
2 2
S 5′′5′′ = m S 55 + n S 66 − 2mnS 56
2 2
S 5′′6′′ = m − n S 56 + mn S 55 − S 66
2 2
S 6′′6′′ = m S 66 + n S 55 + 2mnS 56
163
T
" Performing the calculations given by S = Tσ S′′ Tσ yields
S 11 = S 1′′1′′
2 2
S 12 = m S 1′′2′′ + n S 1′′3′′ − mnS 1′′4′′
2 2
S 13 = m S 1′′3′′ + n S 1′′2′′ + mnS 1′′4′′
2 2
S 14 = m − n S 1′′4′′ − 2mn S 1′′3′′ − S 1′′2′′
S 15 = mS 1′′5′′ + nS 1′′6′′
S 16 = mS 1′′6′′ − nS 1′′5′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
164
2 2 2 2 4 4
2 2 2 3
S 24 = m m − 3n S 2′′4′′ + m n 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 2′′3′′ − S 4′′4′′
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 3′′3′′ − 2S 2′′3′′ − S 4′′4′′ − n n − 3m S 3′′4′′
3 2 2 3
S 25 = m S 2′′5′′ − m n S 4′′5′′ − S 2′′6′′ − mn S 4′′6′′ − S 3′′5′′ + n S 3′′6′′
3 2 2 3
S 26 = m S 2′′6′′ − m n S 4′′6′′ + S 2′′5′′ + mn S 4′′5′′ + S 3′′6′′ − n S 3′′5′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 3
S 34 = m m − 3n S 3′′4′′ − m n 2S 3′′3′′ − 2S 2′′3′′ − S 4′′4′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 2′′3′′ − S 4′′4′′ − n n − 3m S 2′′4′′
3 2 2 3
S 35 = m S 3′′5′′ + m n S 4′′5′′ + S 3′′6′′ + mn S 4′′6′′ + S 2′′5′′ + n S 2′′6′′
3 2 2 3
S 36 = m S 3′′6′′ + m n S 4′′6′′ − S 3′′5′′ − mn S 4′′5′′ − S 2′′6′′ − n S 2′′5′′
165
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 2 2 3
S 45 = m S 4′′5′′ + m n S 4′′6′′ + 2S 2′′5′′ − 2S 3′′5′′ − mn S 4′′5′′ − 2S 2′′6′′ + 2S 3′′6′′ − n S 4′′6′′
3 2 2 3
S 46 = m S 4′′6′′ − m n S 4′′5′′ + 2S 3′′6′′ − 2S 2′′6′′ − mn S 4′′6′′ + 2S 2′′5′′ − 2S 3′′5′′ + n S 4′′5′′
2 2 2 2
S 55 = m S 5′′5′′ + n S 6′′6′′ + 2mnS 5′′6′′ S 56 = m − n S 5′′6′′ − mn S 5′′5′′ − S 6′′6′′
2 2
S 66 = m S 6′′6′′ + n S 5′′5′′ − 2mnS 5′′6′′
" Note that S′′ and S can be expressed as

S′′ = Tε θ 1 S Tσ − θ 1 and S = Tε − θ 1 S′′ Tσ θ 1

166
" Performing the calculations given by α′ = Tε α yields
α 1′′1′′ = α 11
2 2
α 2′′2′′ = m α 22 + 2mnα
α 23 + n α 33
2 2
α 3′′3′′ = m α 33 − 2mnα
α 23 + n α 22
2 2
α 2′′3′′ = m − n α 23 + mn α 33 − α 22
α 1′′3′′ = mα
α 13 − nα
α 12
α 1′′2′′ = mα
α 12 + nα
α 13
167
!!

T
" Performing the calculations given by α = Tσ α′ yields
α 11 = α 1′′1′′
Note that
T
2
α 22 = m α 2′′2′′ − 2mnα
2
α 2′′3′′ + n α 3′′3′′ Tσ θ 1 = Tε − θ1
2 2
and hence
α 33 = m α 3′′3′′ + 2mnα
α 2′′3′′ + n α 2′′2′′
α = Tε − θ1 α′
2 2
α 23 = m − n α 2′′3′′ − mn α 3′′3′′ − α 2′′2′′ So, the expressions given here
for α ij can be obtained from the
α 13 = mα
α 1′′3′′ + nα
α 1′′2′′ those previously given for α i′′j′′
α 12 = mα
α 1′′2′′ − nα
α 1′′3′′ n with -n
168
" Performing the calculations given by β′ = Tσ β yields
β 1′′1′′ = β 11
2 2
β 2′′2′′ = m β 22 + 2mnβ
β 23 + n β 33
2 2
β 3′′3′′ = m β 33 − 2mnβ
β 23 + n β 22
2 2
β 2′′3′′ = m − n β 23 + mn β 33 − β 22
β 1′′3′′ = mβ
β 13 − nβ
β 12
β 1′′2′′ = mβ
β 12 + nβ
β 13
169
T
" Performing the calculations given by β = Tε β′ yields
β 11 = β 1′′1′′
Note that
T
2
β 22 = m β 2′′2′′ − 2mnβ
2
β 2′′3′′ + n β 3′′3′′ Tε θ 1 = Tσ − θ1
2 2
and hence
β 33 = m β 3′′3′′ + 2mnβ
β 2′′3′′ + n β 2′′2′′
β = Tσ − θ1 β′
2 2
β 23 = m − n β 2′′3′′ − mn β 3′′3′′ − β 2′′2′′ So, the expressions given here
for β ij can be obtained from the
β 13 = mβ
β 1′′3′′ + nβ
β 1′′2′′ those previously given for β i′′j′′
β 12 = mβ
β 1′′2′′ − nβ
β 1′′3′′ n with -n
170
" The algebra involved in computing

T T
C′′ = Tσ C Tσ S′′ = Tε S Tε α′ = Tε α
T T T
C = Tε C′′ Tε S = Tσ S′′ Tσ α = Tσ α′
T
β′ = Tσ β β = Tε β′
is definitely tedious when done by hand
" When the expressions for these matrix operations are known for either
dextral rotations about the x3 axis or about the x2 axis, a simpler and
much less tedious method for obtaining the transformed stiffnesses,
compliances, thermal moduli, and thermal-expansion coefficients for
dextral rotations about the x1 axis is available
171
" Consider the case in which the transformation expressions are known
for dextral rotations about the x3 axis and one wishes to find similar
expressions for dextral rotations about the x1 axis
" The desired tranformation equations are found by simply determining

the renumbering of the indices that brings the following figure shown
for dextral rotations about the x3 axis into congruence with the following
figure shown for dextral rotations about the x1 axis
172
x3 Plane x1 = 0
x 3 , x 3′′ x 3′′
Plane x3 = 0 θ1
i 3 , i 3′′ x 2′′ i3 x 2′′

i 2′′ i 3′′ i 2′′
θ3 θ1
x2 x2
i1 i2 i2
i 1′′
i 1 , i 1′′
x1 θ3
x 1′′ x 1 , x 1′′
173
" Inspection of the figures indicates the following transformation of the

indices: 1 → 2, 2 → 3, and 3 → 1
" Next, it must be realized that the exchanging of indices must be used
with the indices of tensors to determine the indices used with the
abridged notation (matrix)
" The following index pairs relate the tensor indices to the matrix
indices
tensor notation 11 22 33 23, 32 31, 13 12, 21
matrix notation 1 2 3 4 5 6
" Using this information along with 1 → 2, 2 → 3, and 3 → 1 gives the

relations: 4 → 5, 5 → 6, and 6 → 4
174
" Likewise, the transformation of index pairs that appear in the abridged
notation are given by
11 → 22
12 → 23 22 → 33
13 → 12 23 → 13 33 → 11
14 → 25 24 → 35 34 → 15 44 → 55
15 → 26 25 → 36 35 → 16 45 → 56 55 → 66
16 → 24 26 → 34 36 → 14 46 → 45 56 → 46 66 → 44
" Consider C 1′′1′′ = m 4C 11 + 2m 2n 2 C 12 + 2C 66 + 4mn m 2C 16 + n 2C 26 + n 4C 22 ,

where m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3
" The transformation of indices gives m = cosθ 1 , n = sinθ 1 , and

C 2′′2′′ = m 4C 22 + 2m 2n 2 C 23 + 2C 44 + 4mn m 2C 24 + n 2C 34 + n 4C 33
175
ABOUT THE x1 AXIS - CONCLUDED
" Applying the index transformation to the transformed stiffnesses,

compliances, thermal moduli, and thermal-expansion coefficients for
dextral rotations about the x3 axis yields exactly the same expressions
given herein previously for dextral rotations about the x1 axis
176
MATERIAL SYMMETRIES
177
MATERIAL SYMMETRIES
" The next logical step in the development of linear thermoelastic
constitutive equations is the search for analytical conditions for which
dilatation and distortion uncouple
" For example, experience with common metals indicates that there
are classes of materials for which dilatation and distortion
uncouple
" Also, from a practical viewpoint, there is a need to find ways to

minimize the number of laboratory experiments needed to fully
characterize a given material
" Together, these considerations suggest a need for a systematic way to

reduce the number of independent elastic constants and the number of
independent thermal-expansion coefficients
" Previously, it was shown herein that there exists 21 independent elastic
constants for an elastic anisotropic material - a finding that is
substantiated by experimental evidence
178
MATERIAL SYMMETRIES - CONCLUDED
" However, the number of independent constants needed to fully
characterize an anisotropic material was the subject of a lengthy
controversy
" In the early to mid 19th century, A. L. Cauchy (1789-1857) and
S. D. Poisson (1781-1840) formulated specialized mathematical
models of the molecular interaction in solids, and argued that the
number of independent constants could not exceed 15
" Investigations have indicated that when a solid exhibits a geometry

symmetry, the elastic properties are identical in certain directions
" However, experience has shown that geometric symmetry is not

equivalent to elastic symmetry; that is, it is possible to have elastic
symmetry in directions that do not exhibit geometric symmetry
" Just as concepts of symmetry are used to reduce complexity of

geometric objects, they are also used to reduce the complexity of
material properties
179
MATHEMATICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SYMMETRY
" The commonplace notion of symmetry is usually concerned with
geometric objects
" For example, a two-dimensional geometric object may possess a shape

that can be rotated about a central point by a finite angle with no
appearent change in shape
Five-fold Original
symmetry position
A
A A
A
A
A
A
A A
A
72 deg. 144 deg. 216 deg. 288 deg. 360 deg.
180
CONTINUED
" For the object shown in the previous figure, it can be rotated
incrementally by 72 degrees into the identical shape
360 deg
" = 5 and the shape is said to possess five-fold symmetry
72 deg
" A situation of particular interest herein A

is the case when a geometric object A
possesses only two-fold symmetry
" For this object, the line B-B is described B B

B B
as a line of reflective symmetry
(or mirror symmetry)
A
" For each of the geometric objects, A
undergoing the given rotations, a
transformation occurs in which the objects appears unchanged; it is
said to remain invariant under the transformation
181
CONTINUED
" For any geometric object in three-dimensional Euclidean space, the

object can be represented by a set of points, whose position in space
can be determined by a coordinate frame and a coordinate domain
for the set of points
y-axis
" For the figure, a generic point P of the
region R has the coordinates (x,y), with A
respect to the coordinate frame shown Coordinates
P (x,y) of point P
" The coordinate domain is given by
− 1 w ≤ x ≤ 1 w and − 1 h ≤ y ≤ 1 h , B B x-axis
2 2 2 2
where w and h are the width and height
of the rectangle, respectively Region R
" For other geometries, curvilinear A

coordinates may be more suitable
182
CONTINUED
" For the purpose of investigating symmetry, it is convenient to place the

origin at the central point of the rectangle
" Now consider a second set of

y-axis
coordinates (x ,y ), for which xis Coordinates
x≤
y -a (x ,y ) of point P
− 1w ≤
2
1w
2 and − 12 h ≤ y ≤ 12 h
A is
-a x
" This domain also describes the P x
same rectangle with respect to B φ
a rotated coordinate frame, as x-axis
shown in the figure
B Region R
" For values of the angle φ equal to
180 and 360 deg, the rectangle is A
brought into coincidence with the
initial configuration
183
CONTINUED
" For φ = 180 deg and φ = 360 deg, the geometric shape is invariant, and
the transformation of coordinates given symbolically by x = x x,y and
y = y x,y is called a symmetry transformation for the rectangle
" Obviously, this process of characterizing symmetry is easily extended

to three dimensions
" Moreover, the functional characterization of symmetry in geometric

shapes can be extended intuitively to symmetry in functions
" A transformation of coordinates that leaves the structural form of
the rule that defines a given function unchanged (invariant) is
defined as a symmetry transformation for that function
" The use of algebraic structure and sets of transformations for

quantifying symmetry in (real and abstract) objects is part of a branch
of mathematics known as group theory
184
CONCLUDED
2 2
" Consider the function F x, y = x + y and the transformation of
coordinates given by x = − x and y = − y
" Applying the transformation of coordinates gives

2 2
x y x y F (x , y ) = F
2 2
F x, y → − + − = + = − x, − y
The structural rules given by F x, y = x + y and F (x , y ) = x + y

2 2 2 2
"
are identical; thus, x = − x and y = − y define a symmetry

transformation for the function
" The more common, and more succinct, way of describing the
symmetry is given by writing F x, y = F − x, − y
185
SOME TYPES OF SYMMETRY IN TWO DIMENSIONS
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
f(x) f(x) f(x) = ax3

f(x) = ax2 + b
x
x
Line of reflective symmetry Line of reflective antisymmetry

f(-x) = f(x) f(-x) = -f(x)
186
SOME TYPES OF SYMMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS
PLANE OF REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY
Tapered beam
Symmetry plane
187
PLANE OF REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY
F − x, y = F x, y
Contour plot of F(x, y) y-axis
F − x, y F x, y
x-axis
πy
F x, y = y cos πx sin −1≤x≤1 0≤y≤2
2 2
188
PLANE OF REFLECTIVE ANTISYMMETRY
F − x, y = − F x, y
y-axis
Contour plot of F(x, y)
F − x, y F x, y
x-axis
πy
F x, y = y sin πx sin −1≤x≤1 0≤y≤2
2
189
CENTRAL POINT OF INVERSION SYMMETRY (POLAR SYMMETRY)
F − x, − y = F x, y
y-axis
F x, y
x-axis
F − x, − y
9y
F x, y = sin π x − sin πy
10
−1≤x≤1 0≤y≤1
190
CENTRAL POINT OF INVERSION ANTISYMMETRY
F − x, − y = − F x, y
y-axis
F x, y
x-axis
F − x, − y
9y
F x, y = sin π x − sin 2π
πy
10
−1≤x≤1 0≤y≤1
191
CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL SYMMETRY
" To define the conditions on the stiffness or compliance coefficients for

a given type of symmetry to exist, one must first realize that the
stresses, strains, and stiffness or compliance coefficients are functions
of position within a given material body
" Let the coordinates x , x , x and the corresponding coordinate

1 2 3
frame be a coordinate system for a material body and its properties
" The point P of the material body

shown in the figure has x2- axis
coordinates x 1, x 2, x 3
P
" The stresses, strains, stiffness x1- axis
and compliance matrices, thermal
moduli, and thermal-expansion
Body, B
coefficients for this coordinate
system are σij, εij, [C], [S], βij, and x3- axis
αij, respectively
192
CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL SYMMETRY - CONTINUED
" Recall that the abridged forms of the thermoelastic constitutive

equations for the material in the x 1, x 2, x 3 coordinates are given by
σ = C ε + β T − Tref or ε = S σ + α T − Tref
" Now, consider a general orthogonal transformation between the

rectangular Cartesian coordinates x , x , x 1 2 3 and x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ , that
define a generic point P of the material body
" There is no need to place the restriction that x , x , x be the 1′′ 2′′ 3′′
coordinates of a right-handed (dextral) coordinate system
" The stresses, strains, stiffness and compliance matrices, thermal

moduli, and thermal-expansion coefficients for this coordinate
system are σ i j , ε i j , [C′′], [S′′], β i j , and α i j , respectively
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
193
CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL SYMMETRY - CONTINUED
" The abridged forms of the thermoelastic constitutive equations for the
material in the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinate system are given by
σ′ = C′′ ε′ + β′ T − Tref or ε′ = S′′ σ′ + α′ T − Tref
" Moreover, it was shown previously that, for the given arbitrary
transformation (rotation) of coordinates,
−1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε β′ = Tσ β
−1
S′′ = Tε S Tσ α′ = Tε α
" When the mathematical description of the material properties are

identical for two different coordinate systems (reference frames), a
certain type of symmetry exists, whose character depends on the type
of transformation between the two coordinates systems
194
CRITERIA FOR MATERIAL SYMMETRY - CONCLUDED
" Now, for x = x x , x , x to define a symmetry transformation, such

k k 1′′ 2′′ 3′′
that a predetermined state of symmetry exist at a point P of the body,

the structural form (rule) of the constitutive equations must remain
invariant; specifically:
" The matrix C′′ must be invariant under the transformation given
−1 −1
by C′′ = Tσ C Tε ; that is, C = Tσ C Tε must hold
−1
" Similarly, S = Tε S Tσ , α = Tε α , and β = Tσ β must
hold
" Collectively, these invariance conditions are the criteria for a state of
material symmetry to exist, and are sufficient conditions because
x = x x , x , x is presumed to be a symmetry transformation
k k 1′′ 2′′ 3′′
195
CLASSES OF MATERIAL SYMMETRY
" Presently, there exists eight distinct classes of elastic-material

symmetry
" Many of these classes were discovered while studying the

composition of various crystals
" The classes are distinguished by the number of, and orientation of,
planes of elastic symmetry
" A plane of elastic symmetry, at a point of an elastic material body, is

defined as a plane for which the material exhibits reflective symmetry
" A plane of isotropy, at a point of an elastic material body, is defined

as a plane for which there exists an infinite number of perpendicular
planes of elastic symmetry (also called axisymmetry)
196
CONTINUED
" The eight distinct classes of elastic-material symmetry are given by:
" Triclinic materials - no inherent symmetry (fully anisotropic)
" Monoclinic materials - one plane of symmetry
" Orthotropic materials - three perpendicular planes of symmetry
" Trigonal materials - three aligned planes of symmetry that are

spaced 60 degrees apart
" Tetragonal materials - four aligned planes of symmetry that are

spaced 45 degrees apart and that are all perpendicular to one
additional symmetry plane
" Transversely isotropic materials - one plane of isotropy that is

perpendicular to two other mutually perpendicular symmetry
planes
197
CONTINUED
" Cubic materials - three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry

and six additional symmetry planes, in which two of the six are
aligned with one of the perpendicular planes and intersect it at 45
degrees
" Completely isotropic materials - an infinite number of planes of

isotropy exist
" There are four classes of elastic materials that are of great practical
importance in engineering
" These classes of materials are monoclinic, orthotropic,

transversely isotropic, and isotropic materials
198
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS
60 deg
Orthotropic
Triclinic Monoclinic Trigonal
45 deg
45 deg
Tetragonal Transversely Cubic Isotropic

isotropic
" The blue lines represent the edge of a symmetry plane
199
MONOCLINIC
MATERIALS
200
MONOCLINIC MATERIALS
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANE x1 = 0
" First, consider the case in which the material exhibits elastic symmetry
about the plane x1 = 0
" The coordinate transformation for a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

this symmetry is shown in the x 3 , x 3′′
figure and is given by x 1′′ = − x 1 , Plane x1 = 0

x 1′′
x 2′′ = x 2 , and x 3′′ = x 3
" The corresponding matrix of i 3 , i 3′′ i 1′′

direction cosines is given by
−1 0 0
i1 i 2 , i 2′′ x 2 , x 2′′
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 1 0
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1
x1 Plane x3 = 0
201
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANE x1 = 0 (CONTINUED)
" For this special case, the general transformation matrix

2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tσ =
reduces to
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
the diagonal matrix Tσ =
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
202
" Moreover, because Tσ is a diagonal matrix, it follows that Tε = Tσ
" It is worthwhile to mention that Tσ can be deduced directly, and

quickly, by a direction comparison of the positive-valued stresses that
act on a differential volume element
" First, sketch the positive-valued stresses that act on a differential

volume element when described by the x 1, x 2, x 3 coordinates
σ 33 x3 σ 13 σ 23
σ 22
x2
σ 11 σ 12
x1
Normal stresses Shearing stresses
203
" Then, sketch the positive-valued stresses that act on a differential

volume element when described by the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinates
σ 3′′3′′ σ 1′′3′′ σ 2′′3′′

x 3′′
x 1′′
σ 2′′2′′
σ 1′′2′′
σ 1′′1′′ x 2′′
Normal stresses Shearing stresses
" Direct comparison of the stresses yields the relationships
σ 1′′1′′
= σ 11 σ
2′′2′′
= σ 22 σ 3′′3′′
= σ 33
σ 2′′3′′
= σ 23 σ 1′′3′′
=− σ 13 σ 1′′2′′
=− σ 12
204
" Expressing the relationships in matrix form gives
1 0 0 0 0 0
σ 1′′1′′ σ 11
0 1 0 0 0 0
σ 2′′2′′ σ 22
σ 3′′3′′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 33
=
σ 2′′3′′ 0 0 0 1 0 0 σ 23
σ 1′′3′′ σ 13
0 0 0 0 −1 0
σ 1′′2′′ σ 12
0 0 0 0 0 −1
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
" Thus, σ′ = Tσ σ gives Tσ = directly
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
205
" Now, for a state of reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0 to exist at
a point P of the body, it was shown herein that the matrix C′′ must be
−1
invariant under the transformation given by C′′ = Tσ C Tε
−1 −1
" That is, C′′ = Tσ C Tε must become C = Tσ C Tε
" A more convenient form of this invariance condition is obtained for this
particular transformation as follows
" First, postmultiplying the last expression by Tε gives C Tε = Tσ C

as the (sufficient) condition for symmetry
" Next, noting that Tε = Tσ for this particular symmetry transformation,

it follows that C Tε = Tσ C becomes C Tσ = Tσ C
206
T
" Also, because Tσ = Tσ for this particular symmetry transformation
T T T T
and C = C , it follows that C Tσ = Tσ C = Tσ C
" Thus, the sufficient condition for symmetry, C Tσ = Tσ C , becomes

T
C Tσ = C Tσ ; that is, C Tσ must be a symmetric matrix
" Computing C Tσ gives
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 − C 15 − C 16
1 0 0 0 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 0 1 0 0 0 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 − C 25 − C 26
C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 − C 35 − C 36
= C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
0 0 1 0 0 0
C Tσ =
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 0 0 0 1 0 0 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 − C 45 − C 46
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 0 0 0 0 −1 0
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 − C 55 − C 56
0 0 0 0 0 −1
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 − C 56 − C 66
207
T
" Enforcing C Tσ = C Tσ yields the following requirements on the
stiffnesses in order to exhibit a state of elastic reflective symmetry
about the plane x1 = 0:
C 15 = 0 , C 16 = 0 , C 25 = 0 , C 26 = 0 , C 35 = 0 , C 36 = 0 , C 45 = 0 , and C 46 = 0
" Thus, the stiffness matrix for a monoclinic material, which exhibits
elastic reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0, has the form
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 0 0
C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 0 0
which has 13 independent stiffnesses
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 C 55 C 56
0 0 0 0 C 56 C 66
208
" Similarly, for a state of elastic reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0
to exist at a point P of the body, the matrix S′′ must be invariant
−1
under the transformation given by S′′ = Tε S Tσ
−1 −1
" That is, S′′ = Tε S Tσ must become S = Tε S Tσ
" Postmultiplying the last expressing by Tσ gives S Tσ = Tε S as the

(sufficient) condition for symmetry
" Next, noting that Tε = Tσ for this particular transformation, it follows

that S Tσ = Tε S becomes S Tσ = Tσ S
209
T
" Like before, because Tσ = Tσ for this particular transformation and
T T T T
S = S , it follows that S Tσ = Tσ S = Tσ S
" Thus, the sufficient condition for symmetry, S Tσ = Tσ S , becomes

T
S Tσ = S Tσ ; that is, S Tσ must be a symmetric matrix
" Like for the stiffness matrix, computing S Tσ and enforcing

T
S Tσ = S Tσ yields the following requirements on the
compliances in order to exhibit a state of elastic reflective symmetry
about the plane x1 = 0:
S 15 = 0 , S 16 = 0 , S 25 = 0 , S 26 = 0 , S 35 = 0 , S 36 = 0 , S 45 = 0 , and S 46 = 0
210
" Thus, the compliance matrix for a monoclinic material that a state of
elastic reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0 has the form
S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 0 0
S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 0 0
S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 0 0
which has 13 independent compliances
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 S 55 S 56
0 0 0 0 S 56 S 66
" Comparison of the compliance and stiffness matrices for this case
indicates that they have the same form
211
" The requirements on the coefficients of thermal expansion and the

thermal moduli for a state of reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0
to exist are simpler than those for the stiffnesses and compliances
" The requirements on the coefficients of thermal expansion are given by

the requirement that the vector α′ must be invariant under the
transformation given by α′ = Tε α
" That is, α′ = Tε α must become α = Tε α
" Similarly, β′ must be invariant under the transformation given by

β′ = Tσ β ; that is, β′ = Tσ β must become β = Tσ β
212
" Computing α = Tε α gives
1 0 0 0 0 0
α 11 α 11 α 11
0 1 0 0 0 0 α 11
α 22 α 22 α 22
α 22
α 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 α 33
2α
α 23
= 0 0 0 1 0 0 2α
α 23 which reduces to α 33
=
α 33
2α
α 23 2α
α 23
2α
α 13 0 0 0 0 −1 0 2α
α 13 2α
α 13 − 2α
α 13
2α
α 12 0 0 0 0 0 −1 2α
α 12 2α
α 12 − 2α
α 12
" Thus, enforcing α = Tε α requires α 12 = α 13 = 0 in order for a state

of reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0 to exist
" Similarly, enforcing β = Tσ β requires β 12 = β 13 = 0 in order for a

state of reflective symmetry about the plane x1 = 0 to exist
213
" Applying all the simplifications, the linear thermoelastic

constitutive equations become
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 0 0 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 0 0 2α
α 23
2εε13 σ 13 0
0 0 0 0 S 55 S 56
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 S 56 S 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 0 0 2εε23 β 23
σ 13 2εε13 0
0 0 0 0 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 56 C 66
214
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANE x1 = 0 (CONCLUDED)
" Finally, the nonzero thermal moduli are given in terms of the
coefficients of thermal expansion by
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 α 22
=−
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 α 33
β 23 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 2α 23
" The constitutive equations show that the normal stresses, or a

temperature change, produce shearing deformations only in the plane
x1 = 0
" Extension and shearing are totally uncoupled in the planes x2 = 0

and x3 = 0
215
" Next, consider the case in which the material exhibits elastic symmetry
about the plane x2 = 0
" The coordinate transformation for x 3 , x 3′′

this symmetry is shown in the a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
figure and is given by x 1′′ = x 1 ,
x 2′′ = − x 2 , and x 3′′ = x 3
i 3 , i 3′′
" The corresponding matrix of i 2′′
x 2′′ x2
i2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 1 0 0
i 1 , i 1′′
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 −1 0
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1 Plane x2 = 0
x 1 , x 1′′
Plane x3 = 0
216

2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tσ =
reduces to
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
217
" Also, because Tσ is a diagonal matrix, it follows that Tε = Tσ
" Like before, the sufficient conditions for a state of elastic reflective
symmetry about the plane x2 = 0 to exist are found from
T T
C Tσ = C Tσ S Tσ = S Tσ α = Tε α β = Tσ β
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 − C 14 C 15 − C 16
1 0 0 0 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 0 1 0 0 0 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 − C 24 C 25 − C 26
C 13 C 23 C 33 − C 34 C 35 − C 36
= C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
0 0 1 0 0 0
C Tσ =
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 0 0 0 −1 0 0 C 14 C 24 C 34 − C 44 C 45 − C 46
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 0 0 0 0 1 0
C 15 C 25 C 35 − C 45 C 55 − C 56
0 0 0 0 0 −1
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 − C 46 C 56 − C 66
218
T
stiffnesses:
C 14 = 0 , C 16 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 26 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 36 = 0 , C 45 = 0 , and C 56 = 0
" Thus, the stiffness matrix for a monoclinic material that a state of
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 C 15 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 0 C 25 0
C 13 C 23 C 33 0 C 35 0
which also has 13 independent stiffnesses
0 0 0 C 44 0 C 46
C 15 C 25 C 35 0 C 55 0
0 0 0 C 46 0 C 66
219
" Likewise, the compliance matrix for a monoclinic material that a state of
S 11 S 12 S 13 0 S 15 0
S 12 S 22 S 23 0 S 25 0
S 13 S 23 S 33 0 S 35 0
which also has 13 independent compliances
0 0 0 S 44 0 S 46
S 15 S 25 S 35 0 S 55 0
0 0 0 S 46 0 S 66
220
" Next, computing α = Tε α gives
1 0 0 0 0 0
α 11 α 11 α 11 α 11
α 22 0 1 0 0 0 0 α 22 α 22 α 22
α 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 α 33
2α
α 23
= 0 0 0 −1 0 0 2α
= α 33
2α
α 23 − 2α
α 23
2α
α 13 0 0 0 0 1 0 2α
α 13 2α
α 13 2α
α 13
2α
α 12 0 0 0 0 0 −1 2α
α 12 2α
α 12 − 2α
α 12

of elastic reflective symmetry about the plane x2 = 0 to exist
" Similarly, enforcing β = Tσ β requires β 12 = β 23 = 0
221

ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 S 15 0 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 S 25 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 S 35 0 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 S 46 0
2εε13 S 15 S 25 S 35 0 S 55 0 σ 13 2α
α 13
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 S 46 0 S 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 C 15 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 C 25 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 C 35 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
0 0 0 C 44 0 C 46 2εε23 0
σ 13 C 15 C 25 C 35 0 C 55 0 2εε13 β 13
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 C 46 0 C 66
222
" The nonzero thermal moduli are given in terms of the coefficients of
thermal expansion by
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 15 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 25 α 22
=−
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 35 α 33
β 13 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 55 2α
α 13

x2 = 0

and x3 = 0
223
" Now, consider the case in which the

material exhibits symmetry about the x3
Plane x2 = 0
plane x3 = 0
a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
" The coordinate transformation for this
symmetry is shown in the figure and is
given by x 1′′ = x 1 , x 2′′ = x 2 , and x 3′′ = − x 3 i3
x 2 , x 2′′
" The corresponding matrix of i 1 , i 1′′
i 2 , i 2′′
i 3′′
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 1 0 0 Plane x3 = 0
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 1 0
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 −1 x 1 , x 1′′ x 3′′
224

2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tσ =
reduces to
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
225
" Also, because Tσ is a diagonal matrix, it follows that Tε = Tσ
" Like before, the sufficient conditions for a state of elastic reflective
symmetry about the plane x3 = 0 to exist are found from
T T
C Tσ = C Tσ S Tσ = S Tσ α = Tε α β = Tσ β
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 − C 14 − C 15 C 16
1 0 0 0 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 0 1 0 0 0 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 − C 24 − C 25 C 26
C 13 C 23 C 33 − C 34 − C 35 C 36
= C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
0 0 1 0 0 0
C Tσ =
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 0 0 0 −1 0 0 C 14 C 24 C 34 − C 44 − C 45 C 46
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 0 0 0 0 −1 0
C 15 C 25 C 35 − C 45 − C 55 C 56
0 0 0 0 0 1
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 − C 46 − C 56 C 66
226
T
stiffnesses:
C 14 = 0 , C 15 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 25 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 35 = 0 , C 46 = 0 , and C 56 = 0
" Thus, the stiffness matrix for a monoclinic material that a state of
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C 16
C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 C 26
C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36
which also has 13 independent stiffnesses
0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0
0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0
C 16 C 26 C 36 0 0 C 66
227
" Likewise, the compliance matrix for a monoclinic material that a state of
S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 S 16
S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 S 26
S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 S 36
which also has 13 independent compliances
0 0 0 S 44 S 45 0
0 0 0 S 45 S 55 0
S 16 S 26 S 36 0 0 S 66
228
" Next, computing α = Tε α gives
1 0 0 0 0 0
α 11 α 11 α 11 α 11
α 22 0 1 0 0 0 0 α 22 α 22 α 22
α 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 α 33
2α
α 23
= 0 0 0 −1 0 0 2α
= α 33
2α
α 23 − 2α
α 23
2α
α 13 0 0 0 0 −1 0 2α
α 13 2α
α 13 − 2α
α 13
2α
α 12 0 0 0 0 0 1 2α
α 12 2α
α 12 2α
α 12

of elastic reflective symmetry about the plane x3 = 0 to exist
" Similarly, enforcing β = Tσ β requires β 13 = β 23 = 0
229

ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 S 45 0 0
2εε13 0 0 0 S 45 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 2α
α 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 0 0 S 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 C 26 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 β 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 0 0 C 66
230
" The nonzero thermal moduli are given in terms of the coefficients of
thermal expansion by
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 16 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 26 α 22
=−
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 36 α 33
β 12 C 16 C 26 C 36 C 66 2α
α 12

x3 = 0

and x2 = 0
231
ORTHOTROPIC
MATERIALS
232
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANES x1 = 0 AND x2 = 0
" Now, consider the case in which a monoclinic material, which exhibits
symmetry about the plane x1 = 0, also exhibits symmetry about the
plane x2 = 0, which is perpendicular to the plane x1 = 0
" For this monoclinic material, it was shown previously that the material
properties are given by
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 0 0 2εε23 β 23
σ 13 2εε13 0
0 0 0 0 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 56 C 66
and
233
! !
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS - CONTINUED

ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 0 0 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 0 0 2α
α 23
2εε13 σ 13 0
0 0 0 0 S 55 S 56
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 S 56 S 66
" To determine the effects of the second symmetry plane, x2 = 0, the

coordinate transformation given by x 1′′ = x 1 , x 2′′ = − x 2 , and x 3′′ = x 3 is
applied to the material properties of the monoclinic material
" This process is the same as applying the transformation for

symmetry about the plane x2 = 0 in succession to applying the
transformation for symmetry about the plane x1 = 0 to the initial
anisotropic-material properties
234
" The effect of the second transformation, for symmetry about the plane
x2 = 0, is obtained directly from the results given previously for a
monoclinic material that exhibits symmetry about the plane x2 = 0
" That is, the second coordinate x 3 , x 3′′

transformation was given by
a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
x 1′′ = x 1 , x 2′′ = − x 2 , and x 3′′ = x 3

Plane x2 = 0
" And, the corresponding matrix

of direction cosines were Plane x3 = 0 i 3 , i 3′′
shown to be given by i 2′′ x2
x 2′′
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 1 0 0 i2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 −1 0 i 1 , i 1′′
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1
x 1 , x 1′′
235
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
" For this case, Tε = Tσ =
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
" It was also shown that, for symmetry about the plane x2 = 0,
C 14 = 0 , C 16 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 26 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 36 = 0 , C 45 = 0 , C 56 = 0 ,
S 14 = 0 , S 16 = 0 , S 24 = 0 , S 26 = 0 , S 34 = 0 , S 36 = 0 , S 45 = 0 , S 56 = 0 ,
α 12 = 0 , α 23 = 0 , β 12 = 0 , and β 23 = 0
236
" The net effects of applying the two symmetry transformations

successively is obtained by applying the conditions given on the
previous page to the constitutive equations for the monoclinic material
that exhibits symmetry about the plane x1 = 0
" This process yields
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref and
0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 66
237
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 66
" It is worth pointing out at this

point in the development, that the x 3 , x 3′′
single coordinate transformation a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
x 1′′
given by x 1′′ = − x 1 , x 2′′ = − x 2 , and
x 3′′ = x 3 does not produce the i 1′′

i 3 , i 3′′
same result as the two successive x 2′′
x2
symmetry transformations i 2′′ i2
i1
x1
238
" In particular, the corresponding matrix of direction cosines is given

by
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 −1 0 0
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 − 1 0
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1
" The corresponding stress and strain transformation matrices are
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
Tσ = Tε =
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
239
−1
" Next, the condition C = Tσ C Tε for a state of symmetry to exist at
a point P of the body is applied
" Using that Tε = Tσ for this particular transformation, it was

−1
shown that the condition C = Tσ C Tε simplifies to the
condition that C Tσ must be a symmetric matrix
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 C 11 C 12 C 13 − C 14 − C 15 C 16
1 0 0 0 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 0 1 0 0 0 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 − C 24 − C 25 C 26
C 13 C 23 C 33 − C 34 − C 35 C 36
= C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36
0 0 1 0 0 0
C Tσ =
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 0 0 0 −1 0 0 C 14 C 24 C 34 − C 44 − C 45 C 46
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 0 0 0 0 −1 0
C 15 C 25 C 35 − C 45 − C 55 C 56
0 0 0 0 0 1
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 C 16 C 26 C 36 − C 46 − C 56 C 66
240
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS - CONCLUDED
T
stiffnesses:
C 14 = 0 , C 15 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 25 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 35 = 0 , C 46 = 0 , and C 56 = 0
" Inspection of the conditions and comparison with the previous result
for the two successive transformations shows that the results are
different
241
!! ! !
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANES x1 = 0, x2 = 0, AND x3 = 0
" The next step in the analysis of an orthotropic material is to consider

the effects of yet a third, successive transformation
" That is, a transformation for which the material exhibits symmetry
about the perpendicular plane x3 = 0, in addition to symmetry
about the perpendicular planes x1 = 0 and x2 = 0
" The effect of this third symmetry transformation is obtained directly by

applying the conditions obtained for a monoclinic that exhibits
symmetry about the plane x3 = 0 to the constitutive equations that were
obtained previously for the two successive symmetry transformations
" The conditions for symmetry about the plane x3 = 0 are C 14 = 0 ,

C 15 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 25 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 35 = 0 , C 46 = 0 , C 56 = 0 , S 14 = 0 ,
S 15 = 0 , S 24 = 0 , S 25 = 0 , S 34 = 0 , S 35 = 0 , S 46 = 0 , S 56 = 0 , α 13 = 0 ,
α 23 = 0 , β 13 = 0 , and β 23 = 0
242
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT THE PLANES x1 = 0, x2 = 0, AND x3 = 0
" Examination of these conditions indicates that the third successive

transformation yields no new conditions on the constitutive equations
that are not obtained from the first two successive transformations
" Therefore, two perpendiular planes of material symmetry imply the

existence of a third mutually perpendicular plane
" An orthotropic material (that is, an orthogonally anisotropic

material) is defined as a material that has three mutually perpendicular
planes of elastic symmetry
" An orthotropic material has 9 independent stiffnesses, 9

independent compliances, 3 independent coefficients of
thermal expansion, and 3 independent thermal moduli
243
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
" The constitutive equations for a linear, thermoelastic, orthotropic
material are given by
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref and
0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 66
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 66
244
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS - CONCLUDED
" The thermal moduli are given in terms of the coefficients of thermal
expansion by
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 α 11
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 23 α 22
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 α 33
" The constitutive equations show that extension and shearing are totally
uncoupled in the planes x1 = 0, x2 = 0, and x3 = 0
" When using orthotropic materials with various directional orientations

in a structure, the structural coordinate system must be distinguished
from the coordinate systems of the orthotropic materials
" The structural coordinate system is typically picked to facilitate the
geometric representation of the structure
" For convenience, the coordinate system of an orthotropic material with

the previously derived constitutive equations is defined as the
principal material coordinate system and the material is referred
to as a specially orthotropic material
245
SPECIALLY ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
" Any material that is fully characterized by the following constitutive
equations is defined as a specially orthotropic material
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref and
0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 66
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 66
" The corresponding coordinate system used to describe this material is

defined as the principal material coordinate system
246
GENERALLY ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS
" For an arbitrary coordinate transformation, from a principal x 1,x 2,x 3

coordinate frame to a x 1′′,x 2′′,x 3′′ coordinate frame, the transformation
matrices Tε and Tσ are fully populated
" Thus, when the elastic stiffness coefficients of a specially orthotropic

solid are transformed from the x 1,x 2,x 3 coordinate frame to the
coordinate frame, the matrices of transformed elastic
x 1′′,x 2′′,x 3′′
constants are also fully populated
" To an observer, without prior knowledge of the material, the solid

appears to be anisotropic
" When a coordinate frame exists for a solid in which it is specially

orthotropic, the material is referred to generally orthotropic, to
distinguish it from an anisotropic material
247
CONTINUED
" For a dextral rotation about the x3 - axis, with m = cosθ 3 and
n = sinθ 3 , the transformed elastic constants are given by
4 2 2 4
C 1′′1′′ = m C 11 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 + n C 22
2 2 4 4
C 1′′2′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 4C 66 + m + n C 12
2 2
C 1′′3′′ = m C 13 + n C 23 C 1′′4′′ = 0 C 1′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
C 1′′6′′ = mn m − n C 12 + 2C 66 + mn n C 22 − m C 11
4 2 2 4
C 2′′2′′ = m C 22 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 + n C 11
2 2
C 2′′3′′ = m C 23 + n C 13 C 2′′4′′ = 0 C 2′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
C 2′′6′′ = mn n − m C 12 + 2C 66 + mn m C 22 − n C 11
248
CONTINUED
C 3′′3′′ = C 33 C 3′′4′′ = 0 C 3′′5′′ = 0 C 3′′6′′ = mn C 23 − C 13
2 2
C 4′′4′′ = m C 44 + n C 55 C 4′′5′′ = mn C 44 − C 55 C 4′′6′′ = 0 C 5′′6′′ = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 5′′5′′ = m C 55 + n C 44 C 6′′6′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 2C 12 + m − n C 66
" The population of the matrix of transformed elastic stiffnesses is given

by
C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′3′′ 0 0 C 1′′6′′
C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′3′′ 0 0 C 2′′6′′
C 1′′3′′ C 2′′3′′ C 3′′3′′ 0 0 C 3′′6′′
0 0 0 C 4′′4′′ C 4′′5′′ 0
0 0 0 C 4′′5′′ C 5′′5′′ 0
C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 3′′6′′ 0 0 C 6′′6′′
" For the x 1′′,x 2′′,x 3′′ coordinate frame, the specially orthotropic material
appears to have the properties of a monoclinic material
249
CONTINUED
" Similarly,
4 2 2 4
S 1′′1′′ = m S 11 + m n 2S 12 + S 66 + n S 22
2 2 4 4
S 1′′2′′ = m n S 11 + S 22 − S 66 + m + n S 12
2 2
S 1′′3′′ = m S 13 + n S 23 S 1′′4′′ = 0 S 1′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
S 1′′6′′ = mn m − n 2S 12 + S 66 + 2mn n S 22 − m S 11
4 2 2 4 2 2
S 2′′2′′ = m S 22 + m n 2S 12 + S 66 + n S 11 S 2′′3′′ = m S 23 + n S 13
S 2′′4′′ = 0 S 2′′5′′ = 0 S 3′′3′′ = S 33 S 3′′4′′ = 0 S 3′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
S 2′′6′′ = mn n − m 2S 12 + S 66 + 2mn m S 22 − n S 11
S 3′′6′′ = 2mn S 23 − S 13
250
CONTINUED
2 2
S 4′′4′′ = m S 44 + n S 55 S 4′′5′′ = mn S 44 − S 55 S 4′′6′′ = 0
2 2
S 5′′5′′ = m S 55 + n S 44 S 5′′6′′ = 0
2 2 2 2 2
S 6′′6′′ = 4m n S 11 + S 22 − 2S 12 + m − n S 66
" The population of the matrix of transformed elastic compliances is

given by
S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′3′′ 0 0 S 1′′6′′
S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′3′′ 0 0 S 2′′6′′
S 1′′3′′ S 2′′3′′ S 3′′3′′ 0 0 S 3′′6′′
0 0 0 S 4′′4′′ S 4′′5′′ 0
0 0 0 S 4′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ 0
S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 3′′6′′ 0 0 S 6′′6′′
" For the x 1′′,x 2′′,x 3′′ coordinate frame, the specially orthotropic material,
again, appears to have the properties of a monoclinic material
251
CONTINUED
" For a dextral rotation about the x3 - axis, the transformed thermal-
expansion coefficients are given by
α 1′′1′′ = m 2α 11 + n 2α 22 α 2′′2′′ = m 2α 22 + n 2α 11 α 3′′3′′ = α 33
α 2′′3′′ = 0 α 1′′3′′ = 0 α 1′′2′′ = mn α 22 − α 11
" Similarly, the transformed thermal moduli are given by
β 1′′1′′ = m 2β 11 + n 2β 22 β 2′′2′′ = m 2β 22 + n 2β 11 β 3′′3′′ = β 33
β 2′′3′′ = 0 β 1′′3′′ = 0 β 1′′2′′ = mn β 22 − β 11
252
CONCLUDED
" Thus, for a dextral rotation about the x3 - axis, the transformed
constitutive equations for a specially orthotropic material are given by
ε 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′3′′ 0 0 S 1′′6′′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′

ε 2′′2′′ S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′3′′ 0 0 S 2′′6′′ σ 2′′2′′ α 2′′2′′
ε 3′′3′′ S 1′′3′′ S 2′′3′′ S 3′′3′′ 0 0 S 3′′6′′ σ 3′′3′′ α 3′′3′′
= + T – Tref
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′4′′ S 4′′5′′ 0 σ 2′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ 0 σ 1′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 3′′6′′ 0 0 S 6′′6′′ σ 1′′2′′ 2α
α 1′′2′′
σ 1′′1′′ C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′3′′ 0 0 C 1′′6′′ ε 1′′1′′ β 1′′1′′

σ 2′′2′′ C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′3′′ 0 0 C 2′′6′′ ε 2′′2′′ β 2′′2′′
σ 3′′3′′ C 1′′3′′ C 2′′3′′ C 3′′3′′ 0 0 C 3′′6′′ ε 3′′3′′ β 3′′3′′
= + T – Tref
σ 2′′3′′ 0 0 0 C 4′′4′′ C 4′′5′′ 0 2εε2′′3′′ 0
σ 1′′3′′ 0 0 0 C 4′′5′′ C 5′′5′′ 0 2εε1′′3′′ 0
σ 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 3′′6′′ 0 0 C 6′′6′′ 2εε1′′2′′ β 1′′2′′
253
TRIGONAL
MATERIALS
254
TRIGONAL MATERIALS
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY ABOUT PLANES THAT CONTAIN THE x3 AXIS
" To determine the conditions on the constitutive equations for trigonal

materials, it is necessary to consider a plane of elastic symmetry that
is oriented arbitrarily, with respect to two of the coordinate axes
" In particular, consider a plane of a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

x 3 , x 3′′
elastic symmetry whose normal n
lies in the plane x3 = 0 and makes an x 2′′
angle θ3 with the x1 axis, as shown in i 3 , i 3′′
the figure i 2′′ θ3
i1 i2 x2
" The angle θ3 is defined to be in the
range − π <θ ≤ π
3 , because θ 3 = − π i 1′′, n
2 2 2 θ3
π
x 1′′
and θ 3 = 2
define the same plane
x1
" In addition, let the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ be the Plane of elastic
symmetry
coordinates used to define the
material symmetry
255
TRIGONAL MATERIALS - CONTINUED
" Specifically, for a plane of elastic symmetry given by x 1′′ = 0 , the

symmetry transformation is shown in the figure and is given by
x 1′′′′ = − x 1′′ , x 2′′′′ = x 2′′ , and x 3′′′′ = x 3′′
" The corresponding matrix of x 3′′ ,x 3′′′′ a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

a 1′′′′1′′ a 1′′′′2′′ a 1′′′′3′′ −1 0 0 x 1′′′′

a 2′′′′1′′ a 2′′′′2′′ a 2′′′′3′′ = 0 1 0
a 3′′′′1′′ a 3′′′′2′′ a 3′′′′3′′ 0 0 1 i 3′′ , i 3′′′′
i 1′′′′
" For the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinate i 2′′ , i 2′′′′ x 2′′, x 2′′′′
system, the general constitutive i 1′′ Plane x 1′′ = 0
equations are expressed as
follows
x 1′′
256
ε 1′1′ S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ S 1′4′ S 1′5′ S 1′6′ α 1′1′

σ 1′1′
ε 2′2′ S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ S 2′4′ S 2′5′ S 2′6′ σ 2′2′ α 2′2′
ε 3′3′ S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ S 3′4′ S 3′5′ S 3′6′ σ 3′3′ α 3′3′
= σ 2′3′
+ T − Tref
2εε2′3′ S 1′4′ S 2′4′ S 3′4′ S 4′4′ S 4′5′ S 4′6′ 2α
α 2′3′
2εε1′3′ σ 1′3′ 2α
α 1′3′
S 1′5′ S 2′5′ S 3′5′ S 4′5′ S 5′5′ S 5′6′
2εε1′2′ σ 1′2′ 2α
α 1′2′
S 1′6′ S 2′6′ S 3′6′ S 4′6′ S 5′6′ S 6′6′
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ C 1′4′ C 1′5′ C 1′6′ ε 1′1′ β 1′1′

σ 1′1′
σ 2′2′ C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ C 2′4′ C 2′5′ C 2′6′ ε 2′2′ β 2′2′
σ 3′3′ C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ C 3′4′ C 3′5′ C 3′6′ ε 3′3′ β 3′3′
= + T − Tref or by
σ 2′3′ C 1′4′ C 2′4′ C 3′4′ C 4′4′ C 4′5′ C 4′6′ 2εε2′3′ 2β
β 2′3′
σ 1′3′ 2εε1′3′ 2β
β 1′3′
C 1′5′ C 2′5′ C 3′5′ C 4′5′ C 5′5′ C 5′6′
σ 1′2′ 2εε1′2′ 2β
β 1′2′
C 1′6′ C 2′6′ C 3′6′ C 4′6′ C 5′6′ C 6′6′
ε′ = S′′ σ′ + α′ Θ and σ′ = C′′ ε′ + β′ Θ ,
257
" For the x 1′′′′, x 2′′′′, x 3′′′′ coordinate system, the constitutive equations are
identical in form and are obtained by replacing the index pair i′′j′′ with
i′′
′′j′′
′′
" In the abridged notation,
ε′′ = S′′
′′ σ′′ + α′′ Θ and
σ′′ = C′′
′′ ε′′ + β′′ Θ , where Θ = T − Tref
" For the transformation of coordinates defined by the symmetry

transformation (a reflection about the plane x 1′′ = 0 ),
σ′′ = Tσr 1′
σ′ and ε′′ = Tεr 1′
ε′ where
258
!

1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
r′ r′ 0 0 1 0 0 0
Tσ = Tε =
1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
" Likewise,
−1 −1
r r′ r r
S′′
′′ = T S′′ T S′′ = T S′′
′′ Tσ
1′ 1 1′ 1′
ε σ ε
−1 −1
r′ r r′ r
C′′
′′ = T C′′ T C′′ = T C′′
′′ Tε
1 1′ 1 1′
σ ε σ
r′ r′
α′′ = Tε β′′ = Tσ
1 1
α′ β′
259
! ! !

" The conditions for invariance under the symmetry transformation

are given by
−1 −1
r′ r′ r′ r′
S′′ = Tε S′′ Tσ C′′ = Tσ C′′ Tε
1 1 1 1
r′ r′
α′ = Tε β′ = Tσ
1 1
α′ β′
" Rather than calculating the outcome of the invariance conditions, the
outcome can be found by direct comparison with the results given
previously for a material that is monoclinic with respect to the plane
x1 = 0
" Direct comparison reveals that the material is monoclinic with

respect to the plane x 1′′ = 0
260
" That is, direct comparison yields
ε 1′1′ S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ S 1′4′ 0 0 α 1′1′

σ 1′1′
ε 2′2′ S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ S 2′4′ 0 0 σ 2′2′ α 2′2′
ε 3′3′ S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ S 3′4′ 0 0 σ 3′3′ α 3′3′
= σ 2′3′
+ T − Tref and
2εε2′3′ S 1′4′ S 2′4′ S 3′4′ S 4′4′ 0 0 2α
α 2′3′
2εε1′3′ σ 1′3′ 0
0 0 0 0 S 5′5′ S 5′6′
2εε1′2′ σ 1′2′ 0
0 0 0 0 S 5′6′ S 6′6′
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ C 1′4′ 0 0 ε 1′1′ β 1′1′

σ 1′1′
σ 2′2′ C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ C 2′4′ 0 0 ε 2′2′ β 2′2′
σ 3′3′ C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ C 3′4′ 0 0 ε 3′3′ β 3′3′
σ 2′3′
= + T − Tref
C 1′4′ C 2′4′ C 3′4′ C 4′4′ 0 0 2εε2′3′ β 2′3′
σ 1′3′ 2εε1′3′ 0
0 0 0 0 C 5′5′ C 5′6′
σ 1′2′ 2εε1′2′ 0
0 0 0 0 C 5′6′ C 6′6′
261
" Next, the compliances, stiffnesses, thermal-expansion coefficients, and

thermal moduli, expressed in x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinates, are referred back
to the original x 1, x 2, x 3 coordinates
" The transformation corresponds to a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

the dextral rotation about the x3 axis, x 3 , x 3′′
shown in the figure, and is given by
x 2′′
x 1′′ = x 1cosθ θ3 ,
θ 3 + x 2sinθ i 3 , i 3′′
i 2′′ θ3
x 2′′ = − x 1sinθ θ 3 , and x 3′′ = x 3 ,
θ 3 + x 2cosθ
i1 i2 x2
with − π2 < θ 3 ≤ π2
i 1′′, n
" The corresponding matrix of θ3
x 1′′
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 cosθθ 3 sinθθ3 0 x1
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = − sinθ
θ 3 cosθθ3 0 Plane of elastic
symmetry
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1
262
" The corresponding stress and strain transformation matrices were

shown previously to be given by
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
0 0 1 0 0 0
Tσ θ 3 =
0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0
and
0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2 2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
0 0 1 0 0 0
Tε θ 3 =
0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0
0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2 2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
263
" The transformation laws for the compliances, stiffnesses, thermal-

expansion coefficients, and thermal moduli have been given as
−1 −1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε S′′ = Tε S Tσ
β′ = Tσ β α′ = Tε α
" These laws transform the previously obtained invariance conditions on

C′′ , S′′ , α′ , and β′ into invariance conditions on C , S , α ,
and β
" Specific expressions for these transformation laws (dextral rotation

about the x3 axis) were given previously for a fully anisotropic material
(triclinic)
" Note that the matrices C and S are fully populated
" Also, the vectors α and β are fully populated
264
" Because of the invariance conditions, the matrices C′′ and S′′ have
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ C 1′4′ 0 0 S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ S 1′4′ 0 0
C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ C 2′4′ 0 0 S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ S 2′4′ 0 0
C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ C 3′4′ 0 0 S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ S 3′4′ 0 0
the form and
C 1′4′ C 2′4′ C 3′4′ C 4′4′ 0 0 S 1′4′ S 2′4′ S 3′4′ S 4′4′ 0 0
0 0 0 0 C 5′5′ C 5′6′ 0 0 0 0 S 5′5′ S 5′6′
0 0 0 0 C 5′6′ C 6′6′ 0 0 0 0 S 5′6′ S 6′6′
α 1′1′ β 1′1′
α 2′2′ β 2′2′
α 3′3′ β 3′3′
" Also, the vectors α′ and β′ have the form 2α
α 2′3′
and β 2′3′
0 0
0 0
" The corresponding forms of C , S , α , and β are obtained from

the transformation laws once a value for the angle θ3 is specified
265
" For example, specifying θ 3 = 0 yields
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ C 1′4′ 0 0 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 β 1′1′ β 11

C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ C 2′4′ 0 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 β 2′2′ β 22
C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ C 3′4′ 0 0 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 β 3′3′ β 33
= =
C 1′4′ C 2′4′ C 3′4′ C 4′4′ 0 0 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 β 2′3′ β 23
0 0 0 0 C 5′5′ C 5′6′ C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 0 β 13
0 0 0 0 C 5′6′ C 6′6′ C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 0 β 12
S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ S 1′4′ 0 0 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 1′1′ α 11

S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ S 2′4′ 0 0 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 α 2′2′ α 22
S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ S 3′4′ 0 0 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 α 3′3′ α 33
= =
S 1′4′ S 2′4′ S 3′4′ S 4′4′ 0 0 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 2α
α 2′3′ 2α
α 23
0 0 0 0 S 5′5′ S 5′6′ S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 0 2α
α 13
0 0 0 0 S 5′6′ S 6′6′ S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 0 2α
α 12
" Enforcing the invariance conditions on C′′ gives
C 15 = 0 , C 16 = 0 , C 25 = 0 , C 26 = 0 , C 35 = 0 , C 36 = 0 , C 45 = 0 , and C 46 = 0
266
" Likewise, enforcing the invariance conditions on S′′ gives
S 15 = 0 , S 16 = 0 , S 25 = 0 , S 26 = 0 , S 35 = 0 , S 36 = 0 , S 45 = 0 , and S 46 = 0
" Enforcing the invariance conditions on α′ and β′ gives
α 12 = α 13 = 0 and β 12 = β 13 = 0
" These conditions are identical to the conditions previously obtained for
a material that is monoclinic with respect to the plane x1 = 0
" Similarly, specifying θ 3 = π

2
and enforcing the invariance conditions on
C′′ , S′′ , α′ , and β′ yields the conditions previously obtained for
267
π <θ ≤ π
" Now consider an arbitrary value for the angle θ3 such that − 2 3
2
" The previous example for θ 3 = 0 shows that the invariance conditions
on C , S , α , and β were obtained by the terms of C′′ , S′′ ,
α′ , and β′ that were zero valued
" Using the transformation equations for a dextral rotation about the x3
axis that were given previously for a (triclinic) fully anisotropic, elastic
material gives the following results for the invariance conditions on
C′′
3 2 2 3
C 1′′5′′ = 0: m C 15 + m n 2C 56 + C 14 + mn 2C 46 + C 25 + n C 24 = 0
2 2 2 3
C 1′′6′′ = 0: m m − 3n C 16 − m n C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66 − n n − 3m C 26 = 0
268
3 2 2 3
C 2′′5′′ = 0: m C 25 − m n 2C 56 − C 24 − mn 2C 46 − C 15 + n C 14 = 0
2 2 2 3
C 2′′6′′ = 0: m m − 3n C 26 + m n C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66
3 2 2 2
− mn C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66 − n n − 3m C 16 = 0
C 3′′5′′ = 0: mC 35 + nC 34 = 0
2 2
C 3′′6′′ = 0: m − n C 36 + mn C 23 − C 13 = 0
2 2
C 4′′5′′ = 0: m − n C 45 + mn C 44 − C 55 = 0
3 2 2 3
C 4′′6′′ = 0: m C 46 − m n C 56 + C 14 − C 24 − mn C 46 − C 15 + C 25 + n C 56 = 0
with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3
" These conditions give 8 equations and 20 unknowns
269
" The invariance conditions on S′′ are given by

3 2 2 3
S 1′′5′′ = 0: m S 15 + m n S 56 + S 14 + mn S 46 + S 25 + n S 24 = 0
2 2 2 3
S 1′′6′′ = 0: m m − 3n S 16 − m n 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 26 = 0
3 2 2 3
S 2′′5′′ = 0: m S 25 − m n S 56 − S 24 − mn S 46 − S 15 + n S 14 = 0
2 2 2 3
S 2′′6′′ = 0: m m − 3n S 26 + m n 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 16 = 0
2 2
S 3′′5′′ = 0: mS 35 + nS 34 = 0 S 3′′6′′ = 0: m − n S 36 + 2mn S 23 − S 13 = 0
2 2
S 4′′5′′ = 0: m − n S 45 + mn S 44 − S 55 = 0
3 2 2 3
S 4′′6′′ = 0: m S 46 − m n S 56 + 2S 14 − 2S 24 − mn S 46 − 2S 15 + 2S 25 + n S 56 = 0
270
" The invariance conditions on α′ and β′ yield
2 2
α 1′′3′′ = 0: mα
α 13 + nα
α 23 = 0 α 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n α 12 + mn α 22 − α 11 = 0
2 2
β 1′′3′′ = 0: mβ
β 13 + nβ
β 23 = 0 β 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n β 12 + mn β 22 − β 11 = 0
271
" In determining the restrictions on the compliances, stiffnesses,

thermal-expansion coefficients, and thermal moduli for materials that
possess more than one plane of elastic symmetry, all of which contain
the x3 axis, it is convenient to select the first plane to be given by θ 3 = 0
" Thus, the material is monoclinic with respect to the plane x1 = 0

and, as a result, the following conditions hold
C 15 = 0 C 16 = 0 C 25 = 0 C 26 = 0 C 35 = 0 C 36 = 0 C 45 = 0 C 46 = 0
S 15 = 0 S 16 = 0 S 25 = 0 S 26 = 0 S 35 = 0 S 36 = 0 S 45 = 0 S 46 = 0
α 12 = 0 α 13 = 0 β 12 = 0 β 13 = 0
" These relations, and the fact that n = sinθ

θ 3 ≠ 0 for nonzero values
π <θ ≤ π
of − 2 3
2 , are used to simplify the previously given invariance
conditions into the following three uncoupled groups
272
" Group 1
2 2
C 1′′5′′ = 0: m 2C 56 + C 14 + n C 24 = 0 m = cosθ 3 n = sinθ 3
2 2
C 2′′5′′ = 0: − m 2C 56 − C 24 + n C 14 = 0
2 2
C 4′′6′′ = 0: n C 56 − m C 56 + C 14 − C 24 = 0
" Group 2
C 3′′5′′ = 0: C 34 = 0
C 3′′6′′ = 0: m C 23 − C 13 = 0
C 4′′5′′ = 0: m C 44 − C 55 = 0
" Group 3
2 3
C 1′′6′′ = 0: mn C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66 − m C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66 = 0
3 2
C 2′′6′′ = 0: m C 22 − C 12 − 2C 66 − mn C 11 − C 12 − 2C 66 = 0
273
" The first group can be written as

2
C 1′′5′′ = 0: − C 24 = m 2C 56 + C 14 − C 24 m = cosθ 3 n = sinθ 3
2
C 2′′5′′ = 0: C 14 = m 2C 56 + C 14 − C 24
2
C 4′′6′′ = 0: C 56 = m 2C 56 + C 14 − C 24
" Because the right-hand side of the equations are identical, it follows
that the left-hand sides are equal; that is, C 56 = − C 24 = C 14 = Γ
2
" Each equation can be expressed as Γ = 4Γ
Γcos θ 3 , which is satisfied
by Γ = 0 and by cos 2θ 3 = 14
Γ = 0 implies C 56 = − C 24 = C 14 = 0 and − π <θ ≤ π

" 3
2 2
" cos 2θ 3 = 14 implies θ 3 = ± π

3 , C 56 = C 14 , and C 24 = − C 14
274
" The third group of equations is simplified by first adding the two
equations together and then by subtracting the two equations
" Adding gives C 1′′6′′ + C 2′′6′′ = 0: θ3 = 0 ,

C 22 − C 11 cosθ
π <θ ≤ π
which is satisfied for all − 2 3
2 if C 22 = C 11 , or for all
C 22 ≠ C 11 if θ 3 = π2
" Subtracting gives

C 1′′6′′ − C 2′′6′′ = 0: 2C 12 + 4C 66 − C 11 − C 22 cosθ θ3 = 0 ,
θ 3cos2θ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if 2C 12 + 4C 66 − C 11 − C 22 = 0 ,
or for all 2C 12 + 4C 66 − C 11 − C 22 ≠ 0 if θ 3 = ± π4 or π2
275
" Group 4
2 2
S 1′′5′′ = 0: m S 56 + S 14 + n S 24 = 0 m = cosθ 3 n = sinθ 3
2 2
S 2′′5′′ = 0: − m S 56 − S 24 + n S 14 = 0
2 2
S 4′′6′′ = 0: − m S 56 + 2S 14 − 2S 24 + n S 56 = 0
" Group 5
S 3′′5′′ = 0: S 34 = 0
S 3′′6′′ = 0: m S 23 − S 13 = 0
S 4′′5′′ = 0: m S 44 − S 55 = 0
" Group 6
2 3
S 1′′6′′ = 0: mn 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 − m 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66 = 0
3 2
S 2′′6′′ = 0: m 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 − mn 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66 = 0
276
" Like for the stiffnesses, the fourth group can also be written as
2
S 1′′5′′ = 0: − S 24 = m S 56 + S 14 − S 24 m = cosθ 3 n = sinθ 3
2
S 2′′5′′ = 0: S 14 = m S 56 + S 14 − S 24
S 4′′6′′ = 0: 1 S = m2 S + S − S
2 56 56 14 24
that the left-hand sides are equal; that is, 12 S 56 = − S 24 = S 14 = Δ
" Δcos 2θ 3 , which is satisfied

Each equation can be expressed as Δ = 4Δ
by Δ = 0 and by cos 2θ 3 = 14
Δ = 0 implies S 56 = S 24 = S 14 = 0 and − π <θ ≤ π

" 3
2 2
" cos 2θ 3 = 14 implies θ 3 = ± π3 , S 56 = 2S 14 , and S 24 = − S 14
277
" The sixth group of equations is also simplified by first adding the two
" Adding gives S 1′′6′′ + S 2′′6′′ = 0: θ3 = 0 ,

S 22 − S 11 cosθ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if S 22 = S 11 , or for all
S 22 ≠ S 11 if θ 3 = π2
" Subtracting gives

S 1′′6′′ − S 2′′6′′ = 0: S 11 + S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 cosθ θ3 = 0 ,
θ 3cos2θ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if 2S 12 + S 66 − S 11 − S 22 = 0 ,
or for all 2S 12 + S 66 − S 11 − S 22 ≠ 0 if θ 3 = ± π4 or π2
278
" The symmetry properties for trigonal materials arise from the
solution for the invariance conditions that are given by cos 2θ 3 = 14
" For this solution, the planes of Symmetry

elastic symmetry are all parallel to x2
plane for
the x3 axis and are given by θ3 = 0
θ 3 = + π3
θ 3 = 0 and ± π3
Symmetry
plane for
θ =+π
" For θ 3 = ± π3 , m = cos ± π3 = 12 ≠ 0 3
3
x1
and n = sin ± π3 = ± 23 ≠ 0 θ3 = 0
Symmetry
" The stiffness equations in group 2 plane for θ 3 = − π3
yield the invariance conditions θ 3 = − π3
C 34 = 0 , C 23 = C 13 , and C 55 = C 44
Plan view of symmetry planes
279
" Likewise, the stiffness equations in group 1 yield the invariance

conditions C 56 = C 14 and C 24 = − C 14
" Furthermore, the stiffness equations in group 3 yield the invariance

conditions C 22 = C 11 and C 66 = 12 C 11 − C 12
" The compliance equations in group 5 yield the invariance conditions

S 34 = 0 , S 23 = S 13 , and S 55 = S 44

S 56 = 2S 14 and S 24 = − S 14

S 22 = S 11 and S 66 = 2 S 11 − S 12
280
" The invariance conditions α 1′′3′′ = 0: mα

α 13 + nα
α 23 = 0 and
2 2
α 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n α 12 + mn α 22 − α 11 = 0 yield
α 23 = α 13 = α 12 = 0 and α 22 = α 11
" The invariance conditions β 1′′3′′ = 0: mβ

β 13 + nβ
β 23 = 0 and
2 2
β 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n β 12 + mn β 22 − β 11 = 0 yield
β 23 = β 13 = β 12 = 0 and β 22 = β 11
" Together, the invariance conditions yield the following constitutive

equations for a trigonal material
281
TRIGONAL MATERIALS - CONCLUDED
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 − C 14 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= 13 + T − Tref
C 14 − C 14 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 C 14 2εε13 0
σ 12 C 11 − C 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 14
2
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 − S 14 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S S 13 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 + T − Tref
2εε23 S 14 − S 14 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 2S 14 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 2S 14 2 S 11 − S 12
" Therefore, a trigonal material has six independent elastic constants

and two independent thermal-expansion or thermal-compliance
parameters
282
TRIGONAL MATERIALS
" To determine the conditions on the constitutive equations for trigonal

materials, it is necessary to consider a plane of elastic symmetry that
is oriented arbitrarily, with respect to two of the coordinate axes
" In particular, consider a plane of x 1 , x 1′′ a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
elastic symmetry whose normal n

lies in the plane x1 = 0 and makes an x 3′′
angle θ1 with the x2 axis, as shown in i 1 , i 1′′
i 3′′
the figure θ1
" The angle θ1 is defined to be in the i2 i3 x3

π <θ ≤ π π i 2′′, n
range − 2 1
2 , because θ 1 = − 2 θ1
and θ 1 = π2 define the same plane x 2′′
x2
" In addition, let the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ be the Plane of elastic
symmetry
coordinates used to define the
material symmetry
283
" Specifically, for a plane of elastic symmetry given by x 2′′ = 0 , the

symmetry transformation is shown in the figure and is given by
x 1′′′′ = x 1′′ , x 2′′′′ = − x 2′′ , and x 3′′′′ = x 3′′
" The corresponding matrix of x 1′′ , x 1′′′′ a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

a 1′′′′1′′ a 1′′′′2′′ a 1′′′′3′′ 1 0 0 x 2′′′′

a 2′′′′1′′ a 2′′′′2′′ a 2′′′′3′′ = 0 −1 0
a 3′′′′1′′ a 3′′′′2′′ a 3′′′′3′′ 0 0 1 i 1′′ , i 1′′′′
i 2′′′′
" For the x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinate i 3′′ , i 3′′′′ x 3′′ , x 3′′′′
system, the constitutive i 2′′
equations are expressed as
follows
x 2′′
284
ε 1′1′ S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ S 1′4′ S 1′5′ S 1′6′ α 1′1′

σ 1′1′
ε 2′2′ S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ S 2′4′ S 2′5′ S 2′6′ σ 2′2′ α 2′2′
ε 3′3′ S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ S 3′4′ S 3′5′ S 3′6′ σ 3′3′ α 3′3′
= σ 2′3′
+ T − Tref
2εε2′3′ S 1′4′ S 2′4′ S 3′4′ S 4′4′ S 4′5′ S 4′6′ 2α
α 2′3′
2εε1′3′ σ 1′3′ 2α
α 1′3′
S 1′5′ S 2′5′ S 3′5′ S 4′5′ S 5′5′ S 5′6′
2εε1′2′ σ 1′2′ 2α
α 1′2′
S 1′6′ S 2′6′ S 3′6′ S 4′6′ S 5′6′ S 6′6′
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ C 1′4′ C 1′5′ C 1′6′ ε 1′1′ β 1′1′

σ 1′1′
σ 2′2′ C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ C 2′4′ C 2′5′ C 2′6′ ε 2′2′ β 2′2′
σ 3′3′ C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ C 3′4′ C 3′5′ C 3′6′ ε 3′3′ β 3′3′
= + T − Tref or by
σ 2′3′ C 1′4′ C 2′4′ C 3′4′ C 4′4′ C 4′5′ C 4′6′ 2εε2′3′ 2β
β 2′3′
σ 1′3′ 2εε1′3′ 2β
β 1′3′
C 1′5′ C 2′5′ C 3′5′ C 4′5′ C 5′5′ C 5′6′
σ 1′2′ 2εε1′2′ 2β
β 1′2′
C 1′6′ C 2′6′ C 3′6′ C 4′6′ C 5′6′ C 6′6′
ε′ = S′′ σ′ + α′ Θ and σ′ = C′′ ε′ + β′ Θ ,
285
" For the x 1′′′′, x 2′′′′, x 3′′′′ coordinate system, the constitutive equations are
identical in form and are obtained by replacing the index pair i′′j′′ with
i′′
′′j′′
′′
" In the abridged notation,
ε′′ = S′′
′′ σ′′ + α′′ Θ and
σ′′ = C′′
′′ ε′′ + β′′ Θ , where Θ = T − Tref
" For the transformation of coordinates defined by the symmetry

transformation (a reflection about the plane x 2′′ = 0 ),
σ′′ = Tσr 2′
σ′ and ε′′ = Tεr 2′
ε′ where
286
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
r′ r′ 0 0 1 0 0 0
Tσ = Tε =
2 2
0 0 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
" Likewise,
−1 −1
r′ r′ r′ r′
S′′
′′ = Tε S′′ Tσ S′′ = Tε S′′
′′ Tσ
2 2 2 2
−1 −1
r′ r′ r′ r′
C′′
′′ = Tσ C′′ Tε C′′ = Tσ C′′ Tε
2 2 2 2
′′
α′′ = Tεr 2′
α′ β′′ = Tσr 2′
β′
287
" The conditions for invariance under the symmetry transformation

are given by
−1 −1
r′ r′ r′ r′
S′′ = Tε S′′ Tσ C′′ = Tσ C′′ Tε
2 2 2 2
α′ = Tεr 2′
α′ β′ = Tσr 2′
β′
" Rather than calculating the outcome of the invariance conditions, the
outcome can be found by direct comparison with the results given
previously for a material that is monoclinic with respect to the plane
x2 = 0
" Direct comparison reveals that the material is monoclinic with

respect to the plane x 2′′ = 0
288
" That is, direct comparison yields
ε 1′1′ S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ 0 S 1′5′ 0 α 1′1′

σ 1′1′
ε 2′2′ S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ 0 S 2′5′ 0 σ 2′2′ α 2′2′
ε 3′3′ S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ 0 S 3′5′ 0 σ 3′3′ α 3′3′
= + T − Tref and
2εε2′3′ 0 0 0 S 4′4′ 0 S 4′6′ σ 2′3′ 0
2εε1′3′ S 1′5′ S 2′5′ S 3′5′ 0 S 5′5′ 0 σ 1′3′ 2α
α 1′3′
2εε1′2′ σ 1′2′ 0
0 0 0 S 4′6′ 0 S 6′6′
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ 0 C 1′5′ 0 ε 1′1′ β 1′1′

σ 1′1′
σ 2′2′ C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ 0 C 2′5′ 0 ε 2′2′ β 2′2′
σ 3′3′ C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ 0 C 3′5′ 0 ε 3′3′ β 3′3′
= + T − Tref
σ 2′3′ 0 0 0 C 4′4′ 0 C 4′6′ 2εε2′3′ 0
σ 1′3′ C 1′5′ C 2′5′ C 3′5′ 0 C 5′5′ 0 2εε1′3′ β 1′3′
σ 1′2′ 2εε1′2′ 0
0 0 0 C 4′6′ 0 C 6′6′
289
" Next, the compliances, stiffnesses, thermal-expansion coefficients, and

thermal moduli, expressed in x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ coordinates, are expressed in
the original x 1, x 2, x 3 coordinates
" The transformation corresponds to x 1 , x 1′′ a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

the dextral rotation about the x1 axis,
shown in the figure, and is given by
x 3′′
x 1′′ = x 1 , x 2′′ = x 2cosθ θ 1 + x 3sinθθ 1 , and i 1 , i 1′′
x 3′′ = − x 2sinθ θ 1 + x 3cosθ θ 1 , with i 3′′
θ1
− π2 < θ 1 ≤ π2 i2 i3 x3
" The corresponding matrix of i 2′′, n
θ1
x 2′′
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 1 0 0 x2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 cosθ
θ1 sinθ
θ1 Plane of elastic
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 − sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1 symmetry
290

1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos θ 1 sin θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
2 2
0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
Tσ θ 1 = 2 2 and
0 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 cos θ 1 − sin θ 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
2 2
0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
Tε θ 1 = 2 2
0 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 cos θ 1 − sin θ 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
291
" The transformation laws for the compliances, stiffnesses, thermal-

expansion coefficients, and thermal moduli have been given as
−1 −1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε S′′ = Tε S Tσ
β′ = Tσ β α′ = Tε α
" These laws transform the invariance conditions on C′′ , S′′ , α′ , and
β′ into invariance conditions on C , S , α , and β
" Specific expressions for these transformation laws (dextral rotation

about the x1 axis) were given previously for a fully anisotropic material
(triclinic)
" Note that the matrices C and S , and the vectors α and β ,
are fully populated
292
" Because of the invariance conditions, the matrices C′′ and S′′ have
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ 0 C 1′5′ 0 S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ 0 S 1′5′ 0
C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ 0 C 2′5′ 0 S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ 0 S 2′5′ 0
C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ 0 C 3′5′ 0 S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ 0 S 3′5′ 0
the form and
0 0 0 C 4′4′ 0 C 4′6′ 0 0 0 S 4′4′ 0 S 4′6′
C 1′5′ C 2′5′ C 3′5′ 0 C 5′5′ 0 S 1′5′ S 2′5′ S 3′5′ 0 S 5′5′ 0
0 0 0 C 4′6′ 0 C 6′6′ 0 0 0 S 4′6′ 0 S 6′6′
α 1′1′ β 1′1′
α 2′2′ β 2′2′
α 3′3′ β 3′3′
" Also, the vectors α′ and β′ have the form and
0 0
2α
α 1′3′ β 1′3′
0 0
" The corresponding forms of C , S , α , and β are obtained from

the transformation laws once a value for the angle θ1 is specified
293
" For example, specifying θ 1 = 0 yields
C 1′1′ C 1′2′ C 1′3′ 0 C 1′5′ 0 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 β 1′1′ β 11

C 1′2′ C 2′2′ C 2′3′ 0 C 2′5′ 0 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 β 2′2′ β 22
C 1′3′ C 2′3′ C 3′3′ 0 C 3′5′ 0 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 β 3′3′ β 33
= =
0 0 0 C 4′4′ 0 C 4′6′ C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 0 β 23
C 1′5′ C 2′5′ C 3′5′ 0 C 5′5′ 0 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 β 1′3′ β 13
0 0 0 C 4′6′ 0 C 6′6′ C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66 0 β 12
S 1′1′ S 1′2′ S 1′3′ 0 S 1′5′ 0 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 1′1′ α 11

S 1′2′ S 2′2′ S 2′3′ 0 S 2′5′ 0 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 α 2′2′ α 22
S 1′3′ S 2′3′ S 3′3′ 0 S 3′5′ 0 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 α 3′3′ α 33
= =
0 0 0 S 4′4′ 0 S 4′6′ S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 0 2α
α 23
S 1′5′ S 2′5′ S 3′5′ 0 S 5′5′ 0 S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56 2α
α 1′3′ 2α
α 13
0 0 0 S 4′6′ 0 S 6′6′ S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66 0 2α
α 12
" Enforcing the invariance conditions on C′′ gives
C 14 = 0 , C 16 = 0 , C 24 = 0 , C 26 = 0 , C 34 = 0 , C 36 = 0 , C 45 = 0 , and C 56 = 0
294
" Enforcing the invariance conditions on S′′ gives

S 14 = 0 , S 16 = 0 , S 24 = 0 , S 26 = 0 , S 34 = 0 , S 36 = 0 , S 45 = 0 , and S 56 = 0
" Enforcing the invariance conditions on α′ and β′ gives

α 12 = α 23 = 0 and β 12 = β 23 = 0
" The conditions are identical to the conditions previously obtained for a
material that is monoclinic with respect to the plane x2 = 0
" Similarly, specifying θ 1 = π

2
and enforcing the invariance conditions on
C′′ , S′′ , α′ , and β′ yields the conditions previously obtained for
295
π <θ ≤ π
" Now consider an arbitrary value for the angle θ1 such that − 2 1
2
" The previous example for θ 1 = 0 showed that the invariance conditions
on C , S , α , and β were obtained by the terms of C′′ , S′′ ,
α′ , and β′ that were zero valued
" Using the transformation equations for a dextral rotation about the x1
axis that were given previously for a (triclinic) fully anisotropic, elastic
material gives the following results for the invariance conditions on
C′′
2 2
C 1′′4′′ = 0: m − n C 14 + mn C 13 − C 12 = 0
C 1′′6′′ = 0: mC 16 + nC 15 = 0
296
2 2 2 3
C 2′′4′′ = 0: m m − 3n C 24 − m n C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44
3 2 2 2
+ mn C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 − n n − 3m C 34 = 0
3 2 2 3
C 2′′6′′ = 0: m C 26 + m n 2C 46 + C 25 + mn 2C 45 + C 36 + n C 35 = 0
2 2 2 3
C 3′′4′′ = 0: m m − 3n C 34 + m n C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44
3 2 2 2
− mn C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44 − n n − 3m C 24 = 0
3 2 2 3
C 3′′6′′ = 0: m C 36 − m n 2C 46 − C 35 − mn 2C 45 − C 26 + n C 25 = 0
3 2 2 3
C 4′′5′′ = 0: m C 45 − m n C 46 + C 25 − C 35 − mn C 45 − C 26 + C 36 + n C 46 = 0
2 2
C 5′′6′′ = 0: m − n C 56 + mn C 55 − C 66 = 0
with m = cosθ
θ 1 and n = sinθ
θ1
" These conditions give 8 equations and 20 unknowns
297
" The invariance conditions on S′′ are given by

2 2
S 1′′4′′ = 0: m − n S 14 + 2mn S 13 − S 12 = 0 S 1′′6′′ = 0: mS 16 + nS 15 = 0
2 2 2 3
S 2′′4′′ = 0: m m − 3n S 24 − m n 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44 − n n − 3m S 34 = 0
3 2 2 3
S 2′′6′′ = 0: m S 26 + m n S 46 + S 25 + mn S 45 + S 36 + n S 35 = 0
2 2 2 3
S 3′′4′′ = 0: m m − 3n S 34 + m n 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44 − n n − 3m S 24 = 0
3 2 2 3
S 3′′6′′ = 0: m S 36 − m n S 46 − S 35 − mn S 45 − S 26 + n S 25 = 0
3 2 2 3
S 4′′5′′ = 0: m S 45 − m n S 46 + 2S 25 − 2S 35 − mn S 45 − 2S 26 + 2S 36 + n S 46 = 0
2 2
S 5′′6′′ = 0: m − n S 56 + mn S 55 − S 66 = 0
298
" The invariance conditions on α′ and β′ yield
2 2
α 1′′2′′ = 0: mα
α 12 + nα
α 13 = 0 α 2′′3′′ = 0: m − n α 23 + mn α 33 − α 22 = 0
2 2
β 1′′2′′ = 0: mβ
β 12 + nβ
β 13 = 0 β 2′′3′′ = 0: m − n β 23 + mn β 33 − β 22 = 0
299
" In determining the restrictions on the compliances, stiffnesses,

thermal-expansion coefficients, and thermal moduli for materials that
possess more than one plane of elastic symmetry, all of which contain
the x1 axis, it is convenient to select the first plane to be given by θ 1 = 0
" Thus, the material is monoclinic with respect to the plane x2 = 0

and, as a result, the following conditions hold
C 14 = 0 C 16 = 0 C 24 = 0 C 26 = 0 C 34 = 0 C 36 = 0 C 45 = 0 C 56 = 0
S 14 = 0 S 16 = 0 S 24 = 0 S 26 = 0 S 34 = 0 S 36 = 0 S 45 = 0 S 56 = 0
α 12 = 0 α 23 = 0 β 12 = 0 β 23 = 0
" These relations, and the fact that n = sinθ

θ 1 ≠ 0 for nonzero values
π <θ ≤ π
of − 2 1
2 , are used to simplify the previously given invariance
conditions into the following three uncoupled groups
300
" Group 1
2 2
C 2′′6′′ = 0: m 2C 46 + C 25 + n C 35 = 0 m = cosθ
θ1 n = sinθ
θ1
2 2
C 3′′6′′ = 0: − m 2C 46 − C 35 + n C 25 = 0
2 2
C 4′′5′′ = 0: − m C 46 + C 25 − C 35 + n C 46 = 0
" Group 2
C 1′′4′′ = 0: m C 13 − C 12 = 0
C 1′′6′′ = 0: C 15 = 0
C 5′′6′′ = 0: m C 55 − C 66 = 0
" Group 3
3 2
C 2′′4′′ = 0: − m C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44 + mn C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 = 0
3 2
C 3′′4′′ = 0: m C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 − mn C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44 = 0
301
" The first group can be written as

2
C 2′′6′′ = 0: − C 35 = m 2C 46 + C 25 − C 35 m = cosθ
θ1 n = sinθ
θ1
2
C 3′′6′′ = 0: C 25 = m 2C 46 + C 25 − C 35
2
C 4′′5′′ = 0: C 46 = m 2C 46 + C 25 − C 35
that the left-hand sides are equal; that is, C 46 = − C 35 = C 25 = Γ
" Γcos 2θ 1 , which is satisfied

Each equation can be expressed as Γ = 4Γ
by Γ = 0 and by cos 2θ 1 = 14
Γ = 0 implies C 46 = − C 35 = C 25 = 0 and − π <θ ≤ π

" 1
2 2
" cos 2θ 1 = 14 implies θ 1 = ± π3 , C 46 = C 25 , and C 35 = − C 25
302
" The third group of equations is simplified by first adding the two
" Adding gives C 2′′4′′ + C 3′′4′′ = 0: θ1 = 0 ,

C 33 − C 22 cosθ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if C 33 = C 22 , or for all
C 33 ≠ C 22 if θ 1 = π2
" Subtracting gives

C 2′′4′′ − C 3′′4′′ = 0: 2C 23 + 4C 44 − C 22 − C 33 cosθ θ1 = 0 ,
θ 1cos2θ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if 2C 23 + 4C 44 − C 22 − C 33 = 0 ,
or for all 2C 23 + 4C 44 − C 22 − C 33 ≠ 0 if θ 1 = ± π4 or π2
303
" Group 4
2 2
S 2′′6′′ = 0: m S 46 + S 25 + n S 35 = 0 m = cosθ
θ1 n = sinθ
θ1
2 2
S 3′′6′′ = 0: − m S 46 − S 35 + n S 25 = 0
2 2
S 4′′5′′ = 0: − m S 46 + 2S 25 − 2S 35 + n S 46 = 0
" Group 5
S 1′′4′′ = 0: m S 13 − S 12 = 0
S 1′′6′′ = 0: S 15 = 0
S 5′′6′′ = 0: m S 55 − S 66 = 0
" Group 6
3 2
S 2′′4′′ = 0: − m 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44 + mn 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44 = 0
3 2
S 3′′4′′ = 0: m 2S 33 − 2S 23 − S 44 − mn 2S 22 − 2S 23 − S 44 = 0
304
" Like for the stiffnesses, the fourth group can also be written as
2
S 2′′6′′ = 0: − S 35 = m S 46 + S 25 − S 35 m = cosθ
θ1 n = sinθ
θ1
2
S 3′′6′′ = 0: S 25 = m S 46 + S 25 − S 35
S 4′′5′′ = 0: 1 S = m2 S + S − S
2 46 46 25 35
that the left-hand sides are equal; that is, 12 S 46 = − S 35 = S 25 = Δ
" Δcos 2θ 3 , which is satisfied

Each equation can be expressed as Δ = 4Δ
by Δ = 0 and by cos 2θ 1 = 14
Δ = 0 implies S 46 = S 35 = S 25 = 0 and − π <θ ≤ π

" 1
2 2
" cos 2θ 1 = 14 implies θ 1 = ± π3 , S 46 = 2S 25 , and S 35 = − S 25
305
" The sixth group of equations is also simplified by first adding the two
" Adding gives S 2′′4′′ + S 3′′4′′ = 0: θ1 = 0 ,

S 33 − S 22 cosθ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if S 33 = S 22 , or for all
S 33 ≠ S 22 if θ 1 = π2
" Subtracting gives

S 2′′4′′ − S 3′′4′′ = 0: 2S 23 + S 44 − S 22 − S 33 cosθ θ1 = 0 ,
θ 1cos2θ
π <θ ≤ π
2 if 2S 23 + S 44 − S 22 − S 33 = 0 ,
or for all 2S 23 + S 44 − S 22 − S 33 ≠ 0 if θ 1 = ± π4 or π2
306
" The symmetry properties for trigonal materials arise from the
solution for the invariance conditions that is given by cos 2θ 1 = 14
" For this solution, the planes of Symmetry

elastic symmetry are all parallel to plane for
x3
the x1 axis and are given by θ1 = 0
θ 1 = + π3
θ 1 = 0 and ± π3
Symmetry
plane for
θ =+π
" For θ 1 = ± π3 , m = cos ± π3 = 12 ≠ 0 1
3 x2
and n = sin ± π3 = ± 23 ≠ 0 θ1 = 0
Symmetry
" The stiffness equations in group 2 plane for θ 1 = − π3
yield the invariance conditions θ 1 = − π3
C 15 = 0 , C 13 = C 12 , and C 66 = C 55
Plan view of symmetry planes
307
" Likewise, the stiffness equations in group 1 yield the invariance

conditions C 46 = C 25 and C 35 = − C 25

conditions C 33 = C 22 and C 44 = 12 C 22 − C 23

S 15 = 0 , S 13 = S 12 , and S 66 = S 55

S 46 = 2S 25 and S 35 = − S 25

S 33 = S 22 and S 44 = 2 S 22 − S 23
308

α 12 + nα
α 13 = 0 and
2 2
α 2′′3′′ = 0: m − n α 23 + mn α 33 − α 22 = 0 yield
α 23 = α 13 = α 12 = 0 and α 33 = α 22

β 12 + nβ
β 13 = 0 and
2 2
β 2′′3′′ = 0: m − n β 23 + mn β 33 − β 22 = 0 yield
β 23 = β 13 = β 12 = 0 and β 33 = β 22

equations for a trigonal material
309
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
C 12 C 22 C 23 0 C 25 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 22
σ 33 C 12 C 23 C 22 0 − C 25 0 ε 33 β 22
σ 23
= C 22 − C 23 + T − Tref
0 0 0 0 C 25 2εε23 0
σ 13 2 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 C 25 − C 25 0 C 55 0 2εε12 0
0 0 0 C 25 0 C 55
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 S 25 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S 23 S 22 0 − S 25 0 σ 33 α 22
= 12 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 2 S 22 − S 23 0 2S 25 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 S 25 − S 25 0 S 55 0
σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 2S 25 0 S 55
" Again, the trigonal material has six independent elastic constants
and two independent thermal-expansion or thermal-compliance
parameters
310
" The previous derivation of the constitutive equations for a trigonal

material that has reflective symmetry planes that contain the x1 axis is
quite tedious
" These constitutive equations can be derived in alternate manner by

using the corresponding equations given first for a trigonal material
that has reflective symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis, along with
a juxtaposition of indices
" That is, the desired constitutive equations are found by simply
determining the renumbering of the indices that brings the figure
shown below for symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis into
congruence with the adjacent figure shown below for symmetry planes
that contain the x1 axis
311
Plane x3 Plane Plane x1 Plane

θ3 = -π
π/3 θ3 = +π
π/3 θ1 = -π
π/3 θ1 = +π
π/3
x2 x3
Plane Plane
θ3 = 0 θ1 = 0
x1 x2
Symmetry planes that Symmetry planes that

contain the x3 axis contain the x1 axis
312

indices: 1 → 2, 2 → 3, and 3 → 1
indices
tensor notation 11 22 33 23, 32 31, 13 12, 21

relations: 4 → 5, 5 → 6, and 6 → 4
313
11 → 22
12 → 23 22 → 33
13 → 12 23 → 13 33 → 11
14 → 25 24 → 35 34 → 15 44 → 55
15 → 26 25 → 36 35 → 16 45 → 56 55 → 66
16 → 24 26 → 34 36 → 14 46 → 45 56 → 46 66 → 44
" Consider the following constitutive equations for a trigonal material that
has reflective symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 − C 14 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= +
0
T − Tref
C 14 − C 14 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 C 14 2εε13 0
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 14 2
C 11 − C 12
314
" Applying the index transformation to these constitutive equations gives

C 22 C 23 C 12 C 25 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 22
σ 33 C 23 C 22 C 12 − C 25 0 0 ε 33 β 22
σ 11 C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 13
= + T − Tref
C 25 − C 25 0 C 55 0 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 C 55 C 25 2εε12 0
σ 23 1 C −C 2εε23 0
0 0 0 0 C 25
2 22 23
" Reordering these equations into the standard form yields

C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 C 25 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 12 C 23 C 22 0 − C 25 0 ε 33 β 22
σ 23
= 1 C −C + T − Tref
0 0 0 0 C 25 2εε23 0
σ 13 2 22 23
2εε13 0
σ 12 0 C 25 − C 25 0 C 55 0
2εε12 0
0 0 0 C 25 0 C 55
which are identical to the corresponding equations previously given
315
TRIGONAL MATERIALS
" These constitutive equations are derived by using the corresponding

equations given first for a trigonal material that has reflective symmetry
planes that contain the x3 axis, along with a juxtaposition of indices
" That is, the desired constitutive equations are found by simply
shown below for symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis into
congruence with the adjacent figure shown below for symmetry planes
that contain the x2 axis
316

θ3 = -π
π/3 θ3 = +π
π/3 θ2 = -π
π/3 θ2 = +π
π/3
x2 x1
Plane Plane
θ3 = 0 θ2 = 0
x1 x3
Symmetry planes that Symmetry planes that

contain the x3 axis contain the x2 axis
317

indices: 1 → 3, 2 → 1, and 3 → 2
indices
tensor notation 11 22 33 23, 32 31, 13 12, 21

relations: 4 → 6, 5 → 4, and 6 → 5
318
11 → 33
12 → 13 22 → 11
13 → 23 23 → 12 33 → 22
14 → 36 24 → 16 34 → 26 44 → 66
15 → 34 25 → 14 35 → 24 45 → 46 55 → 44
16 → 35 26 → 15 36 → 25 46 → 56 56 → 45 66 → 55
" Consider the following constitutive equations for a trigonal material that
has reflective symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 − C 14 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= +
0
T − Tref
C 14 − C 14 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 C 14 2εε13 0
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 14 2
C 11 − C 12
319
C 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 33
σ 11 C 13 C 33 C 23 − C 36 0 0 ε 11 β 33
σ 22 C C 23 C 22 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 12
= 23 + T − Tref
C 36 − C 36 0 C 66 0 0 2εε12 0
σ 23 0 0 0 0 C 66 C 36 2εε23 0
σ 13 1 C −C 2εε13 0
0 0 0 0 C 36
2 33 13
C 33 C 23 C 13 0 0 − C 36 ε 11 β 33
σ 11
σ 22 C 23 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
0 0 0 C 66 C 36 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 C 36 1 C 33 − C 13 0
2 2εε12 0
− C 36 0 C 36 0 0 C 66
320
" Applying the same procedure to the inverse equations yields
ε 11 S 33 S 23 S 13 0 0 − S 36
σ 11 α 33
ε 22 S 23 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 33
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 S 36 σ 33 α 22
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 66 2S 36 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 σ 13 0
0 0 0 2S 36 2 S 33 − S 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
− S 36 0 S 36 0 0 S 66
321
SUMMARY OF TRIGONAL MATERIALS
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 C 25 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 12 C 23 C 22 0 − C 25 0 ε 33 β 22 x1 axis
= 1 + T − Tref
σ 23 0 0 0 C 22 − C 23 0 C 25 2εε23 0
2
σ 13 2εε13 0
0 C 25 − C 25 0 C 55 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 C 25 0 C 55
C 33 C 23 C 13 0 0 − C 36 ε 11 β 33
σ 11
σ 22 C 23 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36 ε 33 β 33
= + T − Tref x2 axis
σ 23 0 0 0 C 66 C 36 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 1 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 C 36 2
C 33 − C 13 0
2εε12 0
− C 36 0 C 36 0 0 C 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 − C 14 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33 x3 axis
= + T − Tref
σ 23 C 14 − C 14 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 C 14 2εε13 0
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 C 14 2
C 11 − C 12
322
SUMMARY OF TRIGONAL MATERIALS - CONCLUDED
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 S 25 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 22 0 − S 25 0 σ 33 α 22
= 12 23 + T − Tref x1 axis
2εε23 0 0 0 2 S 22 − S 23 0 2S 25 σ 23 0
2εε13 σ 13 0
0 S 25 − S 25 0 S 55 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 2S 25 0 S 55
ε 11 S 33 S 23 S 13 0 0 − S 36
σ 11 α 33
ε 22 S 23 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 33
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 S 36 σ 33 α 22
= + T − Tref x2 axis
2εε23 0 0 0 S 66 2S 36 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 σ 13 0
0 0 0 2S 36 2 S 33 − S 13 0 σ 12
2εε12 0
− S 36 0 S 36 0 0 S 66
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 − S 14 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S S 13 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33 x3 axis
= 13 + T − Tref
2εε23 S 14 − S 14 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 2S 14 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 2S 14 2 S 11 − S 12
323
TETRAGONAL
MATERIALS
324
TETRAGONAL MATERIALS
" Previously, it was shown that for a single plane of elastic symmetry
containing the x3 axis, special invariance conditions arise for values of
π
θ3 = ± , in addition to θ3 = 0
4
" Likewise, it was shown that for a single plane of elastic symmetry
containing the x1 axis, special invariance conditions arise for values of
π
θ1 = ± , in addition to θ1 = 0
4
" Furthermore, for a single plane of elastic symmetry containing the x2

π
axis, special invariance conditions also arise for values of θ2 = ± 4
, in
addition to θ2 = 0
" Three particular cases of interest arise from these invariance conditions
in which there exists five planes of elastic symmetry, four of which
are perpendicular to the fifth plane
325
TETRAGONAL MATERIALS - CONTINUED
" Specifically, consider a material with three planes of elastic symmetry
π
given by θ3 = 0 and ± 4
Plane x3 Plane
π θ3 = -π
π/4 θ3 = +π
π/4
" By taking θ1 = + 2
as an additional
plane of elastic symmetry, the fact that
π Plane
the planes θ3 = 0 and θ1 = + 2
are θ1 = +π
π/2
perpendicular implies the existence of x2

a fifth symmetry plane given by θ1 = 0
" This fact was shown previously for Plane
θ3 = 0
specially orthotropic materials;
Plane θ1 = 0
that is, two perpendicular planes x1
of elastic symmetry imply a third
perpendicular plane of elastic symmetry
" Thus, there exists five planes of elastic symmetry, four of which
π
are perpendicular to plane θ1 = + 2
326
" Next, consider a material with three planes of elastic symmetry given by
π
θ1 = 0 and ±
4
x3
Plane θ1 = 0
" By taking θ3 = 0 as an additional
plane of elastic symmetry, the fact
that the planes θ1 = 0 and θ3 = 0 are Plane
θ1 = +π
π/2
perpendicular implies the existence x2
of a fifth symmetry plane given by Plane
π θ1 = -π
π/4
θ1 = +
2 Plane
θ3 = 0
Plane
x1 θ1 = +π
π/4
" Thus, there exists five planes of
elastic symmetry, four of which
are perpendicular to plane θ3 = 0
327
" Finally, consider a material with three planes of elastic symmetry given
π
by θ2 = 0 and ± 4
x3
Plane θ3 = 0 Plane θ3 = +π
π/2
π
" By taking θ3 = + 2
as an additional
plane of elastic symmetry, the fact
π
that the planes θ3 = + and θ2 = 0 Plane
2 θ2 = 0 x2
are perpendicular implies the
existence of a fifth symmetry plane
Plane
given by θ3 = 0 θ2 = -π
π/4
Plane
x1 θ2 = +π
π/4
" Thus, there exists five planes of
π
elastic symmetry, four of which are perpendicular to plane θ3 = + 2
328
TETRAGONAL MATERIALS - CONCLUDED
" When there exists five planes of elastic symmetry, in which four
planes are perpendicular to a fifth plane, the material is classified as a
tetragonal material
" Three specific cases are defined as follows:

π π
" Planes of elastic symmetry given by θ3 = 0 and ± 4
and θ1 = + 2
π
and θ3 = 0
π π
and θ3 = + 2
" For each of these three arrangements of symmetry planes, the

corresponding constitutive equations can be derived directly from
those for a specially orthotropic material by enforcing the
π π π
invariance conditions for θ1 = ± 4
, θ2 = ± 4
, or θ3 = ± 4
329
REFLECTIVE SYMMETRY PLANES THAT CONTAIN THE x3 AXIS
" Consider a tetragonal material with planes of reflective symmetry

π π
defined by θ3 = 0 and ± 4
and by θ1 = + 2
" For a specially orthotropic material, it was shown previously that the
constitutive equations are given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
330
" For this case, the additional conditions on the constitutive equations
π
are obtained by enforcing symmetry planes given by θ3 = ± 4
π
" For θ3 = ± 4
, m = cos ± π4 = 22 ≠ 0 and n = sin ± π4 = ± 22 ≠ 0
π
" With θ3 = ± 4
, the first group of stiffness equations previously given
herein for an arbitrary plane of symmetry, defined by constant values of
θ3, requires Γ = 0
" Recall that Γ = 0 implies C 56 = − C 24 = C 14 = 0 for arbitrary values of

the angle − π <θ ≤ π
3
2 2
" Similarly, the second group of stiffness equations for an arbitrary plane
of symmetry, defined by constant values of θ3, requires C34 = 0 ,
C23 = C13 , and C55 = C44
331

condition C 22 = C 11
" Likewise, the compliance equations in group 5 yield the invariance

conditions S 34 = 0 , S 23 = S 13 , and S 55 = S 44

S56 = S24 = S14 = 0
" The compliance equations in group 6 yield the invariance condition

S 22 = S 11
332

α 13 + nα
α 23 = 0 and
2 2
α 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n α 12 + mn α 22 − α 11 = 0 yield
α 23 = α 13 = α 12 = 0 and α 22 = α 11

β 13 + nβ
β 23 = 0 and
2 2
β 1′′2′′ = 0: m − n β 12 + mn β 22 − β 11 = 0 yield
β 23 = β 13 = β 12 = 0 and β 22 = β 11

equations for a tetragonal material
333
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23
+ 0
T − Tref
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S 13 S 13 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
2εε23
= 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23
+ 0
T − Tref
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
" Therefore, a tetragonal material has six independent elastic

constants and two independent thermal-expansion or thermal-
compliance parameters
334
" Next, consider a tetragonal material with planes of reflective

π
symmetry defined by θ1 = 0 and ± 4
and by θ3 = 0
π
" For θ1 = ± 4
, m = cos ± π4 = 22 ≠ 0 and n = sin ± π4 = ± 22 ≠ 0
" The first group of stiffness equations previously given herein for an
arbitrary plane of symmetry, defined by constant values of θ1, yields the
invariance conditions C46 = C35 = C25 = 0
" The second group of stiffness equations for an arbitrary plane of

symmetry, defined by constant values of θ1, requires C15 = 0 , C13 = C12 ,
and C66 = C55
" The stiffness equations in group 3 yield the invariance condition

C33 = C22
335

β 12 + nβ
β 13 = 0 and
2 2
β 2′′3′′ = 0: m − n β 23 + mn β 33 − β 22 = 0 yield
β 23 = β 13 = β 12 = 0 and β 33 = β 22
" The resulting constitutive equation, obtained by simplifying the

constitutive equation for a specialy orthotropic material, is given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 12 C 23 C 22 0 0 0 ε 33 β 22
σ 23
= 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23
+ 0
T − Tref
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 55 2εε12 0
336
" Applying the same process to the equations for the compliances and
coefficients of thermal expansion yields
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 12 S 23 S 22 0 0 0 σ 33 α 22
2εε23
= 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23
+ 0
T − Tref
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 55 σ 12 0
337
" Finally, consider a tetragonal material with planes of reflective

π π
symmetry defined by θ2 = 0 and ± 4
and by θ3 = + 2
" The constitutive equations are derived by using the corresponding

equations given previously for a tetragonal material that has four
reflective-symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis, along with a
juxtaposition of indices
" In particular, the desired constitutive equations are found by simply

shown below with four symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis into
congruence with the adjacent figure shown below with four symmetry
planes that contain the x2 axis
338

θ3 = -π
π/3 θ3 = +π
π/3 θ2 = -π
π/3 θ2 = +π
π/3
Plane Plane
θ1 = +π
π/2 θ3 = +π
π/2
x2 x1
Plane Plane
θ3 = 0 θ2 = 0
Plane Plane
x1 θ3 = +π
π/2 x3 θ2 = +π
π/2
Four symmetry planes Four symmetry planes

that contain the x3 axis that contain the x2 axis
339

indices: 1 → 3, 2 → 1, and 3 → 2
indices
tensor notation 11 22 33 23, 32 31, 13 12, 21

relations: 4 → 6, 5 → 4, and 6 → 5
340
11 → 33
12 → 13 22 → 11
13 → 23 23 → 12 33 → 22
14 → 36 24 → 16 34 → 26 44 → 66
15 → 34 25 → 14 35 → 24 45 → 46 55 → 44
16 → 35 26 → 15 36 → 25 46 → 56 56 → 45 66 → 55
" Consider the following constitutive equations for a tetragonal material

that has reflective symmetry planes that contain the x3 axis
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= 13 13 33 + T − Tref
0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
341
σ 33 C 33 C 13 C 23 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 11 C 13 C 33 C 23 0 0 0 ε 11 β 33
σ 22 C 23 C 23 C 22 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 12
= 0 0 0 C 66 0 0 2εε12
+ 0
T − Tref
σ 23 0 0 0 0 C 66 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 0 C 55 2εε13 0
σ 11 C 33 C 23 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 33
σ 22 C 23 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= 0 0 0 C 66 0 0 2εε23
+ 0
T − Tref
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
342
" Applying the same procedure to the inverse equations yields
ε 11 S 33 S 23 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 33
ε 22 S 23 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
2εε23
= 0 0 0 S 66 0 0 σ 23
+ 0
T − Tref
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
343
SUMMARY OF TETRAGONAL MATERIALS
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 22
= 12 23 22 + T − Tref x1 axis
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 55 2εε12 0
σ 11 C 33 C 23 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 33
σ 22 C 23 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref x2 axis
σ 23 0 0 0 C 66 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 13 33 + T − Tref x3 axis
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
344
SUMMARY OF TETRAGONAL MATERIALS - CONTINUED
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 22
= 12 23 22 + T − Tref x1 axis
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 55 σ 12 0
ε 11 S 33 S 23 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 33
ε 22 S 23 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref x2 axis
2εε23 0 0 0 S 66 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 13 33 + T − Tref x3 axis
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
345
SUMMARY OF TETRAGONAL MATERIALS
CONCLUDED
" Inspection of the equations shows that a tetragonal material is a

specially orthotropic material in which the properties associated with
two of the coordinate directions are identical
346
TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS
347
TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS
ISOTROPY PLANE x3 = 0
" Now, consider the case in which a specially orthotropic material, which
exhibits symmetry about the perpendicular principal-coordinate planes,
also exhibits isotropy in the plane x3 = 0
" For the specially orthotropic material, it was shown previously that the
material properties are given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
348
ISOTROPY PLANE x3 = 0 (CONTINUED)
" For this type of symmetry to exist, there must be an infinite number of
elastic symmetry planes that are perpendicular to the plane x3 = 0
" Equivalently, the constitutive matrices and vectors must invariant
with respect to dextral rotations about the x3 axis
" The coordinate transformation for this x 3 , x 3′′ a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j

symmetry is shown in the figure and
x 2′′
is given by x 1′′ = x 1cosθ
θ 3 + x 2sinθ
θ3 , i 3 , i 3′′
x 2′′ = − x 1sinθ θ 3 , and x 3′′ = x 3 ,
θ 3 + x 2cosθ i 2′′ θ3
with 0 ≤ θ 3 < 2π
π i1 i2 x2
i 1′′
" The corresponding matrix of θ3
x 1′′ Plane of isotropy
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 θ 3 sinθ
cosθ θ3 0 x1
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = − sinθ
θ 3 cosθθ3 0
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 0 1
349

2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
0 0 1 0 0 0
Tσ θ 3 =
0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0
and
0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2 2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
0 0 1 0 0 0
Tε θ 3 =
0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0
0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2 2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
350
" Specific expressions that result from the transformation

−1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε were given previously for an anisotropic material
−1
" For a specially orthotropic material, C′′ = Tσ C Tε yields the
expressions given previously for a generally orthotropic material;
that is,
4 2 2 4
C 1′′1′′ = m C 11 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 + n C 22
2 2 4 4
C 1′′2′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 4C 66 + m + n C 12
2 2
C 1′′3′′ = m C 13 + n C 23 C 1′′4′′ = 0 C 1′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
C 1′′6′′ = mn m − n C 12 + 2C 66 + mn n C 22 − m C 11
4 2 2 4
C 2′′2′′ = m C 22 + 2m n C 12 + 2C 66 + n C 11
351
2 2
C 2′′3′′ = m C 23 + n C 13 C 2′′4′′ = 0 C 2′′5′′ = 0
2 2 2 2
C 2′′6′′ = mn n − m C 12 + 2C 66 + mn m C 22 − n C 11
C 3′′3′′ = C 33 C 3′′4′′ = 0 C 3′′5′′ = 0 C 3′′6′′ = mn C 23 − C 13
2 2
C 4′′4′′ = m C 44 + n C 55 C 4′′5′′ = mn C 44 − C 55 C 4′′6′′ = 0 C 5′′6′′ = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C 5′′5′′ = m C 55 + n C 44 C 6′′6′′ = m n C 11 + C 22 − 2C 12 + m − n C 66
with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3
−1
" Next, the invariance condition C = Tσ C Tε is enforced, which
implies the conditions C r′′s′′ = C rs , where r, s ∈ 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6
352
" Enforcing C 1′′1′′ = C 11 gives C 11 = m 4C 11 + 2m 2n 2 C 12 + 2C 66 + n 4C 22 , which

can only be satisfied in a general sense (arbitrary values for θ3) if
C 11 = C 22 and C 12 + 2C 66 = C 11
" Similarly, enforcing C 1′′3′′ = C 13 gives C 13 = m 2C 13 + n 2C 23 , which yields

C 23 = C 13
" Likewise, enforcing C 4′′4′′ = C 44 gives C 44 = m 2C 44 + n 2C 55 , which yields

C 55 = C 44
" Finally, by substituting C 11 = C 22 , C 12 + 2C 66 = C 11 , C 23 = C 13 , and

C 55 = C 44 into the remaining expressions for C r′′s′′ and enforcing
C r′′s′′ = C rs , it is found the remaining expressions are identically satisfied
353
" Thus, the stiffness matrix for a transversely isotropic material that is
isotropic in the plane x3 = 0 has the form
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0
C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0
C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0
0 0 0 C 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 C 44 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 C 11 − C 12
2
" Following the same procedure for the compliance coefficients by using
the transformed-compliance expressions previously given for a
generally orthotropic material and enforcing the invariance
−1
condition S = Tε S Tσ or S r′′s′′ = S rs yields similar results
354
" Thus, the compliance matrix for a transversely isotropic material that is
S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
S 12 S 11 S 13 0 0 0
S 13 S 13 S 33 0 0 0
0 0 0 S 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 S 44 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 S 11 − S 12
2
355
" For a specially orthotropic material, α′ = Tε α yields the

expressions for the transformed thermal-expansion coefficients, given
previously for a generally orthotropic material; that is,
α 1′′1′′ = m 2α 11 + n 2α 22 α 2′′2′′ = m 2α 22 + n 2α 11 α 3′′3′′ = α 33
α 2′′3′′ = 0 α 1′′3′′ = 0 α 1′′2′′ = mn α 22 − α 11
" Enforcing the invariance condition α = Tε α or α r′′s′′ = α rs yields

the requirements that α 22 = α 11 and α 12 = 0
" Following the same procedure for the thermal moduli by using the
transformed-thermal-moduli expressions previously given for a
condition β = Tσ β or β r′′s′′ = β rs yields similar results; that is,
β 22 = β 11 and β 12 = 0
356
" Applying all these simplifications, the linear thermoelastic constitutive

equations become
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
C 11 − C 12
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S 13 S 13 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 1
σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
S 11 − S 12
357
ISOTROPY PLANE x3 = 0 (CONCLUDED)
β 11 C 11 + C 12 C 13 α 11
" Likewise =−
β 33 2C 13 C 33 α 33
" Thus, the transversely isotropic material considered has 5

independent stiffness coefficients, 5 independent compliance
coefficients, 2 independent thermal-expansion coefficients, and 2
independent thermal-moduli coefficients
" It is interesting to point out that hexagonal materials, defined by

planes of reflective symmetry given by θ 3 = 0, ± π
6
, have the same
number of independent elastic constants and thermal parameters as
the transversely isotropic material
358
ISOTROPY PLANE x1 = 0
" Now, consider the case in which a specially orthotropic material,

which exhibits symmetry about the perpendicular principal-coordinate
planes, also exhibits isotropy in the plane x1 = 0
" For the specially orthotropic material, it was shown previously that the
material properties are given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 2εε12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 23 33 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
359
" For this type of symmetry to exist, there must be an infinite number of
elastic symmetry planes that are perpendicular to the plane x1 = 0
" Equivalently, the constitutive matrices and vectors must invariant
with respect to dextral rotations about the x1 axis
x3 Plane of
" The coordinate transformation for this x 3′′ isotropy
symmetry is shown in the figure and is
given by x 1′′ = x 1 , x 2′′ = x 2cosθ
θ 1 + x 3sinθ
θ1 ,
θ1
and x 3′′ = − x 2sinθ θ 1 , with
θ 1 + x 3cosθ
0 ≤ θ 1 < 2π
π i3 x 2′′
i 3′′ i 2′′
" The corresponding matrix of direction θ1 x2
cosines is given by i2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 1 0 0 i 1 , i 1′′
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 = 0 cosθ
θ1 sinθ
θ1
a i′′j ≡ i i′′ • i j
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 0 − sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1 x 1 , x 1′′
360

1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
0 cos θ 1 sin θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
2 2
0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
Tσ = 0 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 sinθ
θ 1cosθ
2
2
0 0
and
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 2
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
2 2
0 sin θ 1 cos θ 1 − sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ1 0 0
Tε = 0 − 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
θ 1 2sinθ
θ 1cosθ
2
2
0 0
0 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 1 − sinθ
θ1
0 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 1 cosθ
θ1
361
" Specific expressions that result from the transformation

−1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε were given previously for an anisotropic material
−1
" For a specially orthotropic material, C′′ = Tσ C Tε yields the
expressions for a generally orthotropic material; that is,
C 1′′1′′ = C 11 C 1′′2′′ = m 2C 12 + n 2C 13 C 1′′3′′ = m 2C 13 + n 2C 12
C 1′′4′′ = mn C 13 − C 12 C 1′′5′′ = 0 C 1′′6′′ = 0
C 2′2′ = m 4C 22 + 2m 2n 2 C 23 + 2C 44 + n 4C 33
2 2 4 4
C 2′′3′′ = m n C 22 + C 33 − 4C 44 + m + n C 23
3 3
C 2′′4′′ = mn C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 − m n C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44
362
C 2′′5′′ = 0 C 2′′6′′ = 0 C 3′′3′′ = m 4C 33 + 2m 2n 2 C 23 + 2C 44 + n 4C 22

3 3
C 3′′4′′ = m n C 33 − C 23 − 2C 44 − mn C 22 − C 23 − 2C 44
2 2 2 2 2
C 3′′5′′ = 0 C 3′′6′′ = 0 C 4′′4′′ = m n C 22 + C 33 − 2C 23 + m − n C 44
C 4′′5′′ = 0 C 4′′6′′ = 0 C 5′5′ = m 2C 55 + n 2C 66
C 5′′6′′ = mn C 55 − C 66 C 6′6′ = m 2C 66 + n 2C 55
with m = cosθ
θ 1 and n = sinθ
θ1
−1
" Next, the invariance condition C = Tσ C Tε is enforced, which
implies the conditions C r′′s′′ = C rs , where r, s ∈ 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6
363
" Enforcing C 2′′2′′ = C 22 gives C 22 = m 4C 22 + 2m 2n 2 C 23 + 2C 44 + n 4C 33 , which

can only be satisfied in a general sense (arbitrary values for θ1) if
C 33 = C 22 and C 23 + 2C 44 = C 22
" Similarly, enforcing C 1′′3′′ = C 13 gives C 13 = m 2C 13 + n 2C 12 , which yields

C 12 = C 13
" Likewise, enforcing C 5′′5′′ = C 55 gives C 55 = m 2C 55 + n 2C 66 , which yields

C 66 = C 55
" Finally, by substituting C 33 = C 22 , C 23 + 2C 44 = C 22 , C 12 = C 13 , and

C 66 = C 55 into the remaining expressions for C r′′s′′ and enforcing
C r′′s′′ = C rs , it is found the remaining expressions are identically satisfied
364
" Thus, the stiffness matrix for a transversely isotropic material that is
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0
C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0
C 12 C 23 C 22 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 C 22 − C 23 0 0
2
0 0 0 0 C 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 55
" Following the same procedure for the compliance coefficients by using
the transformed-compliance expressions previously given for a
−1
condition S = Tε S Tσ or S r′′s′′ = S rs yields similar results
365
" Thus, the compliance matrix for a transversely isotropic material that is
S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0
S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0
S 12 S 23 S 22 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 S 22 − S 23 0 0
2
0 0 0 0 S 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 55
366
" For a specially orthotropic material, α′ = Tε α yields the

expressions for the transformed thermal-expansion coefficients for a
generally orthotropic material; that is,
α 1′′1′′ = α 11 α 2′′2′′ = m 2α 22 + n 2α 33 α 3′′3′′ = m 2α 33 + n 2α 22
α 2′′3′′ = mn α 33 − α 22 α 1′′3′′ = 0 α 1′′2′′ = 0
" Enforcing the invariance condition α = Tε α or α r′′s′′ = α rs yields

the requirements that α 33 = α 22 and α 23 = 0
" Following the same procedure for the thermal moduli by using the
transformed-thermal-moduli expressions previously given for a
condition β = Tσ β or β r′′s′′ = β rs yields similar results; that is,
β 33 = β 22 and β 23 = 0
367
" Applying all these simplifications, the linear thermoelastic constitutive

equations become
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 12 C 23 C 22 0 0 0 ε 33 β 22
= + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 1 C 22 − C 23 0 0 2εε23 0
2
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 55
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 12 S 23 S 22 0 0 0 σ 33 α 22
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 1
2
S 22 − S 23 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 55
368
ISOTROPY PLANE x1 = 0 (CONCLUDED)
β 11 C 11 2C 12 α 11
" Likewise β 22
=−
α 22
C 12 C 22 + C 23
" Thus, the transversely isotropic material considered has 5 independent

stiffness coefficients, 5 independent compliance coefficients, 2
independent thermal-expansion coefficients, and 2 independent
thermal-moduli coefficients
" It is interesting to point out that hexagonal materials, defined by

planes of reflective symmetry given by θ 1 = 0, ± π
6
, have the same
number of independent elastic constants and thermal parameters as
the transversely isotropic material
369
CUBIC
MATERIALS
370
CUBIC MATERIALS
" A cubic material arises from the invariance conditions that are obtained
for a single plane of elastic reflective symmetry that contains a
coordinate axis
x3
" Precisely, a cubic material is obtained by
enforcing the invariance conditions for a
tetragonal material, for each of the three
coordinate axes
" That is, there are nine planes of elastic x2

symmetry that are given by θ = 0, ± π ,
1
4
θ 2 = 0, ± π
4
, and θ 3 = 0, ±
π
4
" Expressions for the constitutive

x1
equations are obtained directly by
enforcing the three sets of invariance conditions for the previously
given cases for tetragonal materials sequentially
371
CUBIC MATERIALS - CONCLUDED
The resulting constitutive equations are given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 12 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0 ε 33 β 11
σ 23
= 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23
+ 0
T − Tref
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 44 2εε12 0
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 12 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S 12 S 12 S 11 0 0 0 σ 33 α 11
2εε23
= 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23
+ 0
T − Tref
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 S 44 σ 12 0
" Therefore, a cubic material has three independent elastic constants

and one independent thermal-expansion or thermal-compliance
parameter
372
COMPLETELY ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS
373
COMPLETELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS
" First, consider the case in which both the planes x1 = 0 and x2 = 0 are
planes of isotropy
" Applying the results of both of the corresponding symmetry

transformations successively yields the following constitutive
equations
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 12 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0 ε 33 β 11
σ 23
= 1
+ T − Tref
0 0 0 2
C 11 − C 12 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 1 C 11 − C 12 0 2εε13 0
2
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
C 11 − C 12
" These equations possess two independent elastic stiffnesses and

one independent thermal moduli; the same as a completely
isotropic material
374
(CONTINUED)
" Similarly,
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 12 0 0 0
σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 12 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S 12 S 12 S 11 0 0 0 σ 33 α 11
= + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 1
2
S 11 − S 12 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 1 S 11 − S 12 0 σ 13 0
2
2εε12 1
σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
S 11 − S 12
β 11 = − C 11 + 2C 12 α 11
" Now consider a general transformation of the stiffness matrix

previously obtained for a material with two perpendicular planes of
isotropy
375
(CONTINUED)
−1
" The general transformation law is given by C′′ = Tσ C Tε , where
2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tσ = a a a a a a a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1
and
2′′1 3′′1 2′′2 3′′2 2′′3 3′′3
2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 a 1′′2a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 a 2′′2a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′2
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 a 3′′2a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′2
Tε = 2a 2′′1a 3′′1 2a 2′′2a 3′′2 2a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1
376
(CONTINUED)
" In addition, the direction cosines that appear in the transformation

matrices satisfy the following conditions, that are given in expanded,
tabular form:
k p a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp k p a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 a 1′′1 + a 1′′2 + a 1′′3 =1 1 1 a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 =1
2 1 a 2′′1a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 1′′3 = 0 2 1 a 1′′2a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 3′′1 = 0
3 1 a 3′′1a 1′′1 + a 3′′2a 1′′2 + a 3′′3a 1′′3 = 0 3 1 a 1′′3a 1′′1 + a 2′′3a 2′′1 + a 3′′3a 3′′1 = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 a 2′′1 + a 2′′2 + a 2′′3 =1 2 2 a 1′′2 + a 2′′2 + a 3′′2 =1
3 2 a 3′′1a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 2′′3 = 0 3 2 a 1′′3a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 3′′2 = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 a 3′′1 + a 3′′2 + a 3′′3 =1 3 3 a 1′′3 + a 2′′3 + a 3′′3 =1
377
(CONTINUED)
" For the general transformation to be a symmetry transformation,

−1 −1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε becomes C = Tσ C Tε
" It is convenient to rewrite this expression as C Tε − Tσ C = 0 ,

where C 44 = 12 C 11 − C 12 ,
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0 a 1′′1
2
a 1′′2
2
a 1′′3
2
a 1′′2a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′3 a 1′′1a 1′′2
C 12 C 11 C 12 0 0 0 a 2′′1
2
a 2′′2
2
a 2′′3
2
a 2′′2a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′3 a 2′′1a 2′′2
C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0 a 3′′1
2
a 3′′2
2
a 3′′3
2
a 3′′2a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′3 a 3′′1a 3′′2
C Tε = 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2a 2′′1a 3′′1 2a 2′′2a 3′′2 2a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1 and
0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2a 1′′1a 3′′1 2a 1′′2a 3′′2 2a 1′′3a 3′′3 a 1′′2a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′2 a 1′′1a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′1 a 1′′1a 3′′2 + a 1′′2a 3′′1
0 0 0 0 0 C 44
2 2 2
a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2
2 2 2
C 11 C 12 C 12 0 0 0
a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2 C 12 C 11 C 12 0 0 0
2 2 2
a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2 C 12 C 12 C 11 0 0 0
Tσ C = a 2′′1a 3′′1 a 2′′2a 3′′2 a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1 0 0 0 C 44 0 0
a 1′′1a 3′′1 a 1′′2a 3′′2 a 1′′3a 3′′3 a 1′′2a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′2 a 1′′1a 3′′3 + a 1′′3a 3′′1 a 1′′1a 3′′2 + a 1′′2a 3′′1 0 0 0 0 C 44 0
a 1′′1a 2′′1 a 1′′2a 2′′2 a 1′′3a 2′′3 a 1′′2a 2′′3 + a 1′′3a 2′′2 a 1′′1a 2′′3 + a 1′′3a 2′′1 a 1′′1a 2′′2 + a 1′′2a 2′′1 0 0 0 0 0 C 44
378
(CONTINUED)
" Performing the calculations for each element of the matrix equation
C Tε − Tσ C = 0 gives
2 2 2 2
11: C 12 a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 − a 1′′2 − a 1′′3 =0
2 2 2 2
12: C 12 a 2′′2 + a 3′′2 − a 1′′2 − a 1′′3 =0
2 2 2 2
13: C 12 a 2′′3 + a 3′′3 − a 1′′1 − a 1′′2 =0
14: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 3′′2 = 0
15: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′1 + a 2′′3a 2′′1 + a 3′′3a 3′′1 = 0
16: C 12 a 1′′2a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 3′′1 = 0
2 2 2 2
21: C 12 a 1′′1 + a 3′′1 − a 2′′2 − a 2′′3 =0
379
(CONTINUED)
2 2 2 2
22: C 12 a 1′′2 + a 3′′2 − a 2′′1 − a 2′′3 =0
2 2 2 2
23: C 12 a 1′′3 + a 3′′3 − a 2′′1 − a 2′′2 =0
24: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 3′′2 = 0
25: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′1 + a 2′′3a 2′′1 + a 3′′3a 3′′1 = 0
26: C 12 a 1′′2a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 3′′1 = 0
2 2 2 2
31: C 12 a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 − a 3′′2 − a 3′′3 =0
2 2 2 2
32: C 12 a 1′′2 + a 2′′2 − a 3′′1 − a 3′′3 =0
2 2 2 2
33: C 12 a 1′′3 + a 2′′3 − a 3′′1 − a 3′′2 =0
380
(CONTINUED)
34: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 3′′2 = 0
35: C 12 a 1′′3a 1′′1 + a 2′′3a 2′′1 + a 3′′3a 3′′1 = 0
36: C 12 a 1′′2a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 3′′1 = 0
41: C 12 a 3′′1a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 2′′3 = 0
42: C 12 a 3′′1a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 2′′3 = 0
43: C 12 a 3′′1a 2′′1 + a 3′′2a 2′′2 + a 3′′3a 2′′3 = 0
51: C 12 a 3′′1a 1′′1 + a 3′′2a 1′′2 + a 3′′3a 1′′3 = 0
52: C 12 a 3′′1a 1′′1 + a 3′′2a 1′′2 + a 3′′3a 1′′3 = 0
53: C 12 a 3′′1a 1′′1 + a 3′′2a 1′′2 + a 3′′3a 1′′3 = 0
381
(CONTINUED)
61: C 12 a 2′′1a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 1′′3 = 0
62: C 12 a 2′′1a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 1′′3 = 0
63: C 12 a 2′′1a 1′′1 + a 2′′2a 1′′2 + a 2′′3a 1′′3 = 0
" The elements of the matrix equation C Tε − Tσ C = 0 that are not

listed above are satisfied identically
2 2 2 2
" Now, consider 11: C 12 a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 − a 1′′2 − a 1′′3 =0
2 2 2
" The condition a 1′′1 + a 1′′2 + a 1′′3 = 1 given in the previous table
2 2 2
yields a 1′′2 + a 1′′3 = 1 − a 1′′1 ; hence,
2 2 2
11: C 12 a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 −1 =0
382
(CONTINUED)
2 2 2
" Next, using the condition a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 = 1 , given in the
2 2 2
previous table, shows that 11: C 12 a 1′′1 + a 2′′1 + a 3′′1 − 1 = 0 is
identically satisfied
" By following a similar procedure or by using direct substitution of the

conditions a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp and a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp given in the previous table, it can
be shown that the invariance condition C Tε − Tσ C = 0 is
identically satisfied
" Therefore, two orthogonal planes of isotropy imply that every plane is a
plane of isotropy because a symmetry transformation for any plane can
be obtained from the general transformation
" An isotropic material has two independent stiffnesses and is the

simplest known material, with no dependence on direction
383
(CONTINUED)
" Now consider a general transformation of the thermal moduli

previously obtained for a material with two perpendicular plane of
isotropy
" The transformation law is given by β′ = Tσ β
" For the general transformation to be a symmetry transformation,

β′ = Tσ β becomes β − Tσ β = 0
" The expanded form is given by

2 2 2
β 11 a 1′′1 a 1′′2 a 1′′3 2a 1′′2a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′3 2a 1′′1a 1′′2 β 11
2 2 2
β 11 a 2′′1 a 2′′2 a 2′′3 2a 2′′2a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′3 2a 2′′1a 2′′2 β 11
2 2 2
β 11 a 3′′1 a 3′′2 a 3′′3 2a 3′′2a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′3 2a 3′′1a 3′′2 β 11
− =0
0 a 2′′1a 3′′1 a 2′′2a 3′′2 a 2′′3a 3′′3 a 2′′2a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′2 a 2′′1a 3′′3 + a 2′′3a 3′′1 a 2′′1a 3′′2 + a 2′′2a 3′′1 0
384
(CONTINUED)
" By using direct substitution of the conditions a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp and

a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp given in the previous table, it can be shown that the
invariance condition β − Tσ β = 0 is identically satisfied
" Therefore, an isotropic material has one independent thermal

moduli
" For general transformations of the compliance matrix and the

thermal-expansion coefficents previously obtained for a material
with two perpendicular plane of isotropy, the transformation laws are
−1
given by S′′ = Tε S Tσ and α′ = Tε α , respectively
" For the general transformations to be symmetry transformations,

−1
S′′ = Tε S Tσ becomes Tε S − S Tσ = 0 and
α′ = Tε α becomes α − Tε α = 0
385
(CONCLUDED)
" By performing the calculations for each element of the matrix equation
Tε S − S Tσ = 0 , and using the conditions a k′′qa p′′q = δ kp and
a q′′ka q′′p = δ kp given in the previous table, it can be shown that the
invariance condition is satisfied identically
" Similarly, the invariance condition α − Tε α = 0 is also satisfied

identically
" Therefore, an isotropic material has two independent compliances

and one coefficient of thermal expansion
386
SUMMARY OF INDEPENDENT MATERIAL CONSTANTS
" The eight distinct classes of elastic-material symmetry are classified

by the number of independent material constants as follows:
" Triclinic materials - 21 elastic, 6 thermal
" Monoclinic materials - 13 elastic, 4 thermal
" Orthotropic materials - 9 elastic, 3 thermal
" Trigonal materials - 6 elastic, 2 thermal
" Tetragonal materials - 6 elastic, 2 thermal
" Transversely isotropic materials - 5 elastic, 2 thermal
" Cubic materials - 3 elastic, 1 thermal
" Completely isotropic materials - 2 elastic, 1 thermal
387
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS
FOR ELASTIC MATERIALS
388
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS IN TERMS OF
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS
" The compliances of a homogeneous, elastic, anisotropic solid are
usually expressed in terms of engineering constants when practical
applications are under consideration
" These constants are determined from experiments
" 21 independent elastic constants imply 21 separate experiments
" To determine expressions for the compliances in terms of engineering

constants, it is useful to examine the meaning of each term in the
general, unsymmetric compliance matrix given below
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 2α
α 23
2εε13 σ 13 2α
α 13
S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56
2εε12 σ 12 2α
α 12
S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66
389
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS - CONTINUED
" It is important to remember, that stresses cannot be measured in a

laboratory experiment; only strains
" The terms S11, S22, and S33 relate the normal strain to the corresponding
normal stress
" The engineering constants used to represent these relationships

are called elastic moduli or moduli of elasticity
" In particular, the symbol Ej is used herein to denote the elastic

modulus in the xj - coordinate direction
normal stress σjj

" In general, E j ≡ normal strain ε caused by σ
jj jj
390
" The terms S44, S55, and S66 relate the shearing strain in each coordinate
plane to the corresponding shearing stress

are called shear moduli or moduli of rigidity
" In particular, the symbol Gij is used herein to denote the shear
modulus in the xi - xj coordinate plane
shearing stress σ ij
" In general, G ij ≡
shearing strain 2εεij caused by σ ij
391
" The terms S12, S21, S13, S31, S23, and S32 relate the lateral contraction or
expansion to the expansion or contraction of the solid, in the direction
of a given normal stress

are called Poisson’s ratios
" In particular, the symbol νij is used herein to denote the lateral
contraction or expansion in the xj - coordinate direction caused by
a normal stress applied in the xi - coordinate direction
normal strain ε jj caused by normal stress σ ii

" In general, ν ij ≡ − normal strain ε ii caused by σ ii
392
" The terms S14, S15, S16, S24, S25, S26, S34, S35, and S36 relate normal strains
to shearing stresses

are generalizations of Poisson’s ratios and are called coefficients
of interaction (or mutual influence) of the first kind, and are
attributed to A. L. Rabinovich
" In particular, the symbol ηk,ij is used herein to relate the

contraction or expansion in the xk - coordinate direction induced by
a shearing stress applied in the xi - xj coordinate plane
normal strain ε kk caused by shearing stress σ ij

" That is, η k, ij ≡
shearing strain 2εεij caused by shearing stress σ ij
393
" The terms S41, S42, S43, S51, S52, S53, S61, S62, and S63 relate shearing
strains to normal stresses

are also generalizations of Poisson’s ratios and are called
coefficients of interaction (or mutual influence) of the
second kind, and are also attributed to A. L. Rabinovich (circa
1946)
" In particular, the symbol ηij,k is used herein to relate the shearing
strain in the xi - xj coordinate plane induced by the action of a
normal stress applied in the xk - coordinate direction
shearing strain 2εεij caused by normal stress σ kk

" That is, η ij, k = normal strain ε kk caused by σ kk
394
" The terms S45, S46, S54, S56, S64, and S65 relate shearing strains to
noncorresponding shearing stresses

are called Chentsov’s coefficients, and are attributed to N. G.
Chentsov
" In particular, the symbol µij,kl is used herein to relate the shearing
strain in the xi - xj coordinate plane induced by a shearing stress
applied in the xk - xl coordinate plane
shearing 2εεij caused by shearing stress σ kl

" That is, µ ij, kl ≡
shearing strain 2εεkl caused by shearing stress σ kl
" Note that µ ij, kl = µ ji, kl = µ ji, lk = µ ij, lk because of symmetry of 2εεij and σkl
395
" Now, consider a parallelopiped of homogeneous
material that is subjected to only a constant value of σ 11
σ11 and no thermal loading, like a stress state that
might be exist in an experiment like a tensile test
" For this case, σ 11
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 σ 11
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 0
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 0
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 0
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 0
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 0
" This equation indicates that, in general, the parallelopiped will

extend in the x1 - coordinate direction, expand or contract in the x2 -
and x3 - coordinate directions, and shear in each face for this very
simple state of uniaxial stress
396
σ
From the definition of the elastic moduli, it follows that E 1 = ε 11
11
"
" Noting that the previous matrix equation gives ε 11 = S 11σ 11 for this
simple state of stress, it also follows that S 11 = E1

1
" Next, from the definition for the Poisson’s ratios, it follows that
ε ε 33
ν 12 = − ε 22 and ν 13 = − ε 11 for this simple state of stress
11
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives ε 22 = S 21σ 11 and
ε 33 = S 31σ 11 for this simple state of stress, and using ε 11 = S 11σ 11 , it
S 21 S 31
also follows that ν 12 = − and ν 13 = −
S 11 S 11
397
ν ν
Using S 11 = E1
12 13
" gives the results S 21 = − E and S 31 = − E
1 1 1
" Next, from the definition for the coefficients of interaction of the second
2εε 2εε 2εε
kind, it follows that η 23, 1 = ε 1123 , η 13, 1 = ε 1113 , and η 12, 1 = ε 1112 for this
simple state of stress
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives 2εε23 = S 41σ 11 ,
2εε13 = S 51σ 11 , and 2εε12 = S 61σ 11 for this simple state of stress, and
using ε 11 = S 11σ 11 , it also follows that
S 41 S 51 S 61
η 23, 1 = , η 13, 1 = , and η 12, 1 =
S 11 S 11 S 11
398
" Using S 11 = E1 gives the results

1
η 23, 1 η 13, 1 η 12, 1

S 41 = , S 51 = , and S 61 =
E1 E1 E1

material that is subjected to only a constant value of
σ22 and no thermal loading σ 22 σ 22
" For this case,
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 0
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 0
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 0
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 0
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 0
399

22 σ
" From the definition of the elastic moduli, it follows that E 2 = ε 22

2
ε ε 33
22
400
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives ε 11 = S 12σ 22 and
ε 33 = S 32σ 22 for this simple state of stress, and using ε 22 = S 22σ 22 , it
S 12 S 32
also follows that ν 21 = − and ν 23 = −
S 22 S 22
ν 21 ν 23
" Using S 22 = E1 gives the results S 12 = − E2
and S 32 = − E2
2
2εε 2εε 2εε
401
S 42 S 52 S 62
η 23, 2 = , η 13, 2 = , and η 12, 2 =
S 22 S 22 S 22

2
η 23, 2 η 13, 2 η 12, 2

S 42 = , S 52 = , and S 62 =
E2 E2 E2
402
" Now, consider a parallelopiped of homogeneous material σ 33
that is subjected to only a constant value of σ33 and no
thermal loading
" For this case,

σ 33
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 0
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 0
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 0
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 0
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 0

403
33 σ
" From the definition of the elastic moduli, it follows that E 3 = ε 33

3
ε ε 22
33
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives ε 11 = S 13σ 33
and ε 22 = S 23σ 33 for this simple state of stress, and using
S 13 S
ε 33 = S 33σ 33 , it also follows that ν 31 = − and ν 32 = − S
23
S 33 33
404
ν 31 ν 32
" Using S 33 = E1 gives the results S 13 = − E3
and S 23 = − E3
3
232εε 13 2εε 12 2εε
S 43 S 53 S 63
η 23, 3 = η = η =
S 33 , S 33 , and
13, 3 12, 3
S 33
405

3
η 23, 3 η 13, 3 η 12, 3

S 43 = , S 53 = , and S 63 =
E3 E3 E3

material that is subjected to only a constant value of σ 23
σ23 and no thermal loading
" For this case,
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 0
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 0
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 0
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 σ 23
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 0
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 0
406
" This equation also indicates that, in general, the parallelopiped will
expand or contract along all three coordinate directions, and shear
in each face for this very simple state of pure shearing stress
23 σ
" From the definition of the shear moduli, it follows that G 23 = 2εε
23
" Noting that the previous matrix equation gives 2εε23 = S 44σ 23 for this
simple state of stress, it also follows that S 44 = G1

23
" Next, from the definition for the coefficients of interaction of the first
ε11 ε 22 ε
33
kind, it follows that η 1, 23 = 2εε , η 2, 23 = 2εε , and η 3, 23 = 2εε for this
23 23 23
407
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives ε 11 = S 14σ 23 ,
ε 22 = S 24σ 23 , and ε 33 = S 34σ 23 f or this simple state of stress, and
using 2εε23 = S 44σ 23 , it also follows that
S 14 S S
η 1, 23 = , η 2, 23 = 24 , and η 3, 23 = 34
S 44 S 44 S 44
" Using S 44 = G1 gives the results

23
η 1, 23 η 2, 23 η 3, 23
S 14 = , S 24 = , and S 34 =
G 23 G 23 G 23
408
" Next, from the definition for the Chentsov’s coefficients, it follows that
2εε13 12 2εε
µ 13, 23 = and µ 12, 23 = 2εε for this simple state of stress
2εε23 23
" Noting that the previous matrix equation also gives 2εε13 = S 54σ 23
and 2εε12 = S 64σ 23 for this simple state of stress, and using
S 54 S 64
2εε23 = S 44σ 23 , it also follows that µ 13, 23 = µ =
and 12, 23 S
S 44 44

23
µ 13, 23 µ 12, 23
S 54 = and S 64 =
G 23 G 23
409
" Now, consider a parallelopiped of homogeneous σ 13

" For this case,
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 0
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 0
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 0
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 0
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 σ 13
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 0
410
13 σ
13

13
ε11 ε 22 ε
33
13 13 13
411
ε 22 = S 25σ 13 , and ε 33 = S 35σ 13 for this simple state of stress, and
using ε 13 = S 55σ 13
2ε , it also follows that
S 15 S S
η 1, 13 = , η 2, 13 = 25 , and η 3, 13 = 35
S 55 S 55 S 55

13
η 1, 13 η 2, 13 η 3, 13
S 15 = , S 25 = , and S 35 =
G 13 G 13 G 13
412
2εε23 12 2εε
2εε13 13
S 45 S 65
ε 13 = S 55σ 13
2ε , it also follows that µ 23, 13 = µ =
and 12, 13 S
S 55 55

13
µ 23, 13 µ 12, 13
S 45 = and S 65 =
G 13 G 13
413
" Finally, consider a parallelopiped of homogeneous

" For this case,
σ 12
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 0
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 0
ε 33 S 31 S 32 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 0
=
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 0
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 0
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 σ 12
414
12 σ
12

12
ε11 ε 22 ε
33
12 12 12
415
ε 22 = S 26σ 12 , and ε 33 = S 36σ 12 for this simple state of stress, and
using ε 12 = S 66σ 12
2ε , it also follows that
S 16 S 26 S 36
η 1, 12 = η = η =
S 66 , S 66 , and
2, 12 3, 12
S 66

12
η 1, 12 η 2, 12 η 3, 12
S 16 = , S 26 = , and S 36 =
G 12 G 12 G 12
416
2εε23 13 2εε
2εε12 12
S 46 S 56
ε 12 = S 66σ 12
2ε , it also follows that µ 23, 12 = µ =
and 13, 12 S
S 66 66

12
µ 23, 12 µ 13, 12
S 46 = and S 56 =
G 12 G 12
417
" Using all of the derived expressions for Sij, the constitutive equation
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S S S S S S σ 33 α 33
= 31 32 33 34 35 36 + T − Tref becomes
2εε23 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 σ 23 2α
α 23
2εε13 S 51 S 52 S 53 S 54 S 55 S 56 σ 13 2α
α 13
2εε12 S 61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 σ 12 2α
α 12
1 − ν 21 − ν 31 η 1, 23 η 1, 13 η 1,12
E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12
ν 1 − ν 32 η 2, 23 η 2, 13 η 2,12
− 12
ε 11 E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 ν ν 1 η 3, 23 η 3, 13 η 3,12 σ 22 α 22
− 13 − 23
ε 33 E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12 σ 33 α 33
=
η 23, 1 η 23, 2 η 23, 3 µ 23, 13 µ 23, 12 σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 1 2α
α 23
2εε13 E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12 σ 13 2α
α 13
2εε12 η 13, 1 η 13, 2 η 13, 3 µ 13, 23 1 µ 13, 12 σ 12 2α
α 12
E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12
η 12, 1 η 12, 2 η 12, 3 µ 12, 23 µ 12, 13 1
E1 E2 E3 G 23 G 13 G 12
418
" Relationships between the engineering constants are obtained by
enforcing symmetry of the matrix [S]; that is:
ν 21 ν 12 ν 31 ν 13 η 1, 23 η 23, 1
S 12 = S 21 → =
E2 E1
S 13 = S 31 → =
E3 E1
S 14 = S 41 → G 23
=
E1
η 1, 13 η 13, 1 η 1, 12 η 12, 1 ν 32 ν 23
S 15 = S 51 → G 13
=
E1
S 16 = S 61 → G 12
=
E1
S 23 = S 32 → =
E3 E2
η 2, 23 η 23, 2 η 2, 13 η 13, 2 η 2, 12 η 12, 2

S 24 = S 42 → G 23
=
E2
S 25 = S 52 → G 13
=
E2
S 26 = S 62 → G 12
=
E2
η 3, 23 η 23, 3 η 3, 13 η 13, 3 η 3, 12 η 12, 3

S 34 = S 43 → G 23
=
E3
S 35 = S 53 → G 13
=
E3
S 36 = S 63 → G 12
=
E3
µ 23, 13 µ 13, 23 µ 23, 12 µ 12, 23 µ 13, 12 µ 12, 13

S 45 = S 54 → = S 46 = S 64 → = S 56 = S 65 → =
G 13 G 23 G 12 G 23 G 12 G 13
419
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS - CONCLUDED
" Using the previous symmetry conditions, the constitutive equations are
expressed as
ε 11 = 1 σ 11 − ν 12σ 22 − ν 13σ 33 + η 23, 1σ 23 + η 13, 1σ 13 + η 12, 1σ 12 + α 11 T − Tref

E1
ε 22 = 1 − ν 21σ 11 + σ 22 − ν 23σ 33 + η 23, 2σ 23 + η 13, 2σ 13 + η 12, 2σ 12 + α 22 T − Tref

E2
ε 33 = 1 − ν 31σ 11 − ν 32σ 22 + σ 33 + η 23, 3σ 23 + η 13, 3σ 13 + η 12, 3σ 12 + α 33 T − Tref

E3
2ε 23 = 1 η 1, 23σ 11 + η 2, 23σ 22 + η 3, 23σ 33 + σ 23 + µ 13, 23σ 13 + µ 12, 23σ 12 + 2α 23 T − Tref

G 23
2ε 13 = 1 η 1, 13σ 11 + η 2, 13σ 22 + η 3, 13σ 33 + µ 23, 13σ 23 + σ 13 + µ 12, 13σ 12 + 2α 13 T − Tref

G 13
2ε 12 = 1 η 1, 12σ 11 + η 2, 12σ 22 + η 3, 12σ 33 + µ 23, 12σ 23 + µ 13, 12σ 13 + σ 12 + 2α 12 T − Tref

G 12
420
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS OF A SPECIALLY
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL
" The engineering constants for an anisotropic material have been
presented previously herein, for an x 1,x 2,x 3 coordinate frame
" The subset of engineering constants for a specially orthotropic

S 12
E1 = 1 ν 12 = − G 23 = 1
S 11 S 11 S 44
S 13
E2 = 1 ν 13 = − G 13 = 1
S 22 S 11 S 55
E3 = 1 ν 23 = −
S 23 G 12 = 1
S 33 S 22 S 66
421
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL - CONTINUED
" Substituting these expressions into
S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0
ε 11
ε 22
S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
2εε23
=
0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 + 0 T − Tref gives
2εε13 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 66
1 ν 21 ν 31
− − 0 0 0
E1 E2 E3
ν 1 ν
− 12 − 32 0 0 0
ε 11 E1 E2 E3 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 ν ν 1 σ 22 α 22
− 13 − 23 0 0 0
ε 33 E1 E2 E3 σ 33 α 33
=
1 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 G 23 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 1 0 σ 12 0
G 13
0 0 0 0 0 1
G 12
422
" Inverting these matrix equations yields
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref where
0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 C 66
E1 E1 E
C 11 = 1 − ν 23 ν 32 C 12 = ν 21 + ν 23 ν 31 = 2 ν 12 + ν 13 ν 32
Δ Δ Δ
E1 E E2
C 13 = ν 31 + ν 21 ν 32 = 3 ν 13 + ν 12 ν 23 C 22 = 1 − ν 13 ν 31
Δ Δ Δ
E2 E E3
C 23 = ν 32 + ν 12 ν 31 = 3 ν 23 + ν 13 ν 21 C 33 = 1 − ν 12 ν 21
Δ Δ Δ
C 44 = G 23 C 55 = G 13 C 66 = G 12
Δ = 1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
423
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL - CONCLUDED
" And, where the thermal moduli are given by
α 11 1 − ν 23 ν 32 + α 22 ν 21 + ν 23 ν 31 + α 33 ν 31 + ν 21 ν 32
β 11 = − E 1
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
α 11 ν 12 + ν 13 ν 32 + α 22 1 – ν 13 ν 31 + α 33 ν 32 + ν 12 ν 31
β 22 = − E 2
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
α 11 ν 13 + ν 12 ν 23 + α 22 ν 23 + ν 13 ν 21 + α 33 1 − ν 12 ν 21
β 33 = − E 3
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
424
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS OF A TRANSVERSELY
ISOTROPIC MATERIAL
" Consider the constitutive equations for a specially orthotropic material
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
=
σ 23
+
0
T − Tref and
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 S 66
1 ν 21 ν 31
− − 0 0 0
E1 E2 E3
ν 1 ν
− 12 − 32 0 0 0
ε 11 E1 E2 E3 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 ν ν 1 σ 22 α 22
− 13 − 23 0 0 0
ε 33 E1 E2 E3 σ 33 α 33
=
1 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 G 23 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 1 0 σ 12 0
G 13
0 0 0 0 0 1
G 12
425
ISOTROPIC MATERIAL - CONTINUED
" For a transversely isotropic material with the plane of isotropy given by
x3 = 0, the constitutitve equations have the following forms
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C 13 C 13 C 33 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= + T − Tref and
σ 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 C 44 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 1 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 2
C 11 − C 12
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 S 12 S 11 S 13 0 0 0 σ 22 α 11
ε 33 S S S 0 0 0 σ 33 α 33
= 13 13 33 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 σ 23 0
2εε13 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 0 0 0 0 0 2 S 11 − S 12 σ 12 0
426
" Using the conditions on the compliance coefficients required for a
transversely isotropic material, the matrix equation for specially
orthotropic materials, given in terms of engineering constants, can be
expressed as
1 − ν − ν 31 0 0 0
E E E′′
− ν 1 − ν 31 0 0 0
ε 11 E E E′′ σ 11 α
ε 22 ν ν 1 σ 22 α
− 13 − 13 0 0 0
ε 33 E E E′′ σ 33 α′
=
1 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 0 0 σ 23 0
G′′ σ 13 0
2εε13
0 0 0 0 1 0 σ 12 0
2εε12 G′′
0 0 0 0 0 1
G
E
where E 1 = E 2 ≡ E , ν 12 = ν 21 ≡ ν , G 12 ≡ G = , α 11 = α 22 ≡ α ,
2 1+ν
E 3 ≡ E′′ , G 13 = G 23 ≡ G′′ , and α 33 ≡ α′
427
" In this matrix equation; E, ν, G, and α are the Young’s modulus, the
Poisson’s ratio, the shear modulus, and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the material in the plane of isotropy
" Note that ν 12 = ν 21 ≡ ν characterizes contractions in the plane of

isotropy that result from only tensile stresses applied in that plane
" E′′, G′′, and α′ are the Young’s modulus, the shear modulus, and the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the material in the plane
perpendicular to the plane of isotropy
" For only a tensile stress σ 33 applied perpendicular to the plane of

ε ε
isotropy, the contractions are characterized by ε 11 = ε 22 = − ν 31 ≡ − ν′
33 33
E
" Symmetry of the compliance matrix yields ν 13 = ν 23 = ν′ E′′
428
" Finally, the constitutive equations for a transversely isotropic material,
with the plane of isotropy given by x3 = 0, are expressed by
1 − ν − ν′ 0 0 0
E E E′′
ε 11 − ν 1 − ν′ 0 0 0
E E E′′ σ 11 α
ε 22 1 σ 22
− ν′ − ν′ 0 0 0 α
ε 33 E′′ E′′ E′′ σ 33 α′
= 1 + T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 0 0 σ 23 0
G′′ σ 13 0
2εε13 1
0 0 0 0 0 σ 12 0
2εε12 G′′
0 0 0 0 0 1
G
" The five independent elastic constants are E, ν, E′′, ν′, and G′′
" The two independent thermal parameters are α and α′
429
ISOTROPIC MATERIAL - CONCLUDED
" The inverted form of the previous matrix constitutive equation is given
by
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 11 C 13 0 0 0 ε 22 β 11
σ 33 C C C 0 0 0 ε 33 β 33
= 13 13 33 + T − Tref where
σ 23 0 0 0 G′′ 0 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 0 G′′ 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 0
0 0 0 0 0 G
1 − E ν′ ν + E ν′
2 2
ν′E
C 11 = E E′′ C 12 = E E′′ C 13 =
1 − ν − 2 E ν′
2
1 + ν 1 − ν − 2 E ν′ 2 1 + ν 1 − ν − 2 E ν′ 2
E′′ E′′ E′′
E′′ 1 − ν α 1 + αα′ ν′
Eα α 2ν′ + E′′α′ 1 − ν
Eα
C 33 = β 11 = − β 33 = − Eα
α
1 − ν − 2 E ν′
2
1 − ν − 2 E ν′
2
1 − ν − 2 E ν′
2
E′′ E′′ E′′
430
ENGINEERING CONSTANTS OF A GENERALLY
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL
" Results presented herein indicate that, for an x 1,x 2,x 3 coordinate
frame, the engineering constants of an anisotropic material are given by
E1 = 1 S 12 G 23 = 1 S 14 S 15 S 16
ν 12 = − η 23, 1 = η 13, 1 = η 12, 1 =
S 11 S 11 S 44 S 11 S 11 S 11
E2 = 1
S 13
G 13 = 1 S 24 S 25 S 26
ν 13 = − η 23, 2 = η 13, 2 = η 12, 2 =
S 22 S 11 S 55 S 22 S 22 S 22
E3 = 1 S 23 G 12 = 1 S 34 S 35 S 36
ν 23 = − η 23, 3 = η 13, 3 = η 12, 3 =
S 33 S 22 S 66 S 33 S 33 S 33
431
and
S 14 S 24 S 34 S 45 S 46
η 1, 23 = η 2, 23 = η 3, 23 = µ 13, 23 = µ 12, 23 =
S 44 S 44 S 44 S 44 S 44
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 56
η 1, 13 = η 2, 13 = η 3, 13 = µ 23, 13 = µ 12, 13 =
S 55 S 55 S 55 S 55 S 55
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56
η 1, 12 = η 2, 12 = η 3, 12 = µ 23, 12 = µ 13, 12 =
S 66 S 66 S 66 S 66 S 66
432
" Using these expressions, the nonzero transformed elastic compliances

for a specially orthotropic material transformed by a dextral rotation
about the x3 - axis m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 become
1 4 2 2 E2 E1 4E ν 13 2 2ν E
S 1′′1′′ = m +mn ν 12 + n 1
− 2ν S 1′′3′′ = − m + n 23 1
E1 G 12 E 2 E2 E1 ν 13 E 2
1 4 2 2 E2 E 4E ν 23 2 2ν E
S 2′′2′′ = m +mn ν 12 2 + n 2
− 2ν S 2′′3′′ = − m + n 13 2
E2 G 12 E1 E1 E2 ν 23 E 1
ν 12 4 4 2 2 1 E E E1 1
S 1′′2′′ = − m +n −mn 1+ 1 − 2 S 3′′3′′ =
E1 ν 12 E 2 G 12 E 2 E3
E2 E1 2E
S 1′′6′′ = mn m − n
2 2 2
ν 12 + 2 n 1 − m
− 2ν
E1 G 12 E 2 E2
433
and
E2 E 2E
S 2′′6′′ = mn n − m
2 2 2
ν 12 2 + 2 m − n 2
− 2ν
E2 G 12 E1 E1
E E 2G
S 3′′6′′ = 2mn 3 ν 13 − ν 23 1 S 4′′4′′ = 1 m + n 23
2
E3 E1 E2 G 23 G 13
G 2G
S 4′′5′′ = mn 1 − 23 S 5′′5′′ = 1 m + n 13
2
G 23 G 13 G 13 G 23
2 2G E E1 2
S 6′′6′′ = 1 4m n 12 2
2 2
1 + 2ν
ν 12 + + m −n
G 12 E2 E1 E2
434
" The matrix form of the constitutive equations is given by
ε 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′3′′ 0 0 S 1′′6′′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′

ε 2′′2′′ S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′3′′ 0 0 S 2′′6′′ σ 2′′2′′ α 2′′2′′
ε 3′′3′′ S 1′′3′′ S 2′′3′′ S 3′′3′′ 0 0 S 3′′6′′ σ 3′′3′′ α 3′′3′′
= + T – Tref
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′4′′ S 4′′5′′ 0 σ 2′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ 0 σ 1′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 3′′6′′ 0 0 S 6′′6′′ σ 1′′2′′ 2α
α 1′′2′′
435
!

" Next, by inspection of the previously given engineering constants for an
anisotropic material, it follows that, for an x 1′′,x 2′′,x 3′′ coordinate frame,
the corresponding engineering constants are given by
S 1′′2′′ S 1′′4′′ S 1′′5′′ S 1′′6′′

E 1′′ = 1 ν 1′′2′′ = − G 2′′3′′ = 1 η 2′′3′′, 1′′ = η 1′′3′′, 1′′ = η 1′′2′′, 1′′ =
S 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 4′′4′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′
S 1′′3′′ S 2′′4′′ S 2′′5′′ S 2′′6′′

E 2′′ = 1 ν 1′′3′′ = − G 1′′3′′ = 1 η 2′′3′′, 2′′ = η 1′′3′′, 2′′ = η 1′′2′′, 2′′ =
S 2′′2′′ S 1′′1′′ S 5′′5′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′2′′
S 2′′3′′ S 3′′4′′ S 3′′5′′ S 3′′6′′

E 3′′ = 1 ν 2′′3′′ = − G 1′′2′′ = 1 η 2′′3′′, 3′′ = η 1′′3′′, 3′′ = η 1′′2′′, 3′′ =
S 3′′3′′ S 2′′2′′ S 6′′6′′ S 3′′3′′ S 3′′3′′ S 3′′3′′
436
and
S 1′′4′′ S 2′′4′′ S 3′′4′′ S 4′′5′′ S 4′′6′′

η 1′′, 2′′3′′ = η 2′′, 2′′3′′ = η 3′′, 2′′3′′ = µ 1′′3′′, 2′′3′′ = µ 1′′2′′, 2′′3′′ =
S 4′′4′′ S 4′′4′′ S 4′′4′′ S 4′′4′′ S 4′′4′′
S 1′′5′′ S 2′′5′′ S 3′′5′′ S 4′′5′′ S 5′′6′′

η 1′′, 1′′3′′ = η 2′′, 1′′3′′ = η 3′′, 1′′3′′ = µ 2′′3′′, 1′′3′′ = µ 1′′2′′, 1′′3′′ =
S 5′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ S 5′′5′′
S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 3′′6′′ S 4′′6′′ S 5′′6′′

η 1′′, 1′′2′′ = η 2′′, 1′′2′′ = η 3′′, 1′′2′′ = µ 2′′3′′, 1′′2′′ = µ 1′′3′′, 1′′2′′ =
S 6′′6′′ S 6′′6′′ S 6′′6′′ S 6′′6′′ S 6′′6′′
" It is important to note that because the transformed compliance matrix

has the same structure as a monoclinic material, the conditions
S 1′′4′′ = S 1′′5′′ = S 2′′4′′ = S 2′′5′′ = S 3′′4′′ = S 3′′5′′ = S 4′′6′′ = S 5′′6′′ = 0 are valid
437
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL- CONTINUED
ε 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′3′′ 0 0 S 1′′6′′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′

ε 2′′2′′ S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′3′′ 0 0 S 2′′6′′ σ 2′′2′′ α 2′′2′′
ε 3′′3′′ S S S 0 0 S 3′′6′′ σ 3′′3′′ α 3′′3′′
" Thus = 1′′3′′ 2′′3′′ 3′′3′′ + T − Tref becomes
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′4′′ S 4′′5′′ 0 σ 2′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′3′′ 0 0 0 S 4′′5′′ S 5′′5′′ 0 σ 1′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 3′′6′′ 0 0 S 6′′6′′ σ 1′′2′′ 2α
α 1′′2′′
1 ν 2′1′ ν 3′1′ η 1′,1′2′

− − 0 0
E 1′ E 2′ E 3′ G 1′2′
ν 1 ν η 2′,1′2′
− 1′2′ − 3′2′ 0 0
ε 1′′1′′ E 1′ E 2′ E 3′ G 1′2′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′
ε 2′′2′′ ν ν 1 η 3′,1′2′ σ 2′′2′′ α 2′′2′′
− 1′3′ − 2′3′ 0 0
ε 3′′3′′ E 1′ E 2′ E 3′ G 1′2′ σ 3′′3′′ α 3′′3′′
=
1 µ 2′3′, 1′3′ + T − Tref
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 0 σ 2′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′3′′ G 2′3′ G 1′3′ σ 1′′3′′ 0
2εε1′′2′′ µ 1′3′, 2′3′ 1 2α
0 0 0 0 σ 1′′2′′ α 1′′2′′
G 2′3′ G 1′3′
η 1′2′, 1′ η 1′2′, 2′ η 1′2′, 3′ 1
0 0
E 1′ E 2′ E 3′ G 1′2′
438
" By using the expressions on the previous few pages, the effective
elastic and shear moduli of a generally orthotropic material are
given by
−1
E 1′′ 4 2 2 E2 E1 4E
= m +mn ν 12 + n 1
− 2ν
E1 G 12 E 2 E2
−1
E 2′′ 4 2 2 E2 E 4E E 3′′
= m +mn ν 12 2 + n 2
− 2ν =1
E2 G 12 E1 E1 E3
−1 −1
G 2′′3′′ 2 2G G 1′′3′′ 2 2G
= m + n 23 = m + n 13
G 23 G 13 G 13 G 23
−1
G 1′′2′′ 2 2G E E 2 2 2
= 4m n 12 2 ν 12 + 1 + m − n
1 + 2ν
G 12 E2 E1 E2
439
" Similarly, the effective Poisson’s ratios of a generally orthotropic
4 4 1 E
2 2 E E1
m +n −mn 1+ 1 − 2
ν 1′′2′′ ν 12 E 2 G 12 E 2
=
ν 12 4 2 2 E2 E1 4E
m +mn ν 12 + n 1
− 2ν
G 12 E 2 E2
2 2ν 23 E 1
m +n
ν 1′′3′′ ν 13 E 2
=
ν 13 4 2 2 E2 E1 4E
m +mn − 2νν 12 + n 1
G 12 E2 E2
ν 13 E 2
2 2
m +n
ν 2′′3′′ ν 23 E 1
=
ν 23 4 2 2 E2 E 4E
m +mn − 2ν ν 12 2 + n 2
G 12 E1 E1
440
" Similarly, the nonzero effective coefficients of mutual influence
of the first kind for a generally orthotropic material are given by
2 2 E2 E1 2E 2
m −n − 2νν 12 + 2 n 1 − m
G 12 E 2 G 12 E 2 E2
η 1′′, 1′′2′′ = mn
E2 E1 2 2 G 12 E2 E 2 2 2
4m n ν 12 + 1 + m − n
1 + 2ν
E2 E1 E2
2 2 E2 E 2 2E
n −m ν 12 2 + 2 m − n 2
− 2ν
G 12 G 12 E1 E1
η 2′′, 1′′2′′ = mn
E2 G
2 2 E2 E 2 2 2
4m n 12 ν 12 + 1 + m − n
1 + 2ν
E2 E1 E2
E1
2 ν 13 − ν 23
G 12 E 2 E3 E2
η 3′′, 1′′2′′ = 2mn
E2 E1 E1 2 2 G 12 E 2 E 2 2 2
4m n ν 12 + 1 + m − n
1 + 2ν
E2 E1 E2
441
" The nonzero effective coefficients of mutual influence of the
second kind for a generally orthotropic material are given by
2 E2 E1
2 2E 2
m −n − 2νν 12 + 2 n 1 − m
G 12 E 2 E2
η 1′′2′′, 1′′ = mn
4 2 2 E2 E1 4E
m +mn − 2νν 12 + n 1
G 12 E 2 E2
2 E2
2 E 2 2E
n −m ν 12 2 + 2 m − n 2
− 2ν
G 12 E1 E1
η 1′′2′′, 2′′ = mn
4 2 2 E2 E 4E
m +mn − 2νν 12 2 + n 2
G 12 E1 E1
E3 E
η 1′′2′′, 3′′ = 2mn ν 13 − ν 23 1
E1 E2
442
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL - CONCLUDED
" The nonzero effective Chentsov coefficients for a generally

orthotropic material are given by
G 23 G 23
1− 1−
G 13 G 13 G 13
µ 1′′3′′, 2′′3′′ = mn µ 2′′3′′, 1′′3′′ = mn
2 2G G 23 2 2G
m + n 23 m + n 13
G 13 G 23
443
REDUCED CONSTITUTIVE
EQUATIONS
444
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRESS
" When, analyzing solids that are relatively flat and thin, simplifying
assumptions are made about the stress state to facilitate analytical
solution of practical problems
" One such assumption is that

x3
the stresses in a thin, flat body,
that are normal to the plane of
flatness, are negligible
compared to the other
x2
stresses
" This simplification is

x1
commonly referred to as the
plane-stress assumption
" For a state of plane stress in a homogeneous, anisotropic solid, with

respect to the x1 - x2 plane, the stress field is approximated such that
σ 33 = σ 23 = σ 13 = 0
445
CONTINUED
" For this special case, the general matrix constitutive equation
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2ε 23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 2α 23
2ε 13 σ 13 2α 13
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56
2ε 12 σ 12 2α 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66
uncouples directly into
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref and
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
2ε 23 = S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22 + 2α 23 T − Tref
2ε 13 S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12 2α 13
446
CONTINUED
" In terms of the engineering constants, the plane-stress constitutive

equations for a homogeneous, anisotropic material are given by
1 ν η 1,12
− 21
ε 11 E1 E2 G 12 α 11
σ 11
ν 1 η 2,12
ε 22 = − 12 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
E1 E2 G 12
2ε 12 σ 12 2α 12
η 12,1 η 12,2 1
E1 E2 G 12
ν 13 ν η 3,12
− − 23
ε 33 E1 E2 G 12 α 33
σ 11
η 23, 1 η 23, 2 µ 23, 12
2ε 23 = σ 22 + 2α 23 T − Tref
E1 E2 G 12
2ε 13 σ 12 2α 13
η 13, 1 η 13, 2 µ 13, 12
E1 E2 G 12
447
CONTINUED
" However, simplification of the following general constitutive equation is

not as easy
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2ε 23 β 23
σ 13 2ε 13 β 13
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2ε 12 β 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
" First, the equation given above is expressed as
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22 α 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33 α 33
σ 23
= − T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2ε 23 2α 23
σ 13 2ε 13 2α 13
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2ε 12 2α 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
448
CONTINUED
" Then, using σ 33 = σ 23 = σ 13 = 0 gives
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22 α 22
0 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33 α 33
= − T − Tref
0 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2ε 23 2α 23
0 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 2ε 13 2α 13
σ 12 2ε 12 2α 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
" Rearranging the rows and columns into a convenient form gives
σ 11
C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23 C 24 C 25 ε 22 α 22
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 C 46 C 56 2ε 12 2α 12
= − T − Tref
0 C 13 C 23 C 36 C 33 C 34 C 35 ε 33 α 33
0 C 14 C 24 C 46 C 34 C 44 C 45 2ε 23 2α 23
0 2ε 13 2α 13
C 15 C 25 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55
449
CONTINUED
" For convenience, let the mechanical strains be denoted by

σ
ε 11 ε 11 α 11
σ
ε 22 ε 22 α 22
σ
2ε 12 2ε 12 2α 12
σ = − T − Tref
ε 33 ε 33 α 33
σ
2ε 23 2ε 23 2α 23
σ
2ε 13 2ε 13 2α 13
" The previous matrix constitutive equation becomes
σ 11
C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 σ
ε 11
σ
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23 C 24 C 25 ε 22
σ
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 C 46 C 56 2ε 12
= σ
0 C 13 C 23 C 36 C 33 C 34 C 35 ε 33
0 C 14 C 24 C 46 C 34 C 44 C 45
σ
2ε 23
0 σ
C 15 C 25 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 2ε 13
450
CONTINUED
" Next, the matrix constitutive equation
σ 11
C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 σ
ε 11
σ
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23 C 24 C 25 ε 22
σ
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 C 46 C 56 2ε 12
= σ is separated to get
0 C 13 C 23 C 36 C 33 C 34 C 35 ε 33
0 C 14 C 24 C 46 C 34 C 44 C 45
σ
2ε 23
0 σ
C 15 C 25 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 2ε 13
σ σ
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 ε 33
σ σ
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 ε 22 + C 23 C 24 C 25 2ε 23 and
σ σ
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 2ε 13
σ σ
0 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11 C 33 C 34 C 35 ε 33
σ σ
0 = C 14 C 24 C 46 ε 22 + C 34 C 44 C 45 2ε 23
0 C 15 C 25 C 56
σ
2ε 12 C 35 C 45 C 55
σ
2ε 13
451
CONTINUED
σ σ σ
" Solving the previous homogeneous equation for ε 33, 2ε 23, and 2ε 13 gives
−1
σ σ
ε 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11
σ σ
2ε 23 = − C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 ε 22
σ σ
2ε 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2ε 12
σ σ σ
" Back substitution of the column vector containing ε 33, 2ε 23, and 2ε 13 into
σ σ
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 ε 33
σ σ
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 ε 22 + C 23 C 24 C 25 2ε 23
σ σ
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 2ε 13
yields the result

σ
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11
σ
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22
σ
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12
452
CONTINUED
" The matrix with the subscripted Q terms is given by

−1
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46
" Next, expressing the mechanical strains in terms of the total strains
and the strains caused by free thermal expansion results in
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 2α 12
" This equation is manipulated further by defining
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
453
CONTINUED
" Thus, the constitutive equations for plane stress, in terms of
stiffness coefficients and thermal moduli, become
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref where
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 β 12
−1
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
and β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
" The Q ij and β ij are called the reduced stiffness coefficients and
reduced thermal moduli, respectively
454
CONTINUED
" The relationship between the reduced stiffnesses and the compliances
is obtained by first considering the previously derived equation
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
" Inverting gives
−1
σ 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 2ε 12 2α 12
455
CONTINUED
" Comparing
−1
σ 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref with
σ 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 2ε 12 2α 12
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref indicates that
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 β 12
−1
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 S 11 S 12 S 16
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = S 12 S 22 S 26
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 S 16 S 26 S 66
456
CONTINUED
" The relationship between the reduced thermal moduli and the regular
thermal moduli is obtained by first considering the equation
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 α 22
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 α 33
=−
β 23 C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2α 23
β 13 C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56 2α 13
β 12 2α 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
" This matrix equation can be separated into
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 α 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 α 33
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 26 α 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 2α 23 and
β 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2α 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 2α 13
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11 C 33 C 34 C 35 α 33
β 23 = − C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22 − C 34 C 44 C 45 2α 23
β 13 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12 C 35 C 45 C 55 2α 13
457
CONTINUED
" Solving the matrix equation
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11 C 33 C 34 C 35 α 33
β 23 = − C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22 − C 34 C 44 C 45 2α 23
β 13 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12 C 35 C 45 C 55 2α 13
for the column vector containing 2α 13, 2α 23, and α 33 gives
−1 −1
α 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
2α 23 = − C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 − C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22
2α 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12
458
CONTINUED
" Substituting
−1 −1
α 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
2α 23 = − C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 − C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22
2α 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12
into
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 α 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 α 33
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 26 α 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 2α 23 gives
β 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2α 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 2α 13
−1
β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33
β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 =
β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13
−1
C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
− C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22
C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12
459
CONTINUED
" Noting that

−1
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 ,
−1
β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33
β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 =
β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13
−1
C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
− C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22
C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12
gives
−1
β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22
β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
460
CONTINUED
" Finally, noting that
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 , the expression
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−1
β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 gives
β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−1
β 11 β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33
β 22 = β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23
β 12 β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13
461
CONTINUED
" For a material that is monoclinic, with x3 = 0 being a plane of reflective

symmetry, the plane-stress constitutive equations become
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref and
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
2ε 23 = 0 0 0 σ 22 + 0 T − Tref
2ε 13 0 0 0 σ 12 0
" The last matrix equation reduces to
ε 33 = S 13σ 11 + S 23σ 22 + S 36σ 12 + α 33 T − Tref
462
CONTINUED
" In terms of engineering constants,
1 ν η 1,12
− 21
ε 11 E1 E2 G 12 α 11
σ 11
ν 1 η 2,12
ε 22 = − 12 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
E1 E2 G 12
2ε 12 σ 12 2α 12
η 12,1 η 12,2 1
E1 E2 G 12
ν 13 ν η
ε 33 = − σ 11 − 23 σ 22 + 12, 3 σ 33 + α 33 T − Tref
E1 E2 E3
463
CONTINUED
" Similarly, for a material that is monoclinic, with x3 = 0 being a plane of

reflective symmetry, the plane-stress constitutive matrix becomes
−1
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13 0 0 C 33 0 0 C 13 C 23 C 36
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 C 22 C 26 − C 23 0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 0 0
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0 0 0
which simplifies to
C 13C 13 C 13C 23 C 13C 36

C 11 − C 12 − C 16 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16
C 13C 23 C 23C 23 C 23C 36
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 − C 22 − C 26 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66
C 13C 36 C 23C 36 C 36C 36
C 16 − C 26 − C 66 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
464
CONTINUED
" The remaining matrix equation for the strains, given by
−1
σ σ
ε 33 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11
σ σ
2ε 23 = − C 34 C 44 C 45 C 14 C 24 C 46 ε 22 becomes
σ σ
2ε 13 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 15 C 25 C 56 2ε 12
−1
σ σ
ε 33 C 33 0 0 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11
σ σ
2ε 23 = − 0 C 44 C 45 0 0 0 ε 22 which reduces to
σ σ
2ε 13 0 C 45 C 55 0 0 0 2ε 12
ε 33 = − 1
σ σ σ
C 13ε σ11 + C 23ε σ22 + 2C 36ε σ12 and 2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0
C 33
465
CONTINUED
" Expressions for the reduced stiffnesses in terms of engineering

constants are obtained directly by using the previously obtained results
1 ν η 1,12 −1
− 21 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 S 11 S 12 S 16
S 11 S 12 S 16 E1 E2 G 12
ν 1 η 2,12 and Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = S 12 S 22 S 26
S 12 S 22 S 26 = − 12
E1 E2 G 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 S 16 S 26 S 66
S 16 S 26 S 66 η 12,1 η 12,2 1
E1 E2 G 12
" Inverting the matrix of compliances yields

E1 E1 E
Q 11 = 1 − η 12,2η 2,12 Q 12 = ν 21 + η 12,2η 1,12 = 2 ν 12 + η 12,1η 2,12
Δ Δ Δ
E1 G E2
Q 16 = − η 1,12 + ν 21η 2,12 = − 12 η 12,1 + ν 12η 12,2 Q 22 = 1 − η 12,1η 1,12
Δ Δ Δ
E2 G G 12
Q 26 = − η 2,12 + ν 12η 1,12 = − 12 η 12,2 + ν 21η 12,1 Q 66 = 1 − ν 12ν 21
Δ Δ Δ
Δ = 1 − ν 12ν 21 − η 12,1 η 1,12 + ν 21η 2,12 − η 12,2 η 2,12 + ν 12η 1,12
466
CONTINUED
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
" Similarly, the expression β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 gives
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
β 11 = − 1 E 1α 11 1 − η 12,2η 2,12 + E 2α 22 ν 12 + η 12,1η 2,12 − 2G 12α 12 η 12,1 + ν 12η 12,2

Δ
β 22 = − 1 E 1α 11 ν 21 + η 12,2η 1,12 + E 2α 22 1 − η 12,1η 1,12 − 2G 12α 12 η 12,2 + ν 21η 12,1

Δ
β 12 = 1 E 1α 11 η 1,12 + ν 21η 2,12 + E 2α 22 η 2,12 + ν 12η 1,12 − 2G 12α 12 1 − ν 12ν 21

Δ
467
CONTINUED
" For a specially orthotropic material, the plane-stress constitutive

equations become
ε 11 S 11 S 12 0 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 0 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref and
2ε 12 0 0 S 66 σ 12 0
ε 33 = S 13σ 11 + S 23σ 22 + α 33 T − Tref and 2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0
1 ν
− 21 0
ε 11 E1 E2 α 11
σ 11
ν 1
ε 22 = − 12 0 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
E1 E2
2ε 12 σ 12 0
0 0 1
G 12
ν 13 ν and 2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0
ε 33 = − σ 11 − 23 σ 22 + α 33 T − Tref
E1 E2
468
CONTINUED
" Similarly, for a specially orthotropic material, the plane-stress

σ 11 C 11 C 12 0 ε 11
σ
C 13 0 0 ε 33
σ
σ σ
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 0 ε 22 + C 23 0 0 2ε 23 and
σ σ
σ 12 0 0 C 66 2ε 12 0 0 0 2ε 13
0 C 13 C 23 0 σ
ε 11 C 33 0 0 ε 33
σ
σ σ
0 = 0 0 0 ε 22 + 0 C 44 0 2ε 23
0 0 0 0
σ
2ε 12 0 0 C 55
σ
2ε 13
" The last matrix equation gives
ε 33 = − 1
σ
C 13ε σ11 + C 23ε σ22 and 2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0
C 33
469
CONTINUED
σ σ σ
" Using the previous expressions for ε , 2ε , and 2ε , the constitutive
33 23 13
equations for plane stress, in terms of stiffness coefficients, become
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 0 σ
ε 11 Q 11 Q 12 0 ε 11 α 11
σ
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 0 ε 22 = Q 12 Q 22 0 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ
σ 12 0 0 Q 66 2ε 12 0 0 Q 66 2ε 12 0
where
C 13C 13 C 13C 23
C 11 − C 12 − 0
C 33 C 33
Q 11 Q 12 0
C C C C
Q 12 Q 22 0 = C 12 − 13 23 C 22 − 23 23 0
C 33 C 33
0 0 Q 66
0 0 C 66
470
CONTINUED
" Next, noting that
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 0 α 11
β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 0 α 22 for a specially orthotropic solid
β 12 0 0 Q 66 0
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 0 ε 11 β 11
gives σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 0 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref
σ 12 0 0 Q 66 2ε 12 0
" Now, note that the general expression for the regular thermal moduli
simplifies to
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0 α 11
β 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 0 α 22
β 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 0 α 33
=−
β 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 0
β 13 0 0 0 0 C 55 0 0
β 12 0 0 0 0 0 C 66 0
471
CONTINUED
" In addition,
−1
β 11 β 11 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 33 C 34 C 35 β 33
β 22 = β 22 − C 23 C 24 C 25 C 34 C 44 C 45 β 23 simplifies to
β 12 β 12 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 35 C 45 C 55 β 13
−1
β 11 β 11 C 13 0 0 C 33 0 0 β 33
β 22 = β 22 − C 23 0 0 0 C 44 0 0 which yields
β 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 55 0
C 13 C 23
β 11 = β 11 − β 33 β 22 = β 22 − β 33 β 12 = 0
C 33 C 33
472
CONCLUDED
" In terms of the engineering constants, the reduced stiffness

coefficients and are given by
E1 ν 12E 2 ν 21E 1
Q 11 = Q 12 = =
1 − ν 12ν 21 1 − ν 12ν 21 1 − ν 12ν 21
E2
Q 22 = Q 66 = G 12
1 − ν 12ν 21
" Similarly, the nonzero reduced thermal moduli are given by
α 11 + α 22 ν 21 α 22 + α 11 ν 12
β 11 = − E 1 β 22 = − E 2
1 − ν 12ν 21 1 − ν 12ν 21
473
STRESS AND STRAIN TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
FOR PLANE STRESS
" Often, the relationship between the planar stresses and strains that are
defined relative to two different coordinate systems is needed
" Consider the dextral (right-handed) rotation of coordinate frames

shown in the figure
x 3 , x 3′′
i 3 , i 3′′ x 2′′
i 2′′ θ3
x2
i1 i2
i 1′′
θ3
x 1′′
x1
474
FOR PLANE STRESS - CONTINUED
" Previously, the matrix form of the stress-transformation law for this
specific transformation was given as
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
σ 1′′1′′ sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 11
σ 2′′2′′ σ 22
σ 3′′3′′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 33
=
σ 2′′3′′ 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0 σ 23
σ 1′′3′′ σ 13
σ 1′′2′′ 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0 σ 12
2 2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
" Substituting σ = σ = σ = 0 into this equation yields

33 13 23
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
σ 1′′1′′ 2
σ 11 σ 3′′3′′
0
2
σ 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 22 and σ 2′′3′′ = 0
σ 1′′2′′ 2 2 σ 12 σ 1′′3′′ 0
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
475
" Thus, the stress-transformation law for a state of plane stress and a
dextral rotation about the x3 axis is given by
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
σ 1′′1′′ 2
σ 11
2
σ 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 22
σ 1′′2′′ 2 2 σ 12
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" This law is expressed symbolically by Σ′′ = Tσ θ 3 Σ

σ 1′′1′′ σ 11
where Σ′′ ≡ σ 2′′2′′ , Σ ≡ σ 22 , and
σ 1′′2′′ σ 12
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ 3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
476
" Similarly, the matrix form of the inverse stress-tensor transformation
law was also given previously as
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
σ 11 sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 1′′1′′
σ 22 σ 2′′2′′
σ 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 3′′3′′
=
σ 23 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ3 0 σ 2′′3′′
σ 13 σ 1′′3′′
σ 12 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0 σ 1′′2′′
2 2
sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
−1
" Following a similar process gives Σ = Tσ θ 3 Σ′′ where
2 2
−1
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ3 = Tσ – θ3 =
2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
477
" Previously, the matrix form of the strain-transformation law for this
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 1′′1′′ 2 2 ε 11
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 2′′2′′ ε 22
0 0 1 0 0 0 ε 33
ε 3′′3′′
=
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 cosθ
θ3 − sinθ
θ3 0 2εε23
2εε1′′3′′ 2εε13
0 0 0 sinθ
θ3 cosθ
θ3 0
2εε1′′2′′ 2 2
2εε12
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
" This matrix equation can be partitioned into the following parts
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 ε 11
ε 1′′1′′ 2 2
ε 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 ε 22 ,
2ε 1′′2′′ − 2sinθ
2 2
2ε 12
θ 3cosθ
θ3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2ε 2′′3′′ cosθ
θ3 − sinθ
θ3 2ε 23
2ε 1′′3′′
=
2ε 13 and ε = ε 3′′3′′ 33
sinθ
θ3 cosθ
θ3
478
" The first law is expressed symbolically by E′′ = Tε θ 3 E

ε 1′′1′′ ε 11
where E′′ ≡ ε 2′′2′′ , E ≡ ε 22 , and
2ε 1′′2′′ 2ε 12
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tε θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3 cos θ 3
2
− sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" A useful relationship that is easily verified is given by

T −1
Tε θ 3 = Tσ θ 3 = Tσ − θ 3
479
FOR PLANE STRESS - CONCLUDED
" Similarly, the matrix form of the inverse strain-transformation law was
also given previously as
2 2
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 11 2 2 ε 1′′1′′
sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 22 ε 2′′2′′
ε 33 0 0 1 0 0 0 ε 3′′3′′
=
2εε23 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ3 0 2εε2′′3′′
2εε13 2εε1′′3′′
0 0 0 − sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0
2εε12 2εε1′′2′′
2 2
2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
−1
" From this matrix equation, it follows that E = Tε θ 3 E′′

−1 T
480
TRANSFORMED CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR
PLANE STRESS
" The two matrix equations that resulted from the reduction for a state of
plane stress are
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref and
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref , where
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 β 12
−1
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 S 11 S 12 S 16
β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 and Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = S 12 S 22 S 26
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 S 16 S 26 S 66
" Also, σ = σ = σ = 0 and generally ε ≠ ε ≠ ε ≠ 0

33 13 23 33 13 23
481
PLANE STRESS - CONTINUED
" In terms of another set of coordinates x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ that correspond to a
dextral rotation about the x3 axis, the constitutive equations must also
have the forms given as
ε 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′

ε 2′′2′′ = S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′6′′ σ 2′′2′′ + α 2′′2′′ T − Tref and
2ε 1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 6′′6′′ σ 1′′2′′ 2α 1′′2′′
σ 1′′1′′ Q 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ ε 1′′1′′ β 1′′1′′

σ 2′′2′′ = Q 1′′2′′ Q 2′′2′′ Q 2′′6′′ ε 2′′2′′ + β 2′′2′′ T − Tref , where
σ 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ Q 2′′6′′ Q 6′′6′′ 2ε 1′′2′′ β 1′′2′′
−1
β 1′′1′′ Q 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ α 1′′1′′ Q 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′
β 2′′2′′ = − Q 1′′2′′ Q 2′′2′′ Q 2′′6′′ α 2′′2′′ and Q 1′′2′′ Q 2′′2′′ Q 2′′6′′ = S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′6′′
β 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ Q 2′′6′′ Q 6′′6′′ 2α 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′ Q 2′′6′′ Q 6′′6′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 6′′6′′
482
" For convenience, let
S 11 S 12 S 16 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16
S = S 12 S 22 S 26 Q = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26
S 16 S 26 S 66 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66
α 11 β 11
α = α 22 β = β 22
2α 12 β 12
S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ Q 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′

S′′ = S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′6′′ Q′′ = Q 1′′2′′ Q 2′′2′′ Q 2′′6′′
S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 6′′6′′ Q 1′′6′′ Q 2′′6′′ Q 6′′6′′
α 1′′1′′ β 1′′1′′
α′ = α 2′′2′′ β′ = β 2′′2′′
2α 1′′2′′ β 1′′2′′
483
" With this notation, the two sets of thermoelastic constitutive equations
are expressed in symbolic form by
E = S Σ + α Θ and Σ = Q E + β Θ
E′′ = S′′ Σ′′ + α ′ Θ and Σ′′ = Q′′ E′′ + β′ Θ
where Θ ≡ T − Tref
" By using the matrix form of the stress and strain transformation
equations for plane stress, Σ = Q E + β Θ becomes
–1 –1
Tσ Σ′′ = Q Tε E′′ + β Θ
484
–1
Σ′′ = Tσ Q Tε E′′ + Tσ β Θ
" Comparing this equation with Σ′′ = Q′′ E′′ + β′ Θ it follows

that
–1
Q′′ = Tσ Q Tε and β′ = Tσ β
–1
" Rearranging Q′′ = Tσ Q Tε gives
–1
Q = Tσ Q′′ Tε
485
" Next, by using the matrix form of the stress and strain transformation
equations for plane stress, E = S Σ + α Θ becomes
–1 –1
Tε E′′ = S Tσ Σ′′ + α Θ

–1
E′′ = Tε S Tσ Σ′′ + Tε α Θ
" By comparing this equation with E′′ = S′′ σ′ + α ′ Θ it follows

that
–1
S′ = Tε S Tσ and α′ = Tε α
486
–1
S Tε S′ Tσ
–1
" Rearranging S′ = Tε S Tσ gives =
" Noting that for a dextral rotation about the x3 axis,

–1 T –1 T
Tε = Tσ and Tσ = Tε it follows that
T T
S′ = Tε S Tε S = Tσ S′ Tσ
T T
Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ Q = Tε Q′ Tε
T
α′ = Tε α α = Tσ α′
T
487
with
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
and
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tε θ 3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
488
T
" Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
Q 1′′1′′ = m Q 11 + 2m n Q 12 + 2Q 66 + 4mn m Q 16 + n Q 26 + n Q 22
2 2 2 2 4 4
Q 1′′2′′ = m n Q 11 + Q 22 − 4Q 66 − 2mn m − n Q 16 − Q 26 + m + n Q 12
2 2 2 3
Q 1′′6′′ = m m − 3n Q 16 − m n Q 11 − Q 12 − 2Q 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn Q 22 − Q 12 − 2Q 66 − n n − 3m Q 26
4 2 2 2 2 4
Q 2′′2′′ = m Q 22 + 2m n Q 12 + 2Q 66 − 4mn m Q 26 + n Q 16 + n Q 11
2 2 2 3
Q 2′′6′′ = m m − 3n Q 26 + m n Q 22 − Q 12 − 2Q 66
3 2 2 2
− mn Q 11 − Q 12 − 2Q 66 − n n − 3m Q 16
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Q 6′′6′′ = m n Q 11 + Q 22 − 2Q 12 − 2mn m − n Q 16 − Q 26 + m − n Q 66
489
T
" Q = Tε Q′ Tε , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
Q 11 = m Q 1′′1′′ + 2m n Q 1′′2′′ + 2Q 6′′6′′ − 4mn m Q 1′′6′′ + n Q 2′′6′′ + n Q 2′′2′′
2 2 2 2 4 4
Q 12 = m n Q 1′′1′′ + Q 2′′2′′ − 4Q 6′′6′′ + 2mn m − n Q 1′′6′′ − Q 2′′6′′ + m + n Q 1′′2′′
2 2 2 3
Q 16 = m m − 3n Q 1′′6′′ + m n Q 1′′1′′ − Q 1′′2′′ − 2Q 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
− mn Q 2′′2′′ − Q 1′′2′′ − 2Q 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m Q 2′′6′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
Q 22 = m Q 2′′2′′ + 2m n Q 1′′2′′ + 2Q 6′′6′′ + 4mn m Q 2′′6′′ + n Q 1′′6′′ + n Q 1′′1′′
2 2 2 3
Q 26 = m m − 3n Q 2′′6′′ − m n Q 2′′2′′ − Q 1′′2′′ − 2Q 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn Q 1′′1′′ − Q 1′′2′′ − 2Q 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m Q 1′′6′′
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Q 66 = m n Q 1′′1′′ + Q 2′′2′′ − 2Q 1′′2′′ + 2mn m − n Q 1′′6′′ − Q 2′′6′′ + m − n Q 6′′6′′
490
T
" S′ = Tε S Tε , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 2 4 4
2 2 2 3
S 1′′6′′ = m m − 3n S 16 − m n 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 26
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 3
S 2′′6′′ = m m − 3n S 26 + m n 2S 22 − 2S 12 − S 66
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 11 − 2S 12 − S 66 − n n − 3m S 16
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
491
T
" S = Tσ S′ Tσ , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 2 4 4
2 2 2 3
S 16 = m m − 3n S 1′′6′′ + m n 2S 1′′1′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
− mn 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m S 2′′6′′
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 2 2 3
S 26 = m m − 3n S 2′′6′′ − m n 2S 2′′2′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′
3 2 2 2
+ mn 2S 1′′1′′ − 2S 1′′2′′ − S 6′′6′′ − n n − 3m S 1′′6′′
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
492
" Note that Q′ and Q can be expressed as
Q′′ = Tσ θ 3 Q Tε − θ3 and Q = Tσ − θ3 Q′′ Tε θ 3

" Likewise, S′ and S can be expressed as
S′ = Tε θ 3 S Tσ − θ3 and S = Tε − θ3 S′ Tσ θ 3

493
" α′ = Tε α , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
2 2 2 2
α 1′′1′′ = m α 11 + 2mnα
α 12 + n α 22 α 2′′2′′ = m α 22 − 2mnα
α 12 + n α 11
2 2
α 1′′2′′ = m − n α 12 + mn α 22 − α 11
" Similarly, α = Tσ α ′ gives
2 2 2 2
α 11 = m α 1′′1′′ + 2mnα
α 1′′2′′ + n α 2′′2′′ α 22 = m α 2′′2′′ − 2mnα
α 1′′2′′ + n α 1′′1′′
2 2
α 12 = m − n α 1′′2′′ + mn α 2′′2′′ − α 1′′1′′
494
" β′ = Tσ β , with m = cosθ 3 and n = sinθ 3 , yields
2 2 2 2
β 1′′1′′ = m β 11 + 2mnβ
β 12 + n β 22 β 2′′2′′ = m β 22 − 2mnβ
β 12 + n β 11
2 2
β 1′′2′′ = m − n β 12 + mn β 22 − β 11
" Similarly, β = Tε β′ gives
2 2 2 2
β 11 = m β 1′′1′′ − 2mnβ
β 1′′2′′ + n β 2′′2′′ β 22 = m β 2′′2′′ + 2mnβ
β 1′′2′′ + n β 1′′1′′
2 2
β 12 = m − n β 1′′2′′ − mn β 2′′2′′ − β 1′′1′′
495
PLANE STRESS - CONCLUDED
" Note that α ′ and α can be expressed as
α′ = Tε θ 3 α and α = Tε − θ3 α′
" Thus, one set of transformed thermal-expansion expressions can

be obtained from the other by simply interchanging the primed and
" Likewise, β ′ and β can be expressed as
β′ = Tσ θ 3 β and β = Tσ − θ3 β′
" Thus, one set of transformed thermal-compliance expressions can

be obtained from the other by simply interchanging the primed and
496
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR GENERALIZED
PLANE STRESS
" When relatively thin plates, with uniform thickness h, are supported
and subjected to inplane loads such that the dominant stresses,
strains, and displacements act only in planes parallel to the plane x3 = 0
shown in the figure, significant simplifications can be made to the
equations governing the elastic response
x3
" Moreover, these dominant response
quantities are presumed to vary
symmetrically through the plate
thickness, given by − h ≤ x3 ≤ + h , x2
2 2 h
such that no significant bending
deformations are exhibited by the
x1
plate
" In contrast to the plane stress approximations previously presented
herein, when these conditions exist, with respect to the through-the-
thickness variations, the plate response is described as a state of
generalized plane stress
497
" For a state of generalized plane stress in an anisotropic solid, with
respect to the plane x3 = 0, the displacement fields in the x1-, x2-, and x3-
coordinate directions are approximated by averaging the through-the-
thickness variations as follows
+h +h
2 2
U1 x , x = 1
1 2 u 1 x , x , x dx 3
1 2 3 U2 x , x = 11 2 u 2 x , x , x dx 3
1 2 3
h –h h –h
2 2
+h
2
and U3 x , x = 1
1 2 u 3 x , x , x dx 3 = 0
1 2 3
h –h
2
" To exclude bending deformations, U 3 x 1, x 2 = 0 is required for the

out-of-plane displacement field
" Note that allowing u 3 x 1, x 2, x 3 = x 3 ε , where ε is a constant

satisfies U 3 x 1, x 2 = 0
498
" The strain-displacement relations of the linear theory of elasticity, given
∂u i ∂u j
by ε ij x 1, x 2, x 3 = 1 + , are approximated as follows
2 ∂x j ∂x i
+h
2
" First, average strains are defined by ε ij x 1, x 2 = 1 ε ij x 1, x 2, x 3 dx 3
h –h
2
∂u i ∂u j
" Substituting ε ij x 1, x 2, x 3 = 1 + into this expression and using
2 ∂x j ∂x i
the definitions for the average displacements yields
∂U i ∂U j
ε ij x 1, x 2 = 1 + , 2ε 13 = 2ε 23 = 0 and ε 33 = ε
2 ∂x j ∂x i
" Thus, ε represent a uniform through-the-thickness normal strain
499
" Next, the stress field is approximated such that σ 33 = σ 23 = σ 13 = 0
" For this case, the stresses in a thin, flat body, that are normal to the
plane x3 = 0, are presumed negligible compared to the other
stresses
" In addition, average stresses are defined by

+h
2
σ ij x 1, x 2 = 1 σ ij x 1, x 2, x 3 dx 3
h –h
2
" The conditions on the presumed stress field are satisfied by the
previously derived plane-stress constitutive equations given in the form
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref and
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 2α 12
500
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
2ε 23 = S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22 + 2α 23 T − Tref
2ε 13 S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12 2α 13
" That is, substituting σ = σ = σ = 0 into the general form of the

33 23 13
constitutive equations and simplifying yields the same plane stress

constitutive equation given above
501
" Restricting the plate to homogeneous construction, integration of the
constitutive equations through the plate thickness yields
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11 +h
2
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 1 T − Tref dx 3
σ 12
22
2α 12
h –h
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2
12
" Next, the temperature change T - Tref is presumed to vary symmetrically

through the plate thickness so as not to cause bending deformations
" The average temperature change is defined as

+h
2
Θ x 1, x 2 = 1 T − Tref dx 3
h –h
2
such that the constitutive equations become
502
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε
11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε
22
− α 22 Θ
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 2α 12
12
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
" Similarly, ε 22
= S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 Θ and
2ε S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
12
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
ε 23
= S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22 + 2α 23 Θ
2ε S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12 2α 13
13
" Inspection of the last matrix equation reveals that the material must be
monoclinic, with the plane x3 = 0 being a plane of reflective symmetry, in
order to satisfy the kinematic hypothesis 2ε 13 = 2ε 23 = 0 and ε 33 = ε
503
" Note that the symmetry requirement on the material properties is
consistent with the symmetry requirements imposed up front on the
displacements, stresses, and strains
ε
33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
" Thus, ε
23
= S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22 + 2α 23 Θ becomes
2ε S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12 2α 13
13
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
ε 23
= 0 0 0 σ 22 + 0 Θ , which reduces to
2ε 0 0 0 σ 12 0
13
ε=S 13
σ 11 + S 23σ 22 + S 36σ 12 + α 33Θ
504
ν 13 ν η
" In terms of engineering constants, ε = − E1
σ 11 − 23 σ 22 + 12, 3 σ 33 + α 33Θ
E2 E3
and
1 ν η 1,12
ε 11 E1
− 21
E2 G 12 σ 11 α 11
ν 12 η 2,12
ε 22
= −
E1
1
E2 G 12
σ 22 + α 22 Θ
2ε
η 12,1 η 12,2 1 σ 12 2α 12
12 E1 E2 G 12
" Now consider the previously derived stress-transformation law for

a state of plane stress and a dextral rotation about the x3 axis is given
by
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
σ 1′′1′′ 2
σ 11
2
σ 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 22
σ 1′′2′′ 2 2 σ 12
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" This law was expressed symbolically by Σ′′ = Tσ θ 3 Σ
505
σ 1′′1′′ σ 11
where Σ′′ ≡ σ 2′′2′′ , Σ ≡ σ 22 , and
σ 1′′2′′ σ 12
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ 3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" Integrating the stress transformation law over the plate thickness yields
the trans formation law Σ′′ = Tσ θ 3 Σ , where
+h +h
2 2
σ 11 σ 1′′1′′
1 1
Σ ≡ h
σ 22 dx 3 and Σ′′ ≡ h
σ 2′′2′′ dx 3
σ 12 σ 1′′2′′
–h –h
2 2
506
" Likewise, the previously derived strain-transformation law for a
state of plane stress and a dextral rotation about the x3 axis is given by
E′′ = Tε θ 3 E
ε 1′′1′′ ε 11
where E′′ ≡ ε 2′′2′′ , E ≡ ε 22 , and
2ε 1′′2′′ 2ε 12
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tε θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
507
PLANE STRESS - CONCLUDED
" Integrating the strain transformation law over the plate thickness yields
the transformation law E′′ = Tε θ 3 E , where
+h +h
2 2
ε 11 ε 1′′1′′
1 1
E ≡ h
ε 22 dx 3 and E′′ ≡ h
ε 2′′2′′ dx 3
2ε 12 2ε 1′′2′′
–h –h
2 2
" Comparing the stress and strain transformation equations and the
constitutive equations for generalized plane stress with the
corresponding equations for plane stress, it is seen that they have
identical structure
" As a result, the constitutive equations for generalized plane

stress transform in exactly the same way as those for plane
stress
508
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR INPLANE
DEFORMATIONS OF THIN PLATES
" Another practical case of interest that is similar to generalized plane
stress is the case of thin, nonhomogeneous plates that undergo inplane
deformations without any bending deformations
" For this case, the stresses in a thin,
x3
flat body, that are normal to the x1 - x2
plane shown in the figure, are
presumed negligible compared to the
other stresses x2
h
" Thus, the stress field is
approximated such that σ 13 = 0 , x1
σ 23 = 0 , and σ 33 = 0 − h ≤ x3 ≤ + h
2 2
" But, σ 11 = σ 11 x ,x ,x , σ 22 = σ 22 x ,x ,x , and σ 12 = σ 12 x ,x ,x are permitted

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
because of through-the thickness nonhomogeneity that is presumed to

exist
509
DEFORMATIONS OF THIN PLATES - CONTINUED
" In addition, the plate-like body is required to have a uniform thickness
h and is not allowed to bend when subjected to inplane loads
" The conditions on the stress field are satisfied by the previously
derived plane-stress constitutive equations given in the form
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 2α 12
" In the present formulation, the total strains are presumed to be uniform
through the plate thickness; that is,
ε 11 = ε 11 x 1,x 2 , ε 22 = ε 22 x 1,x 2 , and ε 12 = ε 12 x 1,x 2
" However, the plate is allowed to be nonhomogeneous through the

thickness such that the reduced stiffness coefficients and the
coefficients of thermal expansion can vary with the x3 coordinate
510
" Because of the plate’s thinness, the temperature change T - Tref is
presumed to be uniform through the thickness
" The requirement that the plate not bend is fulfilled by picking the middle
surface of the plate to correspond to x3 = 0 and then to require that
the following integral be valid
+h
2
σ 11 0
σ 22 x 3 dx 3 = 0
σ 12 0
–h
2
" This matrix integral equation then requires the following through-the-
thickness symmetry conditions on the stress field
σ 11 x 1, x 2, − x 3 = σ 11 x 1, x 2, x 3 , σ 22 x 1, x 2, − x 3 = σ 22 x 1, x 2, x 3 , and
σ 12 x 1, x 2, − x 3 = σ 12 x 1, x 2, x 3
511
" The requirement that the plate not bend also places requirements on
material properties
" First, note that substituting the plane stress constitutive equation into
the previously stated integral equation yields
+h +h
2 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 x 3 dx 3 ε 22 − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 x 3 dx 3 T − Tref = 0
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h −h
2 2
" Next, note that for arbitrary strain and temperature fields, the two
integrals in the above equation must vanish independently; that is,
+h +h
2 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 x 3 dx 3 = 0 and Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 x 3 dx 3 = 0
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h −h
2 2
512
+h
2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16
" The integral Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 x 3 dx 3 = 0 requires that the reduced
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66
−h
2
stiffness coefficients be symmetric functions about the plane x3 = 0
" Thus, the full set of stiffness and compliance coefficients, Cij and
Sij, must be symmetric about the plane x3 = 0; i. e., monoclinic
+h
2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
" The integral Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 x 3 dx 3 = 0 and the symmetry
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h
2
requirement on the reduced stiffness coefficients require that the

coefficients of thermal expansion be symmetric functions about the
plane x3 = 0
513
" Recall, that for a material that is monoclinic with respect to the plane
x3 = 0, the general form of the constitutive equations is
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 0 0 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 0 0 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 0 0 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2εε23 0 0 0 S 44 S 45 0 0
2εε13 0 0 0 S 45 S 55 0 σ 13 0
2εε12 σ 12 2α
α 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 0 0 S 66
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C 16 ε 11 β 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 0 0 C 26 ε 22 β 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 0 0 C 36 ε 33 β 33
σ 23
= + T − Tref
0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0 2εε23 0
σ 13 0 0 0 C 45 C 55 0 2εε13 0
σ 12 2εε12 β 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 0 0 C 66
514
" In addition,
C 13C 13 C 13C 23 C 13C 36

C 11 − C 12 − C 16 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16
C 13C 23 C 23C 23 C 23C 36
Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = C 12 − C 22 − C 26 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
Q 16 Q 26 Q 66
C 13C 36 C 23C 36 C 36C 36
C 16 − C 26 − C 66 −
C 33 C 33 C 33
1 ν η 1,12
− 21 −1
S 11 S 12 S 16 E1 E2 G 12 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 S 11 S 12 S 16
ν 1 η 2,12
S 12 S 22 S 26 = − 12 and Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 = S 12 S 22 S 26
E1 E2 G 12
S 16 S 26 S 66 η 12,1 η 12,2 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 S 16 S 26 S 66
1
E1 E2 G 12
515
" To facilitate the formulation of a two-dimensional boundary-value
problem, the through-the-thickness functional dependence of the stress
field is eliminated by introducing the following stress resultants
+h
2
N 11 σ 11
N 22 ≡ σ 22 dx 3
N 12 σ 12
−h
2
" Substituting
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 2α 12
into the expressions for the stress resultants and performing the
integration yields a two-dimensional constitutive equation
516
" The two-dimensional constitutive equation is given by
N 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 ε 11 β 11
N 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref
N 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 2ε 12 β 12
where
+h +h
A 11 A 12 A 16 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 β 11 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
A 12 A 22 A 26 ≡ Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 dx 3 and β 22 ≡− Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 dx 3
A 16 A 26 A 66 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h −h
2 2
" The Aij and β ij are called the inplane, plate stiffness coefficients and
thermal moduli, respectively
517
" A more convenient form of the two-dimensional constitutive equation is
obtained by first inverting it to obtain
−1 −1
ε 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 N 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 β 11
ε 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 N 22 − A 12 A 22 A 26 β 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 N 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 β 12
" Next, the inverted matrix equation is manipulated to look like the plane-
stress constitutive equations
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 α 11
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 2α 12
" That is, a set of overall plate coefficients of thermal expansion are
defined to make the construction of the equations parallel
518
" The overall plate coefficients of thermal expansion are defined as
−1 −1 +h
α 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 β 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
α 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 β 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 dx 3
2α 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 β 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h
2
so that the two-dimensional constitutive equation is given by
N 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 ε 11 α 11
N 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref or
N 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 2ε 12 2α 12
−1
ε 11 A 11 A 12 A 16 N 11 α 11
ε 22 = A 12 A 22 A 26 N 22 + α 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 A 16 A 26 A 66 N 12 2α 12
519
−1
A 11 A 12 A 16 a 11 a 12 a 16
" For convenience, let A 12 A 22 A 26 = a 12 a 22 a 26 so that
A 16 A 26 A 66 a 16 a 26 a 66
ε 11 a 11 a 12 a 16 N 11 α 11
ε 22 = a 12 a 22 a 26 N 22 + α 22 T − Tref
2ε 12 a 16 a 26 a 66 N 12 2α 12
" The subscripted a terms are plate compliances that are given by
2
A 22A 66 − A 26 A 16A 26 − A 12A 66 A 12A 26 − A 16A 22
a 11 = a 12 = a 16 =
A A A
2 2
A 11A 66 − A 16 A 12A 16 − A 11A 26 A 11A 22 − A 12
a 22 = a 26 = a 66 =
A A A
2 2 2
where A = A 11A 22 − A 12 A 66 − A 11A 26 − A 22A 16 + 2A 12A 16A 26
520
" Once a given boundary-value problem is solved, the strain fields
ε 11 x 1,x 2 , ε 22 x 1,x 2 , and 2ε 12 x 1,x 2 are known
" The stresses at any point of the body are found by substituting the
strain fields and the coordinates of the given point into
σ 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 22 = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref
σ 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2ε 12 2α 12
" The other strains are given by
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 α 33
2ε 23
= 0 0 0 σ 22 + 0 T − Tref which reduce to
2ε 0 0 0 σ 12 0
13
2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0 and ε 33
= S 13σ 11 + S 23σ 22 + S 36σ 12 + α 33 T − Tref
521
" Now consider a transformation of coordinates that corresponds to a
dextral rotation about the x3 axis
" The stress-transformation law for a state of plane stress has been
given by
σ 1′′1′′ σ 11
Σ′′ = Tσ θ 3 Σ where Σ′′ ≡ σ 2′′2′′ , Σ ≡ σ 22 , and
σ 1′′2′′ σ 12
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ 3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
522
" Integrating the stress transformation law over the plate thickness yields
the transformation law N ′ = Tσ θ 3 N , where
+h +h
2 2
N 11 σ 11 N 1′′1′′ σ 1′′1′′
N ≡ N 22 ≡ σ 22 dx 3 and N′ ≡ N 2′′2′′ ≡ σ 2′′2′′ dx 3
N 12 σ 12 N 1′′2′′ σ 1′′2′′
–h –h
2 2
" Likewise, the previously derived strain-transformation law for a

state of plane stress and a dextral rotation about the x3 axis is given by
ε 1′′1′′ ε 11
E′′ = Tε θ 3 E where E′′ ≡ ε 2′′2′′ , E ≡ ε 22 ,
2ε 1′′2′′ 2ε 12
523
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
and Tε θ3 ≡ sin θ 3
2 2
cos θ 3 − sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
; and
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
remains unchanged for thin, nonhomogeneous plate
A 11 A 12 A 16 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16
" For convenience, let A = A 12 A 22 A 26 and Q = Q 12 Q 22 Q 26
A 16 A 26 A 66 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66
+h
2
such that A = Q dx 3
−h
2
524
A 1′′1′′ A 1′′2′′ A 1′′6′′ Q 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ Q 1′′6′′

" Similarly, let A′′ ≡ A 1′′2′′ A 2′′2′′ A 2′′6′′ and Q′′ ≡ Q 1′′2′′ Q 2′′2′′ Q 2′′6′′
A 1′′6′′ A 2′′6′′ A 6′′6′′ Q 1′′6′′ Q 2′′6′′ Q 6′′6′′
+h
2
such that A′′ = Q′′ dx 3
−h
2
" The transformation laws that relate A and A′ are obtained by using
the following plane-stress transformation equations
T T
Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ Q = Tε Q′ Tε
525
T T
" Integation of Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ and Q = Tε Q′ Tε over the

T T
plate thickness yields A′ = Tσ A Tσ and A = Tε A′ Tε
+h +h −1
2 −1 2
" From A = Q dx 3 , it follows that A = Q dx 3
−h −h
2 2
a 11 a 12 a 16 S 11 S 12 S 16 −1
−1
" Noting that a = a 12 a 22 a 26 ≡ A and S = S 12 S 22 S 26 ≡ Q ,
a 16 a 26 a 66 S 16 S 26 S 66
+h
2
it follows that a = S dx 3
−h
2
526
a 1′′1′′ a 1′′2′′ a 1′′6′′ S 1′′1′′ S 1′′2′′ S 1′′6′′ −1

−1
" Similarly a′′ = a 1′′2′′ a 2′′2′′ a 2′′6′′ ≡ A′′ , S′′ = S 1′′2′′ S 2′′2′′ S 2′′6′′ ≡ Q′′ ,
a 1′′6′′ a 2′′6′′ a 6′′6′′ S 1′′6′′ S 2′′6′′ S 6′′6′′
+h
2
and a′′ = S′′ dx 3
−h
2
" The transformation laws that relate a and a′′ are obtained by using
the following plane-stress transformation equations
T T
S′ = Tε S Tε S = Tσ S′ Tσ
527
T T
" Integration of S′ = Tε S Tε and S = Tσ S′ Tσ over the

T T
plate thickness yields a′ = Tε a Tε and a = Tσ a′ Tσ
" Now consider the thermal moduli of the plate given by

+h
β 11 2
Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
β ≡ β 22 ≡− Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 dx 3
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
−h
2
β 11 Q 11 Q 12 Q 16 α 11
" Noting that β ≡ β 22 = − Q 12 Q 22 Q 26 α 22 for plane stress, it
β 12 Q 16 Q 26 Q 66 2α 12
+h +h
2 2
follows that β = β dx 3 and that β′ = β′ dx 3
−h −h
2 2
528
" The transformation laws that relate β and β′ are obtained by

using the following plane-stress transformation equations
T
" Integration of these equations over the plate thickness yields

T
β′ = Tσ β and β = Tε β′
" Next, recall that the overall plate coefficients of thermal expansion
have been given by
α 11 a 11 a 12 a 16 β 11
α ≡ α 22 = a 12 a 22 a 26 β 22 = a β
2α 12 a 16 a 26 a 66 β 12
529
α 1′′1′′ a 1′′1′′ a 1′′2′′ a 1′′6′′ β 1′′1′′

" It follows logically that α′ = α 2′′2′′ = a 1′′2′′ a 2′′2′′ a 2′′6′′ β 2′′2′′ = a′ β′
2α 1′′2′′ a 1′′6′′ a 2′′6′′ a 6′′6′′ β 1′′2′′
" Substituting a′ = Tε a Tε and β′ = Tσ β into α′ = a′ β′

T
gives α′ = Tε a Tε Tσ β
T −1
" Next, using Tε = Tσ gives α′ = Tε a β
" Then using α = a β gives the result α′ = Tε α
" Inverting this result and using Tε

−1
= Tσ
T
gives α = Tσ α′
530
" In summary:
T T
A′ = Tσ A Tσ A = Tε A′ Tε
T T
a′ = Tε a Tε a = Tσ a′ Tσ
T
T
" Comparing these equations with those of the plane stress case reveals
that the specific transformation equations can be obtained from those
given previously for plane stress as follows
531
DEFORMATIONS OF THIN PLATES - CONCLUDED
" For plane stress, Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ , with m = cosθ 3 and

n = sinθ 3 , gave
4 2 2 2 2 4
" Thus, by similarity, A′ = Tσ A Tσ gives

4 2 2 2 2 4
A 1′′1′′ = m A 11 + 2m n A 12 + 2A 66 + 4mn m A 16 + n A 26 + n A 22
" The other transformation equations are obtained in a similar manner
532
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR PLANE STRAIN
" When, analyzing solids that are relatively prismatic and slender,
simplifying assumptions are made about the strain state to facilitate
analytical solution of practical problems
x3
" One such assumption is that the strains in a
slender, prismatic body, that distort the cross-
sectional planes, are negligible compared to
the other strains
" This simplification is commonly referred to as

the generalized plane-strain assumption
x2
" For a state of generalized plane strain in a
homogeneous, anisotropic solid, with respect to
x1
the x1 - x2 plane, the strain field is approximated
such that ε − α T − Tref
33 33 =ε and 2ε 23 = 2ε 13 = 0 ,
where ε is a constant
533
CONTINUED
" For this special case, the general constitutive equation
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε 11 α 11
σ 11
σ 22 C 12 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22 α 22
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33 α 33
σ 23
= − T − Tref
C 14 C 24 C 34 C 44 C 45 C 46 2ε 23 2α 23
σ 13 2ε 13 2α 13
C 15 C 25 C 35 C 45 C 55 C 56
σ 12 2ε 12 2α 12
C 16 C 26 C 36 C 46 C 56 C 66
uncouples directly into
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 α 11 C 13
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref + C 23 ε
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 2α 12 C 36
and
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11 α 11 C 33
σ 23 = C 14 C 24 C 46 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref + C 34 ε
σ 13 C 15 C 25 C 56 2ε 12 2α 12 C 35
534
CONTINUED
" This equation is manipulated further by defining thermal moduli
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 α 11 β 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 26 α 22 and β 23 = − C 14 C 24 C 46 α 22
β 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2α 12 β 13 C 15 C 25 C 56 2α 12
such that
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 β 11 C 13
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref + C 23 ε and
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 β 12 C 36
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11 β 33 C 33
σ 23 = C 14 C 24 C 46 ε 22 + β 23 T − Tref + C 34 ε
σ 13 C 15 C 25 C 56 2ε 12 β 13 C 35
" Note that the stiffness coefficients are obtained by inverting the fully
populated compliance matrix - a nontrivial task
535
CONTINUED
" Simplification of the following general constitutive equation is not as

easy
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16 α 11
σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22 α 22
ε 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33 α 33
= σ 23
+ T − Tref
2ε 23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 2α 23
2ε 13 σ 13 2α 13
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56
2ε 12 σ 12 2α 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66
" First, the equation given above is expressed as
ε 11 α 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16
σ 11
ε 22 α 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22
ε 33 α 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33
− T − Tref = σ 23
2ε 23 2α 23 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46
2ε 13 2α 13 σ 13
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56
2ε 12 2α 12 σ 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66
536
CONTINUED
" Then, elimination of the transverse-shearing strains gives
ε 11 α 11 S 11 S 12 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 16
σ 11
ε 22 α 22 S 12 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 σ 22
ε 33 α 33 S 13 S 23 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 36 σ 33
− T − Tref =
0 0 S 14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 46 σ 23
0 0 σ 13
S 15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 56
2ε 12 2α 12 σ 12
S 16 S 26 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 66
" Rearranging the rows and columns into a convenient form gives
ε 11 α 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 S 14 S 15
σ 11
ε 22 α 22 S 12 S 22 S 26 S 23 S 24 S 25 σ 22
2ε 12 2α 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 S 46 S 56 σ 12
− T − Tref = σ 33
ε 33 α 33 S 13 S 23 S 36 S 33 S 34 S 35
0 0 σ 23
S 14 S 24 S 46 S 34 S 44 S 45
0 0 σ 13
S 15 S 25 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55
537
CONTINUED
" For convenience, let the mechanical strains be denoted by

σ
ε 11 ε 11 α 11
σ
ε 22 ε 22 α 22
σ
2ε 12 2ε 12 2α 12
σ = − T − Tref
ε 33 ε 33 α 33
0 0 0
0 0 0
" Using ε − α T − Tref

33 33 =ε , the previous matrix constitutive equation
becomes
σ
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 S 14 S 15
σ σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 26 S 23 S 24 S 25 σ 22
σ
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 S 46 S 56 σ 12
ε
= σ 33
S 13 S 23 S 36 S 33 S 34 S 35
0 σ 23
S 14 S 24 S 46 S 34 S 44 S 45
σ 13
0 S 15 S 25 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55
538
CONTINUED
" Next, the matrix constitutive equation

σ
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 S 14 S 15
σ σ 11
ε 22 S 12 S 22 S 26 S 23 S 24 S 25 σ 22
σ
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 S 46 S 56 σ 12
ε
= σ 33 is separated to get
S 13 S 23 S 36 S 33 S 34 S 35
0 σ 23
S 14 S 24 S 46 S 34 S 44 S 45
σ 13
0 S 15 S 25 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55
σ
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 σ 33
σ
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + S 23 S 24 S 25 σ 23 and
σ
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 σ 13
ε S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11 S 33 S 34 S 35 σ 33
0 = S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22 + S 34 S 44 S 45 σ 23
0 S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12 S 35 S 45 S 55 σ 13
539
CONTINUED
" Solving the previous equation with ε for σ 33, σ 23, and σ 13 gives
−1 −1
σ 33 S 33 S 34 S 35 ε S 33 S 34 S 35 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11
σ 23 = S 34 S 44 S 45 0 − S 34 S 44 S 45 S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22
σ 13 S 35 S 45 S 55 0 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12
" Back substitution of the vector containing σ 33, σ 23, and σ 13 into
σ
ε 11 S 11 S 12 S 16 σ 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 σ 33
σ
ε 22 = S 12 S 22 S 26 σ 22 + S 23 S 24 S 25 σ 23
σ
2ε 12 S 16 S 26 S 66 σ 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 σ 13
yields the result

σ
ε 11 s s s
11 12 16 σ 11 S 11
σ
ε 22
σ
= s s s
12 22 26
σ 22 + S 22 ε
2ε 12 s s s
16 26 66
σ 12 S 12
540
CONTINUED
" The matrix with the subscripted s terms is given by

s s s
−1
11 12 16 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 13 S 23 S 36
s s s
12 22 26
= S 12 S 22 S 26 − S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 14 S 24 S 46
s s s
16 26 66
S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 15 S 25 S 56
" The vector with the subscripted S terms is given by

−1
S 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 1
S 22 = S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 0
S 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 0
" Next, expressing the mechanical strains in terms of the total strains and
the strains caused by free thermal expansion results in
ε 11 s s s
11 12 16 σ 11 α 11 S 11
ε 22 = s s s
12 22 26
σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref + S 22 ε
2ε 12 s s s
16 26 66
σ 12 2α 12 S 12
541
!! !

CONTINUED
" Thus, the constitutive equations for generalized plane strain, in terms
of compliance coefficients and thermal-expansion coefficients, become
! 11 s s s
11 12 16 " 11 # 11 S 11
! 22 = s s s
12 22 26
" 22 + # 22 T $ Tref + S 22 ! where
2! 12 s s s
16 26 66
" 12 2# 12 S 12
s s s
$1
11 12 16 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 S 13 S 23 S 36
s s s
12 22 26
= S 12 S 22 S 26 $ S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 S 14 S 24 S 46
s s s
16 26 66
S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 15 S 25 S 56
$1
S 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 1
and S 22 = S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 0
S 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 0
" The s ij are called the reduced compliance coefficients

" When ! = 0 , the state of strain reduces to that known simply as plane
strain
542
CONTINUED
" Once a given generalized-plane-strain or regular-plane-strain boundary-

value problem is solved by using the following equation, the stresses
and strains in the following equation are known
ε 11 s s s
11 12 16 σ 11 α 11 S 11
ε 22 = s s s
12 22 26
σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref + S 22 ε
2ε 12 s s s
16 26 66
σ 12 2α 12 S 12
" The other stresses are then given by

−1 −1
σ 33 S 33 S 34 S 35 ε S 33 S 34 S 35 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11
σ 23 = S 34 S 44 S 45 0 − S 34 S 44 S 45 S 14 S 24 S 46 σ 22
σ 13 S 35 S 45 S 55 0 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 15 S 25 S 56 σ 12
543
CONTINUED
" The relationship between the reduced compliances and the stiffnesses
is obtained by first considering the equation
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 α 11 C 13
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref + C 23 ε
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 2α 12 C 36
" Inverting gives
−1 −1
ε 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 σ 11 α 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13
ε 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref − C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23 ε
2ε 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 σ 12 2α 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36
544
CONTINUED
" Comparing
−1 −1
ε 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 σ 11 α 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13
ε 22 = C 12 C 22 C 26 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref − C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23 ε
2ε 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 σ 12 2α 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36
with
ε 11 s s s
11 12 16 σ 11 α 11 S 11
ε 22 = s s s
12 22 26
σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref + S 22 ε indicates that
2ε 12 s s s
16 26 66
σ 12 2α 12 S 12
s s s
−1 −1
11 12 16 C 11 C 12 C 16 S 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13
s s s
12 22 26
= C 12 C 22 C 26 and S 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 26 C 23
s s s
16 26 66
C 16 C 26 C 66 S 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36
545
CONTINUED
" For a material that is monoclinic in the plane of the cross-section

x3 = 0 of the body, the generalized-plane-strain thermal moduli reduce
to
β 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 α 11 β 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 α 11
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 C 26 α 22 and β 23 =− 0 0 0 α 22
β 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2α 12 β 13 0 0 0 2α 12
" The generalized-plane-strain constitutive equations become
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 β 11 C 13
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 β 12 C 36
σ 33 C 13 C 23 C 36 ε 11 β 33 C 33
σ 23 = 0 0 0 ε 22 + 0 T − Tref + 0 ε
σ 13 0 0 0 2ε 12 0 0
546
CONTINUED
" The last equation is reduced further to give σ 23 = σ 13 = 0 and
σ 33 = C 13 ε 11 − α 11 T − Tref + C 23 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref + 2C 36 ε 12 − α 12 T − Tref + C 33ε
" Likewise, for a material that is monoclinic in the plane of the cross-
section of the body,
s s s
−1
11 12 16 S 11 S 12 S 16 S 13 0 0 S 33 0 0 S 13 S 23 S 36
s s s
12 22 26
= S 12 S 22 S 26 − S 23 0 0 0 S 44 S 45 0 0 0
s s s
16 26 66
S 16 S 26 S 66 S 36 0 0 0 S 45 S 55 0 0 0
which simplifies to
S 13S 13 S 13S 23 S 13S 36
S 11 − S 12 − S 16 −
s s s11 12 16
S 33 S 33 S 33
S 13S 23 S 23S 23 S 23S 36
s s s12 22 26
= S 12 −
S 33
S 22 −
S 33
S 26 −
S 33
s s s16 26 66 S 13S 36 S 23S 36 S 36S 36
S 16 − S 26 − S 66 −
S 33 S 33 S 33
547
CONTINUED
" Similarly,
−1
S 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 1
S 22 = S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 0 simplifies to
S 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 0
−1
S 11 S 13 0 0 S 33 0 0 1 S 13 S 23 S 36
T
T
S 22 = S 23 0 0 0 S 44 S 45 0 or S 11 S 22 S 12 =
S 33 S 33 S 33
S 12 S 36 0 0 0 S 45 S 55 0
" The other stresses are then given by

−1 −1
σ 33 S 33 0 0 ε S 33 0 0 S 13 S 23 S 36 σ 11
σ 23 = 0 S 44 S 45 0 − 0 S 44 S 45 0 0 0 σ 22
σ 13 0 S 45 S 55 0 0 S 45 S 55 0 0 0 σ 12
which reduce to σ 33 = 1 ε − S 13σ 11 − S 23σ 22 − S 36σ 12 and σ 23 = σ 13 = 0

S 33
548
CONTINUED
" For a specially orthotropic material, the generalized-plane-strain

thermal moduli reduce to
β 11 C 11 C 12 0 α 11 β 33 C 13 C 23 0 α 11
β 22 = − C 12 C 22 0 α 22 and β 23 =− 0 0 0 α 22
β 12 0 0 C 66 0 β 13 0 0 0 0
" The generalized-plane-strain constitutive equations become
σ 11 C 11 C 12 0 ε 11 β 11 C 13
σ 22 = C 12 C 22 0 ε 22 + β 22 T − Tref + C 23 ε and
σ 12 0 0 C 66 2ε 12 0 0
σ 33 C 13 C 23 0 ε 11 β 33 C 33
σ 23 = 0 0 0 ε 22 + 0 T − Tref + 0 ε
σ 13 0 0 0 2ε 12 0 0
549
CONTINUED
" The last equation is reduced further to give σ 23 = σ 13 = 0 and
σ 33 = C 13 ε 11 − α 11 T − Tref + C 23 ε 22 − α 22 T − Tref + C 33ε

E1 E2 E3
C 11 = 1 − ν 23 ν 32 C 22 = 1 − ν 13 ν 31 C 33 = 1 − ν 12 ν 21
Δ Δ Δ
E1 E
C 12 = ν 21 + ν 23 ν 31 = 2 ν 12 + ν 13 ν 32 C 66 = G 12
Δ Δ
E1 E
C 13 = ν 31 + ν 21 ν 32 = 3 ν 13 + ν 12 ν 23
Δ Δ
E2 E
C 23 = ν 32 + ν 12 ν 31 = 3 ν 23 + ν 13 ν 21
Δ Δ
where Δ = 1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
550
CONTINUED
" The nonzero thermal moduli are expressed as
E 1 1 − ν 23 ν 32 α 11 + ν 21 + ν 23 ν 31 α 22
β 11 = −
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
E 2 ν 12 + ν 13 ν 32 α 11 + 1 – ν 13 ν 31 α 22
β 22 = −
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
E 3 ν 31 + ν 21 ν 32 α 11 + ν 23 + ν 13 ν 21 α 22
β 33 = −
1 − ν 12 ν 21 − ν 23 ν 32 − ν 13 ν 31 − 2ν
ν 21 ν 32 ν 13
551
CONTINUED
" Similarly, for a specially orthotropic material, the generalized-plane-

strain constitutive matrix becomes
s s s
−1
11 12 16 S 11 S 12 0 S 13 0 0 S 33 0 0 S 13 S 23 0
s s s
12 22 26
= S 12 S 22 0 − S 23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 0 0
s s s
16 26 66
0 0 S 66 0 0 0 0 0 S 55 0 0 0
which simplifies to
S 13S 13 S 13S 23
S 11 − S 12 − 0
S 33 S 33
s s 11 12
0
S S S S
s s 12 22
0 = S 12 − 13 23
S 33
S 22 − 23 23
S 33
0
0 0 s 66
0 0 S 66
552
CONTINUED
" Also
s s
−1
11 12
0 C 11 C 12 0
s s
12 22
0 = C 12 C 22 0
0 0 s 66
0 0 C 66
" Similarly,
−1
S 11 S 13 S 14 S 15 S 33 S 34 S 35 1
S 22 = S 23 S 24 S 25 S 34 S 44 S 45 0 simplifies to
S 12 S 36 S 46 S 56 S 35 S 45 S 55 0
−1
S 11 S 13 0 0 S 33 0 0 1
T
T S 13 S 23
S 22 = S 23 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 or S 11 S 22 S 12 = 0
0 S 33 S 33
S 12 0 0 0 0 0 S 55
553
CONTINUED
" Finally, the generalized-plane-strain constitutive equations for a

specially orthotropic material become
ε 11 s s
11 12
0 σ 11 α 11 S 11
ε 22 = s s
12 22
0 σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref + S 22 ε
2ε 12 0 0 s 66
σ 12 0 0
S 13S 13 S 13S 23
S 11 − S 12 − 0
S 33 S 33
s s
11 12
0
S S S S
s s
12 22
0 = S 12 − 13 23
S 33
S 22 − 23 23
S 33
0
0 0 s 66
0 0 S 66
T
T S 13 S 23
S 11 S 22 S 12 = 0
S 33 S 33
554
CONTINUED
" The matrix equation for the other stresses becomes

−1 −1
σ 33 S 33 0 0 ε S 33 0 0 S 13 S 23 0 σ 11
σ 23 = 0 S 44 0 0 − 0 S 44 0 0 0 0 σ 22
σ 13 0 0 S 55 0 0 0 S 55 0 0 0 σ 12
which reduces to σ 33 = 1 ε − S 13σ 11 − S 23σ 22 and σ 23 = σ 13 = 0

S 33
555
CONCLUDED
" In terms of the engineering constants, the reduced compliance

coefficients and are given by
1 − ν 13ν 31 ν 12 + ν 13ν 32 ν 21 + ν 23ν 31

s 11 = s 12 = − =−
E1 E1 E2
1 − ν 23ν 32
s 22
= s 66
= 1
E2 G 12
" Similarly,
S 11 = − ν 31 S 22 = − ν 32 S 12 = 0 and
σ 33 = E 3ε + ν 31σ 11 + ν 32σ 22
556
FOR PLANE STRAIN
" The two primary constitutive equations of generalized plane strain are
given by
σ 11 C 11 C 12 C 16 ε 11 β 11 C 13
σ 12 C 16 C 26 C 66 2ε 12 β 12 C 36
ε 11 s s s
11 12 16 σ 11 α 11 S 11
ε 22 = s s s
12 22 26
σ 22 + α 22 T − Tref + S 22 ε
2ε 12 s s s
16 26 66
σ 12 2α 12 S 12
" To obtain transformation equations for the constitutive terms appearing

in these equations, transformation equations that relate
σ 1′′1′′ σ 11
Σ′′ ≡ σ 2′′2′′ to Σ ≡ σ 22 are needed
σ 1′′2′′ σ 12
557
FOR PLANE STRAIN - CONTINUED
" Likewise transformation equations that relate
ε 1′′1′′ ε 11
E′′ ≡ ε 2′′2′′ to E ≡ ε 22 are needed
2ε 1′′2′′ 2ε 12
" Consider the dextral (right-handed) rotation of coordinate frames

shown in the figure
x 3 , x 3′′
i 3 , i 3′′ x 2′′
i 2′′ θ3
x2
i1 i2
i 1′′
x1 θ3
x 1′′
558
" Previously, the matrix form of the stress-transformation law for this
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2 2
σ 1′′1′′ sin θ 3 cos θ 3 0 0 0 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 11
σ 2′′2′′ σ 22
σ 3′′3′′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 σ 33
=
σ 2′′3′′ 0 0 0 cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ3 0 σ 23
σ 1′′3′′ σ 13
σ 1′′2′′ 0 0 0 sinθ
θ 3 cosθ
θ3 0 σ 12
2 2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
" By inspection, it follows that

2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
σ 1′′1′′ 2
σ 11
2
σ 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 σ 22
σ 1′′2′′ 2 2 σ 12
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
559
" Thus, the stress-transformation law for a state of generalized plane
strain and a dextral rotation about the x3 axis is identical to that for the
corresponding plane-stress case and is given by
Σ′′ = Tσ θ 3 Σ where
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3 cos θ 3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
−1
" Likewise, the inverse is given by Σ = Tσ θ 3 Σ′′ where
2 2
−1
cos θ 3 sin θ 3 − 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ3 = Tσ – θ3 =
2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
560
" Previously, the matrix form of the strain-transformation law for this
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 1′′1′′ 2 2 ε 11
θ 3cosθ
θ3
ε 2′′2′′ ε 22
ε 3′′3′′ 0 0 1 0 0 0 ε 33
=
2εε2′′3′′ 0 0 0 cosθ
θ3 − sinθ
θ3 0 2εε23
2εε1′′3′′ 2εε13
0 0 0 sinθ
θ3 cosθ
θ3 0
2εε1′′2′′ 2 2
2εε12
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 0 0 0 cos θ 3 − sin θ 3
" Inspection of this matrix equation reveals

2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3 ε 11
ε 1′′1′′ 2 2
ε 2′′2′′ = sin θ 3 cos θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ3 ε 22
2ε 1′′2′′ − 2sinθ
2 2
2ε 12
θ 3cosθ
θ3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
561
FOR PLANE STRAIN - CONCLUDED
" The last matrix equation is expressed symbolically by
E′′ = Tε θ 3 E where
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tε θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" Similarly, the matrix form of the inverse is given by

−1
E = Tε θ 3 E′′
562
PLANE STRAIN
" In terms of another set of coordinates x 1′′, x 2′′, x 3′′ that correspond to a
dextral rotation about the x3 axis, the constitutive equations must also
have the forms given as
σ 1′′1′′ C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ ε 1′′1′′ β 1′′1′′ C 1′′3′′

σ 2′′2′′ = C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′6′′ ε 2′′2′′ + β 2′′2′′ T − Tref + C 2′′3′′ ε and
σ 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 6′′6′′ 2ε 1′′2′′ β 1′′2′′ C 3′′6′′
ε 1′′1′′ s 1′′1′′ s 1′′2′′ s 1′′6′′ σ 1′′1′′ α 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′

ε 2′′2′′ = s 1′′2′′ s 2′′2′′ s 2′′6′′
σ 2′′2′′ + α 2′′2′′ T − Tref + S 2′′2′′ ε
2ε 1′′2′′ s 1′′6′′ s 2′′6′′ s 6′′6′′
σ 1′′2′′ 2α 1′′2′′ S 1′′2′′
s s s
−1
β 1′′1′′ C 1′′1′′ Q 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ α 1′′1′′ 1′′1′′ 1′′2′′ 1′′6′′ C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′
β 2′′2′′ = − C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′6′′ α 2′′2′′ s 1′′2′′ s 2′′2′′ s 2′′6′′
= C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′6′′
β 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 6′′6′′ 2α 1′′2′′ s 1′′6′′ s 2′′6′′ s 6′′6′′
C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 6′′6′′
563
PLANE STRAIN - CONTINUED
−1
S 1′′1′′ C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 1′′3′′
and S 2′′2′′ = − C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′6′′ C 2′′3′′
S 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 6′′6′′ C 3′′6′′
" For convenience, let
s s s C 11 C 12 C 16 C 13
s =
11 12 16
s s s12 22 26 C = C 12 C 22 C 26 C = C 23
s s s16 26 66
C 16 C 26 C 66 C 36
α 11 β 11 S 11
α = α 22
2α 12
β = β 22 S = S 22
S 12
Θ≡T−T ref
β 12
such that the corresponding constitutive equations are given by

E = s Σ + α Θ+ S ε and Σ = C E + β Θ+ C ε
564
" Additionally, let
s s s C 1′′1′′ C 1′′2′′ C 1′′6′′ C 1′′3′′

s′ =
1′′1′′ 1′′2′′ 1′′6′′
s 1′′2′′ s 2′′2′′ s 2′′6′′ C′′ = C 1′′2′′ C 2′′2′′ C 2′′6′′ C′′ = C 2′′3′′

s 1′′6′′ s 2′′6′′ s 6′′6′′
C 1′′6′′ C 2′′6′′ C 6′′6′′ C 3′′6′′
α 1′′1′′ β 1′′1′′ S 1′′1′′

α′ = α 2′′2′′
2α 1′′2′′
β′ = β 2′′2′′ S′ = S 2′′2′′
S 1′′2′′
β 1′′2′′
such that the corresponding constitutive equations are given by
E′′ = s′ Σ′′ + α ′ Θ + S ′ ε and
Σ′′ = C′′ E′′ + β ′ Θ + C′′ ε
565
−1 −1
" Substituting Σ = Tσ Σ′′ and E = Tε E′′ into
Σ = C E + β Θ+ C ε gives
−1 −1
Tσ Σ′′ = C Tε E′′ + β Θ + C ε

−1
Σ′′ = Tσ C Tε E′′ + Tσ β Θ + Tσ C ε
" Comparing this equation with Σ′′ = C′′ E′′ + β ′ Θ + C′′ ε it

follows that
−1
C′′ = Tσ C Tε , β ′ = Tσ β , and C′′ = Tσ C
566
−1 −1
" Rearranging C′′ = Tσ C Tε gives C = Tσ C′′ Tε
−1 −1
" Likewise, β = Tσ β′ and C = Tσ C′′
−1 −1
" Next, substituting Σ = Tσ Σ′′ and E = Tε E′′ into
E = s Σ + α Θ+ S ε gives
s
−1 −1
Tε E′′ = Tσ Σ′′ + α Θ + S ε
s
−1
E′′ = Tε Tσ Σ′′ + Tε α Θ + Tε S ε
567
" Comparing the last equation with E′′ = s′ Σ′′ + α ′ Θ + S ′ ε
reveals that
s′ s
−1
= Tε Tσ , α ′ = Tε α , and S ′ = Tε S
s′ s s s′
−1 −1
" Rearranging = Tε Tσ gives = Tε Tσ
−1 −1
" In addition, α = Tε α′ and S = Tε S′
568
" Noting that for a dextral rotation about the x3 axis,
−1 T −1 T
Tε = Tσ and Tσ = Tε it follows that
s′ Tε s Tε
T
s Tσ s ′ Tσ
T
= =
T T
C′ = Tσ C Tσ C = Tε C′ Tε
T
T
T
C′′ = Tσ C C = Tε C′′
T
S′ = Tε S S = Tσ S′
569
with
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tσ θ3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − 2sinθ
2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
2
and
− sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2 2
θ 3cosθ
θ3
Tε θ 3 ≡ 2
sin θ 3
2
cos θ 3 − sinθ
θ 3cosθ
2
θ3
2
− 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
θ 3 2sinθ
θ 3cosθ
" Comparing these equations with those of the plane stress case reveals
that the specific transformation equations can be obtained from those
given previously for plane stress as follows
570
PLANE STRAIN - CONCLUDED
" For plane stress, Q′ = Tσ Q Tσ , with m = cosθ 3 and

n = sinθ 3 , gave
4 2 2 2 2 4
" Thus, by similarity, C′ = Tσ C Tσ gives

4 2 2 2 2 4
" The other transformation equations are obtained in a similar manner
571
LINES AND CURVES
OF
MATERIAL SYMMETRY
572
LINES AND CURVES OF MATERIAL SYMMETRY
" Up to this point of the present study, a local view of material symmetry
at a specific point P of a material body has been examined
" The conditions for the existence of various types of material

symmetries have been ascertained by using reflective-symmetry
transformations based on rectangular Cartesian coordinate frames that
are local to the point P
" For some homogeneous materials, the corresponding planes of

material symmetry for every point of the material body are aligned such
that it is possible to define at least one straight line whose tangent is
perpendicular to each corresponding symmetry plane
" This line is called a principal material direction
" When more than one distinct line connects sets of contiguous material
points with identical planes of reflective symmetry, more than one
principal material direction exists
573
CONTINUED
" For example, a homogeneous orthotropic material possesses three

principal material directions that are mutually perpendicular
" One important point illustrated herein is that the constitutive equations
become simpler when a material symmetry plane exists, and that the
inherent simplicity becomes hidden when the constitutive equations
are expressed in terms of another rectangular Cartesian coordinate
frame whose axes are oriented differently
" For example, one coordinate frame exists for a generally

orthotropic material in which the constitutive equations correspond
to a specially orthotropic material
" In addition, by defining a global rectangular Cartesian coordinate frame

with at least one axis parallel to a principal material direction, the
simplicity of the constitutive equations can be exploited to simplify the
corresponding boundary-value problem
574
!! !!!

CONTINUED
" In a more general scenario, a contiguous set of material points may

exist with a plane of elastic symmetry, at a given point, that is
perpendicular to the tangent to a curve, at that point
" For this case, the principal material direction follows a smooth
curve, referred to herein as a material symmetry curve
" For this case, a curvilinear coordinate system can be defined in which
one coordinate curve coincides with a material symmetry curve
" For example, consider an orthotropic material in which the three

perpendicular principal directions at a given point of the body
coincide with radial, circumferential, and axial directions of a
cylindrical coordinate system
" It is important to emphasize that the rectangular Cartesian coordinate

frames used to define symmetry transformations are local frames
associated with a material point and not a global coordinate frame
575
CONCLUDED
" Thus, at a given point of a material symmetry curve, one should

envision a local rectangular Cartesian coordinate frames upon which all
symmetry conditions associated with that point are deduced
Plane of material
Curve of material symmetry at point P
symmetry
Tangent vector
at point P
P
Q Plane of material
symmetry at point Q
Coordinate curve C
Tangent vector
Surface of at point Q
material
points Coordinate curve
576
BIBLIOGRAPHY
577
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, D. H. and Haisler, W. E.: Introduction to Aerospace Structural
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1985.
Berthelot, J.-M.: Composite Materials - Mechanical Behavior and Structural

Analysis. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., New York, 1999.
Bisplinghoff, R. L.; Mar, J. W.; and Pian, T. H. H.: Statics of Deformable

Solids. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1990.
Boley, B. A. and Weiner, J. H.: Theory of Thermal Stresses. Dover

Publications, Inc., New York, 1988.
Boresi, A. P.; Sidebottom, O. M.; Seely, F. B.; and Smith, J. O.: Advanced
Mechanics of Materials. Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1978.
Chadwick, P.; Vianello, M.; and Cowin, S. C.: A New Proof that the Number
of Linear Elastic Symmetries is Eight. Journal of the Mechanics and
Physics of Solids, Vol. 49, 2001, pp. 2471-2492.
578
BIBLIOGRAPHY - CONTINUED
Chandrasekharaiah, D. S. and Debnath, L.: Continuum Mechanics.
Academic Press, Inc, New York, 1994.
Cowin, S. C.: Properties of the Anisotropic Elasticity Tensor. The Quarterly

Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 42, Part 2, May 1989,
pp. 249-266.
Donaldson, B. K.: Analysis of Aircraft Structures. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New

York, 1993.
Fung, Y. C.: Foundations of Solid Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey, 1965.
Graff, K. F.: Wave Motion in Elastic Solids. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, 1991.
Green, A. E. and Zerna, W.: Theoretical Elasticity. Second Edition, Dover

Publications, Inc., New York, 1992, pp. 148-159.
579
Hearmon, R. F. S.: An Introduction to Applied Anisotropic Elasticity. Oxford
University Press, 1961.
Herakovich, C. T. and Aboudi, J.: Thermal Effects in Composites, Chapter 1,

Thermal Stresses I. Vol. 5, R. B. Hetnarski, Ed., Lastran Corporation,
Rochester, New York, 1999, pp. 1-142.
Hetnarski, R. B.: Basic Equations of the Theory of Thermal Stresses,

Chapter 1, Thermal Stresses I. Vol. 1, R. B. Hetnarski, Ed., North-Holland
Publishing Co., The Netherlands, 1986, pp. 1-21.
Khan, A. S. and Huang, S.: Continuum Theory of Plasticity. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1995.
Malvern, L. E.: Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium.

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969.
Mase, G. E. and G. T. Mase: Continuum Mechanics for Engineers. CRC

Press, Inc., 1992.
580
Noor, A. K.; Kim, Y. H., and Peters, J. M.: Strain Energy of Thermally-
Stressed Multilayer Panels and its Sensitivity Coefficients, Non-Classical
Problems of the Theory and Behavior of Structures Exposed to Complex
Environmental Conditions. L. Librescu, Ed., AMD-Vol. 164, ASME, 1993, pp.
33-43.
Nowinski, J. L.: Theory of Thermoelasticity with Applications. Sijthoff and

Noordhoff International Publishers, Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands,
1978.
Padovan, J.: Anisotropic Thermal Stress Analysis, Chapter 3, Thermal

Stresses I. Vol. 1, R. B. Hetnarski, Ed., North-Holland Publishing Co., The
Netherlands, 1986, pp. 143-262.
Pilkey, W. D. and Wunderlich, W.: Mechanics of Structures - Variational and

Computational Methods. CRC Press, Inc., 1994.
581
Reddy, J. N.: Energy and Variational Methods in Applied Mechanics - With
an Introduction to the Finite Element Method. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1984.
Rosen, J.: Symmetry Discovered - Concepts and Applications in Nature and

Science. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1998.
Saada, A. S.: Elasticity Theory and Applications. Second Edition, R. E.

Krieger Publishing Co., Malibar, Florida, 1993.
Shames, I. H.: Mechanics of Deformable Solids. R. E. Krieger Publishing

Co., Malibar, Florida, 1964.
Shames, I. H. and Dym, C. L.: Energy and Finite Element Methods in

Structural Mechanics. Hemisphere Publishing Corp., New York, 1985.
Sokolnikoff, I. S.: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Second Edition,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
582
Tauchert, T. R.: Energy Principles in Structural Mechanics. R. E. Krieger
Publishing Co., Malibar, Florida, 1981.
Ting, T. C. T.: Anisotropic Elasticity - Theory and Applications. Oxford

University Press, Inc., New York, 1996.
Washizu, K.: Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity. Third Edition,

Pergamon Press, Ltd., Elmsford, NewYork, 1982.
Wempner, G.: Mechanics of Solids with Applications to Thin Bodies.

Sijthoff and Noordhoff International Publishers, Alphen aan den Rijn, The
Netherlands, 1981.
583
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An In-depth Tutorial on Constitutive Equations for Elastic Anisotropic 5b. GRANT NUMBER
Materials
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14. ABSTRACT
An in-depth tutorial on the constitutive equations for elastic, anisotropic materials is presented. Basic concepts are introduced that are used to characterize
materials, and notions about how anisotropic material deform are presented. Hooke’s law and the Duhamel-Neuman law for isotropic materials are presented
and discussed. Then, the most general form of Hooke’s law for elastic anisotropic materials is presented and symmetry requirements are given. A similar
presentation is also given for the generalized Duhamel-Neuman law for elastic, anisotropic materials that includes thermal effects. Transformation equations
for stress and strains are presented and the most general form of the transformation equations for the constitutive matrices are given. Then, specialized
transformation equations are presented for dextral roatations about the coordinate axes. Next, concepts of material symmetry are introduced and criteria for
material symmetries are presesented. Additionally, engineering constants of fully anisotropic, elastic materials are derived from first principles and the
specialized to several cases of practical importance.
15. SUBJECT TERMS
Constitutive equations; anisotropic materials; engineering constants; plane strain; plane stress; strain; stress
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An In-Depth Tutorial on Constitutive Equations

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PREFATORY COMMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

BASIC CONCEPTS AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Basic Notions of Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR ISOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . .23

GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW FOR HOMOGENEOUS, ANISOTROPIC,

Illustration of the Path-Independence Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Standard Forms for Generalized Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

GENERALIZED DUHAMEL-NEUMANN LAW FOR HOMOGENEOUS,

Clapeyron’s Formula for Thermoelastic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

ABRIDGED NOTATION AND ELASTIC CONSTANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Transformations for Dextral Rotations about the x1 Axis . . . . . . . . . .146

MATERIAL SYMMETRIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Monoclinic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About

Monoclinic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About

ORTHOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

Orthotropic Materials - Reflective Symmetry About the

Constitutive Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Trigonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry About Planes that

Trigonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry About Planes that

Summary of Trigonal Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

TETRAGONAL MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324

Tetragonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry Planes that Contain

Tetragonal Materials - Reflective Symmetry Planes that

TRANSVERSELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347

Transversely Isotropic Materials - Isotropy Plane x1 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . .359

CUBIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370

COMPLETELY ISOTROPIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

ENGINEERING CONSTANTS FOR ELASTIC MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . .388

LINES AND CURVES OF MATERIAL SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572

After establishing a broad range of material symmetries, the engineering

MOTIVATION AND APPROACH

" The material presented herein is redundant in several sections, by

" First, to reinforce concepts and enhance learning

" Second, to provide stand-alone sections that can be used

" Third, to serve as a comprehensive reference document

" To Manuel Stein - Wisdom, knowledge, humility, and kindness

" To James H. Starnes, Jr. - The embodiment of scientific thirst and

" To Harold G. Bush - The epitome of common sense and sound

" The macroscopic physical, or material, properties of a body are

" For example, a relationship between stress, strain, and temperature

" The material properties of a homogeneous solid are described

BASIC CONCEPTS - CONCLUDED

" A body is described as isotropic at a point if its properties at that point

" A body that is isotropic at a given point is described mathematically as

" A body is described as homogeneous and isotropic if its properties are

" Distortion is defined as deformation that consists of a change in

" Dilatation is defined as deformation that consists of a change in

BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION

" Pure normal stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

Deformed shape of Deformed shape of

" Pure shearing stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

BASIC NOTIONS OF DEFORMATION - CONTINUED

" Pure shearing stresses acting within a homogeneous, isotropic solid

Deformed shape of Deformed shape of

" All unrestrained thermal expansion is volumetric and uniform within

" Strains that are caused by unconstrained thermal expansions, that