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 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE

Automation is incorporated into a machine tool or machining system as a whole to achieve greater productivity
with a consistent quality target to meet the great requirements and the overall economy. This automation allows
rapid and precise auxiliary movements, i.e. handling operations such as the assembly of tools, the feeding of
bars, the indexing of tools, etc., Repeatable with the minimum human intervention but with the help of special
mechanisms or additional and control systems. These systems can be mechanical, electromechanical, hydraulic
or electronic or their combination. It has already been mentioned that, according to the degree of automation,
machine tools are classified as,
• Non-automatic, where most of the handling operations, independently of the processing operations, are
performed manually, such as central lathes, etc.
• Semi-automatic
• Auto ati i hi h all ope atio s o au ilia ope atio s, as ell as p o essi g ope atio s, a e pe fo ed
automatically.
General purpose machine tools can have both fixed automation and flexible automation, in which the latter is
characterized by computerized numerical control (CNC). Among machine tools, lathes are more versatile and
widely used. Only the automation of lathes was discussed here. Conventional automatic lathes of general use
can be classified as,
m
o
.c
Semiautomatic:
• Capsta lathe a t pe tu et lathe
• Tu et lathe
• Multiple spi dle tu et lathes
a
• op i g h d auli lathe
m
a
Automatic:
• Auto ati utti g off lathe
• Si gle spi dle auto ati lathe n
• S iss t pe auto ati lathe
y
d
• Multiple spi dle auto ati lathes
The othe atego ies of se iauto ati a d auto ati lathes a e: ο Ve ti al tu et lathe ο Spe ial pu pose lathes
u
ο No -conventional type, i.e., flexibly automatic CNC lathes, turning Centre etc.
Semiautomatic lathes
t
S
The characteristic features of such lathes are;
• so e ajo au ilia otio s a d ha dli g ope atio s like a feedi g, speed ha ge, tool ha ge et . a e
done quickly and consistently with lesser human involvement
• The ope ato s eed lesse skill a d putti g lesse effo t a d atte tio
• Suita le fo at h o s all lot p odu tio
• Costlie tha e te lathes of sa e apa it .

Capstan and Turret lathes

The semiautomatic lathes, capstan lathe and turret lathe are very similar in construction, operation and
application. Fig.1 Schematically shows the basic configuration of capstan lathe and turret lathe.

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Page no: 1
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE

m
o
Fig. 1

.c
In contrast to center lathes, capstan and turret lathes
• a e se iauto ati
a
• possess a a iall o a le i de a le tu et ostl he ago al i pla e of tailsto k
• holds la ge u e of utti g tools; up to fou i i de a le tool post o the f o t slide, one in the rear
m
slide and up to six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in the schematic diagrams.

a
• a e o e p odu ti e fo ui k e gage e t a d o e lapped fu tio i g of the tools i additio to faste
mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.

n
• e a le epetiti e p odu tio of sa e jo e ui i g less i ol e e t, effo t a d atte tio of the operator

y
for pre-setting of work–speed and feed rate and length of travel of the cutting tools
• a e elati el ostlie

d
• a e suita le a d e o o i all ia le fo at h p odu tio o s all lot p odu tio .

u
There are some differences in between capstan and turret lathes such as,
• Tu et lathes a e elati el o e o ust a d hea -duty machines
t
• Capsta lathes ge e all deal ith sho t o lo g od t pe la ks held i ollet, he eas tu et lathes ostl

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work on chucking type jobs held in the quick acting chucks
• I apsta lathe, the tu et t a els ith li ited st oke le gth ithi a saddle t pe guide lo k, alled
auxiliary bed, which is clamped on the main bed as indicated in Fig, whereas in turret lathe, the heavy
turret being mounted on the saddle which directly slides with larger stroke length on the main bed as
indicated in Fig.1
• E te al s e th eads a e ut i apsta lathe, if e ui ed, usi g a self-opening die being mounted in one
face of the turret, whereas in turret lathes external threads are generally cut, if required, by a single point
or multipoint chasing tool being mounted on the front slide and moved by a short lead screw and a swing
type half nut.
Fig.1 below is showing the pictorial views of a typical capstan lathe,

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Page no: 2
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 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
Ram type turret lathes, i.e., capstan lathes are usually single spindle and horizontal axis type. Turret lathes are
also mostly single spindle and horizontal type but it may be also
• Ve ti al t pe a d
• Multi spi dle t pe so e o e p odu ti e tu et lathes are provided with preemptive drive which enables
on-line presetting and engaging the next work-speed and thus help in reducing the cycle time.

Multiple spindles Vertical Turret lathe

Turret lathes are mostly horizontal axis single spindle type. The multiple spindle vertical turret lathes are
characterized by:
• Suita l used fo la ge lot o ass p odu tio of jo s of ge e all ; Δ hu ki g t pe Δ elati el la ge size Δ
requiring limited number of machining operations
• Ma hi e a is – e ti al fo Δ lesse floo spa e o upied Δ eas loadi g a d u loadi g of la ks a d
fi ished jo s Δ elie i g the spi dles of e di g loads due to jo – weight.
• Nu e of spi dle – four to eight.

m
Fig. visualize the basic configuration of multiple spindle vertical turret lathes which are comprised mainly of a
large disc type spindle carrier and a tool holding vertical ram as shown.

o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
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S
Fig. 2

Progressively processing type:

The spindle carrier with the blanks fitted in the chucks on the rotating spindle is indexed at regular interval by a
Geneva mechanism. At each station the job undergoes a few preset machining works by the axially and / or
radically fed cutting tools. The blank getting all the different machining operations progressively at the different

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 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
work stations is unloaded at a particular station where the finished job is replaced by another fresh blank. This
type of lathes is suitable for jobs requiring large number of operations.

(a) Continuously working type:

Like in parallel processing type, here also each job is finished in the respective station where it was loaded. The
set of cutting tools, mostly fed only axially along a face of the ram continuously work on the same blank
throughout its one cycle of rotation along with the spindle carrier. The tool ram having same tool sets on its
faces also rotate simultaneously along with the spindle carrier which after each rotation halts for a while for
unloading the finished job and loading a fresh blank at a particular location. Such system is also suitable for jobs
requiring very few and simple machining operations.

Hydraulic copying (tracer controlled) lathes Jobs having steps, tapers and / or curved profiles, as typically shown
in Fig.3, are conveniently and economically produced in batch or lot in semi automatically operated tracer
controlled hydraulic copying lathe. The movement of the stylus along the template provided with the same
desired job-profile) is hydraulically transmitted to the cutting tool tip which replicates the template profile.

m
o
.c
a
m
Fig.3

a
(b) General Purpose Automatic lathes
Automatic lathes are essentially used for large lot or mass production of small rod type of jobs. Automatic lathes

n
are also classified into some distinguished categories based on constructional features, operational

y
characteristics, number of spindles and applications are as follows

Automatic cutting off lathe

d
u
These simple but automatic lathes are used for producing short work pieces of simple form by using few cross-

t
feeding tools. In addition to parting some simple operations like short turning, facing, chamfering etc. are also

S
done.

Single spindle automatic lathe

The general purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely used for quantity or mass production (by
machining) of high quality fasteners; bolts, screws, studs etc., bushings, pins, shafts, rollers, handles and similar
small metallic parts from long bars or tubes of regular section and also often from separate small blanks. Fig.4
Show a typical single spindle automatic lathe. Unlike the semiautomatic lathes, single spindle automats are:
• P efe a l a d esse tiall used fo la ge olu e of p odu tio i.e., la ge lot p odu tio a d ass
production
• used al a s fo p odu i g jo s of od, tu ula o i g t pe a d of elati el s alle size.
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Page no: 4
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
• u full auto ati all , i ludi g a feedi g a d tool i de i g, a d o ti uousl o e a lo g du atio
repeating the same machining cycle for each product
• provided with up to five radial tool slides which are moved by cams mounted on a cam shaft of relatively
smaller size and power but have higher spindle speeds
Swiss type automatic lathe
The characteristics and applications of these single spindle automatic lathes are:
 In respect of application: Used for lot or mass production of thin slender rod or tubular jobs, like
components of small clocks and wrist watches, by precision machining; o Job size (approximately) ⎯
Diameter range – 2 to 12 mm ⎯ Length range – 3 to 30 mm Dimensional accuracy and surface finish –
almost as good as provided by grinding
 I espe t of o figu atio a d ope atio ο The headsto k t a els e a li g a ial feed of the bar stock
against the cutting tools as indicated i Fig., The e is o tailsto k o tu et ο High spi dle speed –
, p fo s all jo dia ete ο The utti g tools up to fi e i u e i ludi g t o o the o ke
a a e fed adi all ο D illi g a d th eadi g tools, if e ui ed, a e o ed a ially using swiveling
de i e s ο The li d i al la ks a e p efi ished g i di g a d a e o ed th ough a a ide guide
bush as shown.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y Fig.4
Multi spindle automatic lathes
d
u
For further increase in rate of production of jobs usually of smaller size and simpler geometry. Multi

t
spindle automatic lathes having four to eight parallel spindles are preferably used. Unlike multi spindle
tu et lathes, ulti spi dle auto ati lathes a e ho izo tal fo o ki g o lo g a sto ks ο o k ostl
S
on long bar type or tubular blanks Multiple spindle automats also may be parallel action or progressively
working type. Machining of the inner and outer races in mass production of ball bearings are, for
instance, machined in multi spindle automatic lathes.
(ii) Kinematic Systems and Working Principles of Semi-Automatic and Automatic Lathes
The kinematic systems and basic principles of working of the following general purpose semi-automatic
and automatic lathes of common use have been visualized and briefly discussed here:
(a) Semi-automatic lathes:
• Capsta a d si gle spi dle tu et lathe
• H d auli op i g lathe
(b) Automatic lathes
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Page no: 5
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
• Si gle spi dle auto ati s e utti g lathe
• S iss t pe auto ati lathe
Kinematic system and working principle of capstan lathe
Like general configurations and applications, the basic kinematic systems are also very similar in capstan lathes
and turret lathes (particularly single spindle bar and horizontal types) in respect of their major functions, i.e., bar
feedi g e ha is of tu et o i g a d i de i g ο speed a d feed d i es
Bar feeding mechanism of capstan lathe Fig. typically shows the kinematic arrangement of feeding and clamping
of bar stock in capstan lathes. The bar stock is held and tightly clamped in the push type spring collets which is
pushed by a push tube with the help of a pair of bell-crank levers actuated by a taper ring as shown in Fig. Bar
feedi g is a o plished fou ele e ta ope atio s; ο u la ping of the job – ope i g the ollets ο a
feed pushi g it fo a d ο la pi g of the a losi g the ollets οf f ee etu of the a -pushing element
after a job is complete and part off, the collets are opened by moving the lever manually rightward to withdraw
the push force on the collets. Further moving of the lever in the same direction causes forward push of the bar
with help of ratchet Pawl system. After the projection of the bar from the collets face to the desired length
controlled by a pre-set stop – stock generally held in one face of the turret or in a separate swing stop, the lever
is moved leftward resulting closing of the collets by clamping of the bar stock. Just before clamping of the collets,

m
the leftward movement of the lever pushes the bar feeder (ratchet) back freely against the Paul.

o
Turret indexing mechanism in capstan and turret lathes Turret indexing mechanism of capstan and single spindle
turret lathe is typically shown schematically in Fig. The turret (generally hexagonal) holding the axially moving

.c
cutting tools have the following motions to be controlled mechanically and manually of forward axial traverse
comprising;

 a
quick approach – manually done by rotating the pinion as shown

m
slow working feed – automatically by engaging the clutch
stop at preset position depending upon the desired length of travel of the individual tools o quick
a
return – manually done by disengaging the clutch and moving the turret back o indexing of the turret

n
by 60o (or multiple of it) – done manually by further moving the turret slide back.

y
d
u
t
S

Fig 5

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 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
Just before indexing at the end of the return stroke, the locking pin is withdrawn by the lever which is lifted at its
other end by gradually riding against the hinged wedge as indicated in Fig. and lever as indicated in Fig.(b).
Rotation of the turret head by exact angle is accomplished by insertion of the locking pin in the next hole of the
six equal spaced holes. After indexing and locking, the turret head is moved forward with the next cutting tool at
its front face when the roller of the lever returns through the wider slot of the wedge without disturbing the
locking pin as indicated in the figure. The forward motion of the turret head is automatically stopped when the
set-screw corresponding to the working tool is arrested by the mechanical stop. The end position and hence
length of travel of the tool is governed by presetting the screw. There are six such screws; each one corresponds
with particular face or tool of the turret. The drum holding those equal spaced six screws with different
projection length is rotated along with the indexing (rotation) of the turret head by a pair of bevel gears (1:1) as
indicated in Fig.4 (a). The bottom most screw, which corresponds with the tool on the front face of the turret,
when hits or touches the stop, the turret movement is stopped either manually by feeling or automatically by
disengaging the clutch between the feed rod and the turret slide.

(iii) Process Planning and Tool Layout for Machining a Product in Semi-Automatic and Automatic Lathes

m
The procedural steps to be followed in sequence for batch or lot production of a job by machining in semi-
automatic and automatic general-purpose machine tools are:
o
.c
(a) Thorough study of the job to be produced: in respect of:
• Volume of production, i.e., number of pieces of the specific job to
• Mate ial a d its p ope ties a
m
• Size a d shape
• Su fa es to e a hi ed

a
• e ui ed di e sio s ith tole a es a d su fa e fi ish

n
• E d use of the p odu t
(b) Selection of machine tool (after studying the job): in respect of;
• T pe
y
• Size
• P e isio d
u
• Ki d a d deg ee of auto atio
t
(c) Selection of blank (based on job and machine selected): in respect of;

S
• a hu ki g o housi g t pe
• pe fo ed ; asti g, forging, rolling etc.
• If a t pe; oss se tio i ula , tu ula , s ua e, he ago et .
• No i al size ased o la gest di e sio s a d a aila ilit
• pe fo ed hot o ki g o old o ki g
(d) Identification and listing of the elementary machining operations required, depending upon the product
configuration
(e) Combine elementary machining operations as much as possible for saving time
(f) Sequence the operations (after combining)
(g) Select cutting tools: in respect of;

7|P ag e

Page no: 7
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT I LATHE
• T pe
• Mate ial
• Size
• Geo et
Depending upon the machining operations (after combining) and work material chart giving column-wise:
•speed a d feed fo ea h ope atio
• utti g fluid appli atio ;
• The utti g tools a d thei lo atio a d ou ti g.
• A aila ilit
(h) Work scheduling or preparation of the instruction sheet or operation
• Des iptio of the a hi i g o k to e do e i se ue e
• utti g tools: t pe a d lo atio
• Le gth of t a el of the tools Yes o ot e ui ed t pe of utti g fluid of
(i) Tool layout: schematically showing the type and configuration of A typical tool layout for a particular job
being machined in a single spindle automatic lathe is schematically shown in Fig.6-

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S Fig.6
*******************

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Page no: 8
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

INTRODUCTION
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by abrasive particles mounted rigidly on a rotating wheel.
Each of the abrasive particles acts as a single-point cutting tool and the wheel acts as a multi-point cutting
tool. The grinding operation is used to finish the pieces with an extremely high-quality finish and accuracy of
shape and size. Grinding is one of the widely accepted finishing operations because it removes the material
into a very small chip size from 0.25 to 0.50 mm. Provides an accuracy of the order of 0.000025 mm. It is also
possible to grind very hard material.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• p o ide e elle t ualit of su face finish to the surface,
• i pa t high ualit of a u a of shape a d di e sio ,
• fi ishi g of ha de ed etalli su fa es,
• sha pe i g of utti g edges of utti g tools,
• ai tai i g tool geo et of utti g tools,
• flatte i g a d fo i g of surfaces,
• fi ishi g of asti gs m
e o i g i p essio s of sp ues, ise s, pa ti g li es, et ., a d
• Re o al of s ales a d u s, et . o
TYPES OF GRINDING .c
a
There can be different criteria to classify grinding into different categories. On the basis of quality of grinding,
it is classified as rough grinding and precision grinding.
Rough Grinding
m
a
It involves removal of stock without any reference to the accuracy of results. Generally, rough grinding is
followed by precision grinding.
Precision Grinding
n
y
Precision grinding removes an insignificant amount of metal. It is used to produce finished parts and precise
dimensions.
d
u
Depending on the geometry of the work piece and the position in which the workpiece is to be crushed, it can
be classified as external grinding, internal grinding, surface grinding, grinding adjustment and lower center

t
grinding. Each of the above categories can be further classified, which will be explained below.

S
Based on the mounting position of a grinder it can be classified as a standing grinder (which can be installed
on the ground); bench grinder, manual grinder, etc.
Depending on the spindle position, it can be classified as a horizontal spindle environment in which the
grinding operation is performed; The grinding operation is classified as dry grinding and wet grinding. When
the cutting fluid is distributed on the workpiece, the face and the sides of the wheel, it is called wet grinding.
The commonly used cutting fluid is soda water. The temperature of the grinding zone reaches up to 2000 ° C in
case of grinding of hard materials. The use of cutting fluid reduces the temperature and thus promotes the
useful life of the wheel. However, in the case of dry grinding, refrigerant is not used. It is generally used when
the material of the piece is not very hard and also the grinding time is reduced. Normally, dry grinding
produces two undesirable effects of discoloration and smudging which are eliminated in the case of wet
grinding. Some of the grinding machines are identified on the basis of their specific uses. Such grinders are

1|Page

Page no: 1
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING
called special purpose grinders like crank shaft grinders; piston grinder; roll grinders; cam grinders; thread
grinders; way grinders and tool post grinders. These are nomenclature on the basis of their specific uses.

SHAPES AND SIZE OF A GRINDING WHEEL

The abrasive wheels are manufactured in different shapes and sizes to adapt them to different types of
grinders and in different types of work. These are classified into some groups based on their shapes and sizes.
The shapes of the wheels are standardized so that those commonly used in production and in the tool room
can be indicated by a number or name, or both. Some of the standard abrasive wheels are shown below.
These are generally used for cylindrical, internal, center and smaller surface grinding operations. These wheels
vary in size, diameter and width of the face. All parameters depend on the working clays for which the wheel
is used, the size and the power of the sander used by the wheel.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S

Fig.1
Tapered Face Straight Wheels

This is Type 4 in Figure. 1. It is also a straight wheel but its free is slightly tapered to facilitate the grinding of
threads a gear tooth.
2|Page

Page no: 2
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Cylindrical Wheel Ring

Cylindrical grinding wheel is shown in Figure 1 Type 5. It is used for surface grinding, i.e. production of flat
surfaces. Grinding takes place with the help of face of the wheel.

Cup Wheel
Cup wheel shown in Figure 1 Type 6. It is used for grinding flat surfaces with the help of face of grinding wheel.

Flaring Cup Wheel

One modified grinding wheel named as flaring cup wheel is Type 7 in Figure 1. It is used in grinding of tools in
tool room.

Wheel Diameter Grinding Face

Wheel Thickness
m
o
Type 1 Straight
Type 2 Recessed One Side Straight

.c
Diameter of Recess
Type 3 Recessed Both Sides Straights
Type 4 Tapered Face Straight Wheel Grinding Face Thickness
Type 5 Cylindrical or Wheel Ring a
Type 6 Straight Cup Wheel
m
a
Grinding Face
Type 7 Flaring Cup Wheel
Type 8 Saucer Wheel
n
y
Type 10 Dish Wheel
Type 9 Segmented Wheel

d
u
Saucer Wheel

t
Saucer wheel shown in Figure 1 at type 8. It is used for sharpening of circular or band saw.

Segmented Wheel
S
Segmented wheel shown in Figure 1 at Type 9. These are normally on vertical spindle, rotary type and
reciprocating type surface grinders.

Dish heel
Dish wheel shown in Figure 1 Type 10. It is also used for grinding of tools in tool room. It is capable to
grind very narrow places due to its thinners.

Size of a Grinding Wheel

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Page no: 3
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Major dimensions of a grinding wheel are the outside diameter; bore diameter; and width of the face. In
addition to the above geometry of the face of grinding wheel also matters. It may be flat, pointed, concave,
convex, etc.

Coding of a Grinding Wheel

The Indian Standard Coding system of grinding wheel is IS: 551-195 it provides uniform system of coding of
grinding wheels to designate their various characteristics. It gives a general indication of the hardness and grit
size of any wheel as compared with another. Coding of a grinding wheel consists of six symb ols as described
below.

W: S ol fo Ma ufa tu e s A asi e T pe P efi ed

C: Name of Abrasive
30: Grain Size
L: Grade
5: Structure Type

m
R: Bond Type

Manufacturer Symbol for Record (Suffix)

o
.c
The sequence of codes of a grinding should be followed in the same sequence as described above. There are
six symbols and first one which is seventh, is optional. Their brief description is given below.

Ma ufa turer’s Sy ol a
It is optional symbol and criteria of its assignment entirely depend on the manufa tu e s hoi e.
m
Abrasive Type
This is a alpha et s a
ol used to i di ate the a e of a asi e used A sta ds fo Alu i u O ide a d C
stands for Silicon Carbide.
n
Grain Size y
d
u
This number provides idea of grain size of abrasives. It is also called grit. This number is decided on the basis of
number of holes in one-inch length of the sieve used to filter the abrasive particles. Larger number indicates

t
finer grain sizes. On the basis of grain size abrasive particles can be categorized in four categories as given

S
below.
Class Grain Size of Abrasive (Grit)
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20
Medium 30 36 46 54 60
Fine 80 100 120 150 180
Very fine 220 240 280 320 400

Grain size depends upon quantity of material to the ground required quality of surface finish; and hardness of
work piece material. Find and very fine grain size is used for precision grinding, however, coarse and medium
grain size is used for rough grinding.
4|Page

Page no: 4
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Grade
Grade of a grinding wheel is the indicative of hardness and tenacity of bond of abrasives. It is
ep ese ted apital lette s of alpha et A to Z as des i ed elo .

Class Coding for Grade

Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X
The choice of grade depends on the hardness of the workpiece material, on the grinding speed, on the contact
area of the grinding wheel with the work piece, on the capacity of the grinding machine. Abrasive wheels are
called soft, rigid or hard wheels depending on their grade. Abrasive wheel abrasives break quickly, so they are
recommended for grinding the work piece of low hardness and soft and abrasive wheels are recommended
for work pieces of hard material.

Structure of a Grinding Wheel

m
It includes number of abrasives and number of pores in unit volume. The distribution of abrasives and bores

o
decides the structure of a grinding wheel. On the basis of structure grinding wheels are called dense or open
grinding wheel. In case of dense grinding wheels abrasive partials are densely packed as compared to open

.c
grinding wheel with larger porosity. Generally, structure of grinding wheel is coded in number. Higher number
indicates open structure of grinding wheel. Structure codes are given below.

Structure Code
a
Dense structure 1 2 3 4 5
m 6 7 8
Open structure 9 10 11 12
a 13 14 15

n
Selection of an appropriate structure depends on hardness of work piece material; required quality of surface

y
finish; and type of grinding operation. Normally open structure wheels are recommended for rough grinding

d
and for softer materials. Dense structured grinding wheels are recommended for hard and brittle materials.

Type of Bond
u
t
Bond is the binding of abrasive particles together with the help of adhesive substance. Different types of bond

S
will be discussed later. Selection of a bond depends on the type of grinding operation; work piece material,
required bond strength and contact area of work piece with the grinding wheel.

Ma ufa turer’s Sy ol
Two-digit numbers are used for this symbol. This is to be defined and followed by the manufacturer for his
own record.

VARIOUIS ELEMENTS OF GRINDING WHEEL

Grinding wheel is a multipoint cutting tool having abrasive particles bonded together and so forming a
structure. The various main elements of a grinding wheel are abrasive; bonds and structure which are
described below. Abrasives
5|Page

Page no: 5
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Generally abrasive properties like hardness, toughness and resistance to fracture uniformly abrasives are
classified into two principal groups:
(a) Natural abrasives, and
(b) Artificial abrasives.
Natural Abrasives There are a few examples of natural abrasives which include sa nd stone (solid quartz);
emery; corundum and diamond. Diamond is not recommended to use as abrasive due to its cost in
effectiveness. However, diamond dust which is the waste of diamond dressing operation can be used as
abrasives. Natural abrasive are being described below.

Sand stone is one of the natural abrasive used to make grinding stones. These are relatively soft. These cannot
be used for grinding of hard material and at faster speed. Emery is a natural aluminum oxide containing 55 to
65% alumina, rest are iron oxide and impurities. If percentage of aluminum oxide is more, ranging from 75 to
95% then it is called corundum. It consists impurities as remaining amount. Both emery and corundum are
harder than quartz and can have better abrasive action. Normally natural abrasives are not preferred due to
presence of larger impurities and lack of uniformly in constituents.
Artificial Abrasives
m
o
Main artificial abrasive are silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. Artificial abrasive is preferred in manufacturing
of grinding wheels because of their uniformity and purity. Artificial abrasives are described below.

Silicon Carbide .c
a
It is also called carbonado, It is manufactured from 56 parts of silica sand, 34 parts of powdered cake, 2 pats of
salt, 12 parts of saw dust in a long rectangular electric furnace of resistance type. Sand furnishes silicon, cake

m
furnishes carbon, and saw dust makes the charge porous, salt helps in fusing it. There are two types of silicon

a
carbide abrasive, green grit with approximately 97% silicon carbide and black grit with approximately 95%
silicon carbide. It is less hard than diamond and less tough than aluminum oxide. It is used for grinding of
n
material of low tensile strength like cemented carbide, stone and ceramic, gray cast iron, brass, bronze,
aluminum vulcanized rubber, etc.
y
Aluminum Oxide d
u
It is prepared by heating mineral bauxite, a hydrated aluminum oxide clay containing silica, iron oxide,

t
titanium oxide mixed with ground coke and iron borings in a arc type electric furnace. Aluminum oxide is

S
tough and fracture resistant. It is preferred for grinding of materials of higher tensile strengths like steel; high
carbon and high speed steel and tough bronze.

Bonds
A bond is an adhesive material used to held abrasive particles together; relatively stable that constitutes a
grinding wheel. Different types of bonds are:
(a) Vitrified bond,
(b) Silicate bond, Grinding
(c) Shellac bond,
(d) Resinoid bond,
(e) Rubber bond, and
6|Page

Page no: 6
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

(f) Oxychloride bond.

These bonds are being explained here in brief.

Vitrified Bond
This bond consists of mixture of clay and water. Clay and abrasives are thoroughly mixed with water to make a
uniform mixture. The mixture is molded to shape of a grinding wheel and dried up to take it out from mould.
Perfectly shaped wheel is heated in a kiln just like brick making. It this way clay vitrifies and fuses to form a
porcelain or glass grains. High temperature also does annealing of abrasive. This wheel possesses a good
strength and porosity to allow high stock removal with coal cutting. Disadvantage of this type of wheel are, it
is sensitive for heat, water, oil and acids. Their impact and bending strengths are also low. This bond is
de oted s ol V i spe ifi atio .

Silicate Bond
Silicate bonds are made by mixing abrasive particles with silicate and soda or water glass. It is molded to

m
required shape, allowed to dried up and then taken out of mould. The raw molded wheel is baked in a furnace

o
at more than 200oC for several days. These wheel exhibits water proofing properly so these can be used with
oola t. These heels a e de oted S i spe ifi atio .

Shellac Bond .c
a
These are prepared by mixing abrasive with shellac than molded by rolling and pressing and then by heating
up to 150oC for several hours. This bond exhibits greater elasticity than other bonds with appreciable

m
strength. Grinding wheels having shellac bond are recommended for cool cutting on hardened steel and thin

a
sections, finishing of chilled iron, cast iron, steel rolls, hardened steel cams and aluminum pistons. This bond is
de oted E i spe ifi atio s.
n
Resinoid Bond
y
d
These bonds are prepared by mixing abrasives with synthetic resins like backelite and redmanol and other
compounds. Mixture is molded to required shape and baked up to 200oC to give a perfect grinding wheel.

u
These wheels have good grinding capacity at higher speed. These are used for precision grinding of cams, rolls

t
and other objects where high precision of surface and dimension influence the performance of operation. A
esi oid o d is de oted the lette B .

Rubber Bond
S
Rubber bonded wheels are made by mixing abrasives with pure rubber and sulpher. After that the mixture is
rolled into sheet and wheels are prepared by punching using die and punch. The wheels are vulcanized by
heating then in furnace for short time. Rubber bonded wheels are more resilient and have larger abrasive
density. These are used for precision grinding and good surface finish. Rubber bond is also preferred for
making thin wheels with good strength and toughness. The associated disadvantage with rubber bond is,
these a e lesse heat esista t. A u e heel o ded heel is de oted the lette R .

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Page no: 7
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Oxychloride Bond
These bonds are processed by mixing abrasives with oxides and chlorides of magnesium. The mixture is
molded and baked in a furnace to give shape of a grinding wheel. These grinding wheels are used for disc
g i di g ope atio s. A o hlo ide o ded heel is spe ified the lette O .

PARAMETERS OF GRINDING OPERATION

Normal parameters used in grinding operation are cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. These
parameters are described below.

Cutting Speed
Cutting speed is grinding wheel is the relative peripheral speed of the wheel with respect to the work piece. It
is expressed in meter per minute or meter per second. The cutting speed of grinding wheel can be calculated
as
p ete pe i ute π=DNV
where, D is diameter of grinding wheel in mm. N are the number of revolution of grinding wheel if N is

m
expressed in number of revolutions per minute, V will be in mpm, if N is expressed in number of revolution per

o
second, V will be in mps.

.c
Feed Rate
Feed rate is a significant parameter in case of cylindrical grinding and surface grinding. Feed rate is defined as

a
longitudinal movement of the work piece relative to axis of grinding wheel per revolution of grinding wheel.
Maximum feed rate should be up to 0.9 time of face width of grinding wheel for rough grinding and up to 0.6

m
times of face width of grinding wheel for finish grinding. Feed cannot be equal to or more than the width of

a
grinding wheel. Feed is used to calculate the total grinding time as given below.

T = (L i/ S N) × K
n
y
Where T is the grinding time (min) L is the required longitudinal travel in mm. i is the number of passes

d
required to cover whole width S is the longitudinal feed rate (mm/rev.). N is the rpm and K is the coefficient
depending on the specified grade of accuracy and class of surface finish for rough grinding K = 1 to 2 and for
finish grinding K = 3 to 5.
u
t
S
Depth of Cut
Depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of the metal removal in one pass. It is measured in mm. normally
depth of cut is kept ranging 0.005 to 0.04 mm. Smaller depth of cuts are set for finish and precision grinding.

The table given below shows recommended bonds and cutting speed for type of a work piece.

Type of Work piece Bond Cutting Speed

Tool Steel Vitrified 15 to 25

High Speed Steel Vitrified 15 to 25
Cemented Carbide Resin or Rubber 15 to 25
8|Page

Page no: 8
 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

Cast Iron Up to 30
Steel Resin or Rubber Up to 25
Bronze or Up to 20
Soft Iron Vitrified Up to 20

GRINDING FLUIDS
Application of grinding fluids has been found to be effective in reducing the adverse thermal effects and high
work surface temperature. All cutting fluids can be used as coolant in grinding operations and so these can
also be named as grinding fluids.
Grinding Normally grinding fluids remove heat from grinding zone and wash the clips away. Generally, two
types of grinding fluids are used: (a) Water based fluids, and (b) Oils based fluids. Water based fluids remove
heat from grinding zone but these do not provide any lubrication to the grinding zone. However, oil based
fluids provide lubrication properties also. Heat removing capability of oil base fluid is more due to their high
specific heat. Examples of water based fluids are dissolved chemicals into water like sulfur chlorine,
phosphorus, etc. Examples of oil based fluids are oils originated from petroleum, animals and vegetables. They

m
can be emulsified oils suspended in water in the form of droplets. Cutting fluids can be recycled in flow after

o
filtering them by separating out chips and dirt.

.c
DEFECTS AND REMEDIES IN GRINDING
Major and inevitable defects in grinding are glazing of grinding wheels. Its remedy will be discussed later. After

a
the continuous use grinding wheel becomes dull or glazed. Glazing of the wheel is a condition in which the
face or cutting edge acquires a glass like appearance. That is, the cutting points of the abrasives hav e become

m
dull and worn down to bond. Glazing makes the grinding face of the wheel smoother and that stops the

a
p o ess of g i di g. So eti es g i di g heel is left loaded . I this situatio its utti g fa e is fou d ei g
adhering with chips of metal. The opening and pores of the wheel face are found filled with work piece
n
material partials, preventing the grinding action. Loading takes place while grinding work piece of softer
material.
y
Dressing d
u
The remedies of glazing and loading are dressing of grinding wheels. Dressing removes the loading and breaks

t
away the glazed surface so that sharp abrasive particles can be formed again ready for grinding. Different type

S
of dressing operations are done on a grinding wheel. One of them is the dressing with the h elp of star dresser.
It consists of a number of hardened steel wheels with sharp points on their periphery. The total is held against
the face of revolving wheel and moved across the face to dress the whole surface. Another type of wheel
dresser consists of a steel tube filled with a bonded abrasive. The end of the tube is held against the wheel and
moved across the face.
Truing
Truing is the process of restoring the shape of grinding wheel when it becomes worn and break away at
different points. Truing makes the wheel true and concentric with the bore.

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 Metal Cutting and Machine Tools (ME 6004) UNIT-II GRINDING

BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEEL

Due to continuous used a grinding wheel may become out of balance. It con not be balanced either by truing
or dressing. Here it is important to explain the meaning of a balanced wheel. It is the coincidence of center of
mass of wheel with it axis of rotation. Wheels which are out of balance produce poor quality of surface and
put undue strains on the grinding machine. Balancing of wheel is normally done at the time of its mounting on
the grinding machine with the help of moving weights around a recessed flange.
*******************

m
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a
m
a
n
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d
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