India’s Mega Online Education Hub for Class 9-12 Students,

Engineers, Managers, Lawyers and Doctors.

Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for Free Resources for
Class 9-12 Students Engineering Students MBA/BBA Students LLB/LLM Students MBBS/BDS Students

• Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes • Lecture Notes

• Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports • Project Reports

• Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers • Solved Papers

View More » View More » View More » View More » View More »

▼▼ Scroll Down to View your Downloaded File! ▼▼

Disclaimer

Please note none of the content or study material in this document or content in this file is prepared or
owned by Studynama.com. This content is shared by our student partners and we do not hold any
copyright on this content.

Please let us know if the content in this file infringes any of your copyright by writing to us at:
info@studynama.com and we will take appropriate action.
 Unit: 01
Frequency domain representation of signal: Fourier transform and its properties, condition of existence,
Fourier transform of impulse, step, signum , cosine, sine, gate pulse, constant, properties of impulse
function. Convolution theorem (time & frequency), correlation (auto & cross), energy & power spectral
density.

1.1 Time domain and frequency domain representation of signal

An electrical signal either, a voltage signal or a current signal can be represented in two forms: These two
types of representations are as under:

i) Time Domain representation-: In time domain representation a signal is a time varying quantity as
shown in Fig.1.1
V(t)

0 t

Fig 1.1 an arbitrary time domain signal m

o
.c
ii) Frequency Domain Representation: In frequency domain, a signal is represented by its frequency
spectrum as shown in Fig 1.2

a
V(w)

0
m w

a
n
Fig 1.2 Frequency domain representation of time domain signal
y
d
1.2 Fourier Transform and its properties
Fourier Transform pair

u
Fourier transform may be expressed as

t
S
∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt

In the above equation X(w) is called the Fourier transform of x(t). In other words X(w) is the frequency domain
representation of time domain function x(t). This means that we are converting a time domain signal into its
frequency domain representation with the help of fourier transform. Conversely if we want to convert
frequency domain signal into corresponding time domain signal, we will have to take inverse fourier transform
of frequency domain signal. Mathematically, Inverse fourier transform.
∞
−
[ ]= = ∫
𝜋 −∞

Page no: 1
 Examples
Q.1 Find the Fourier transform of a single-sided exponential function − .
− −
Solution: is single sided function because her the main function is multiplied by unit step
function u(t), then resulting signal will exist only for t>0.
u(t)= {1 for t>1
={0 for elsewhere
Now, given that
−
x(t)=
∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt
∞
Or X(w)=∫−∞ − −
dt
∞ − −
=∫ dt
∞ − +
=∫ dt
− −∞
= [ - ]
+

m
−
= [0-1]
+
=
+ o
.c
To obtain the above expression in the proper form we write
− −

a
X(w)= *
+ −
−
X(w)= = -
+
Obtaining the above expression in polar form
+ +
m
= − − 𝑤
𝑎
a
n
√ +
As we know that
X(w)=| | 𝜑
y
d
On comparison amplitude spectrum
−
| |= , 𝜑 =−
√ +
u
t
Properties of Continuous Time Fourier Transform (CTFS)

1. Time Scaling Function S

Time scaling property states that the time compression of a signal results in its spectrum expansion
and time expansion of the signal results in its spectral compression. Mathematically,
If x(t) X(w)
Then, for any real constant a,
x(at) | |
X( )
Proof: The general expression for Fourier transform is
∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt
∞ −
Now F[x(at)]=∫−∞ dt
Putting
At=y

Page no: 2
Studynama.com - #1 destination for free notes, eBooks, papers & projects.
Choose your course/study level below and start downloading:

CLASSES 6-10 CLASSES 11-12

 Class 6 CBSE NCERT Notes, Solutions
 Class 7 CBSE NCERT Notes, Solutions
 Class 8 CBSE NCERT Notes, Solutions
 Class 6, 7, 8 CBSE NCERT Projects
 Class 9 Notes, eBook CBSE PDF Download
 Class 10 Notes, eBooks CBSE
 Class 9 & 10 Projects, PPTs PDF Free
 Class 9, 10 Solved Board Papers
 Class 11 Science & Medical Notes, eBooks
 Class 12 Science & Medical Notes, eBooks
 Class 11/12 Science & Medical Projects
 Class 11/12 Science & Medical Solved Papers
 Class 11 Commerce Notes, PDF eBooks
 Class 12 Commerce Notes, PDF eBooks
 Class 11 Arts Notes, eBooks Free
 Class 12 Arts Notes, eBooks Free

ENGINEERING – BE / BTECH. STUDY MATERIAL

 First Year Engineering Notes, Projects
 Computer Sc. Engineering Notes, Projects
 Electronics Engineering Notes, Projects
 Electrical/EEE Engineering Notes, Projects
 Mechanical Engineering Notes, Projects
 Civil Engineering Notes, eBooks, Projects
 Production Engineering Notes, Projects
 Chemical Engineering Notes, Projects
 Aerospace Engineering Notes, Projects
 Metallurgical Engineering Notes, Projects
 CSE/IT Engineering Projects, Reports
 Electronics Engineering Projects, Reports
 Electrical/EE Engineering Projects, Reports
 Mechanical Engineering Projects, Reports
 Civil Engineering (CE) Projects, Reports

BBA / BBM MBA / PGDM

 BBA/BBM CORE Notes, Books, eBooks
 BBA/BBM Marketing Notes, Books, eBooks
 BBA/BBM Finance Notes, Books, eBooks
 BBA/BBM HR Notes, Books, eBooks
 BBA/BBM Operations Notes, Books, eBooks
 BBA & BBM Projects, Training Report
 MBA Core/General Notes, eBooks, Projects
 MBA Marketing Notes, eBooks, Projects
 MBA Finance Notes, eBooks, Projects, Reports
 MBA HR Notes, eBooks, Projects, Reports
 MBA Operations Notes, eBooks, Projects

SCROLL DOWN TO SEE SUBJECT NOTES

 We have dt=

Case (i): When a is positive real constant

𝑤
∞ −
F[x(at)]= ∫−∞ 𝑎

𝑤
∞ −
= ∫−∞ 𝑎 = X( )

Case (ii): When a is negative real constant

−
F[x(at)] = X( )

Combining two cases, we have

F[x(at)]= | |X( ) Or x(at) X( )

| |

The function x(at) represents the function x(t) compressed in time domain by a factor a. Similarly, a function

m
X( ) represents the function X(w) expanded in frequency domain by the same factor a.
2. Linearity Property
o
.c
Linearity property states that fourier transform is linear. This means that
If x1(t) X1(w)

a
And x2(t) X2(w)
Then a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t) a1X1(w) + a2X2(w)

m
a
3. Duality or Symmetry Property

If x(t)
Then X t
X(w)
2 π -w) n
Proof y
d
The general expression for Fourier transform is

u
− ∞
[ ]= = 𝜋 ∫−∞

t
therefore,
∞ −

S
x(-t)= ∫
𝜋 −∞
∞ −
2π -t)= ∫−∞
Since w is a dummy variable, interchanging the variable t and w we have
∞
−
2π -w)= ∫−∞ =F[X(t)]
Or F[X(t)]= 2π -w)
Or X(t) 2π -w)
For an even function x(-w)=x(w)

therefore , X(t) 2π

Page no: 3
Studynama.com - #1 destination for free notes, eBooks, papers & projects.
Choose your course/study level below and start downloading:

LLB / LAW MEDICAL

 LLB Notes, eBooks FREE PDF Download  MBBS Notes, eBook, Project, Papers & Cases
 LLB Law First Year PDF Notes, Projects, Papers  BDS Notes, eBook, Project, Papers & Cases
 LLB Law 2nd Year PDF Notes, Projects, Papers  BHMS Notes, eBook, Project, Papers & Cases
 LLB Law 3rd Year PDF Notes, Projects, Papers  BPharma Notes, Projects, Papers & Cases

B.COM ENGINEERING / GATE ENTRANCE

 B.Com. General Notes, eBooks PDF Download
 B.Com. Honours (Hons.) Notes, eBooks
 B.Com. Finance Notes, eBooks PDF Download
 B.Com. Human Resources Notes, eBooks PDF
 B.Com. IT Notes, eBooks PDF Download
 B.Com. Accounting & Taxation Notes, eBooks
 B.Com. Marketing Notes, eBooks PDF Download
 B.Com. BFSI Notes, eBooks PDF Download
 IIT-JEE Mains 2019 Solved Papers, Notes, Cutoffs
 IITJEE Advanced 2019: Solved Papers, Notes
 BITSAT 2019 - Solved Papers, Notes, Cutoffs
 VITEEE/SRMEEE/MU-OET 2019: Papers, Notes
 UPTU/AKTU 2019 - Solved Papers, Notes, Cutoffs
 WBJEE 2019 - Solved Papers, Notes, Cutoffs
 MH-CET 2019: Solved Papers, Notes, Cutoffs
 EAMCET, COMEDK 2019: Solved Papers, Notes

BCA / MCA / B.SC. MEDICAL ENTRANCE

 BCA Notes, eBooks Download
 BCA Project Reports & PPTs
 MCA Notes, eBooks Download
 B.Sc. Notes, eBooks Download
 B.Sc.(IT) Notes, eBooks, Papers, Projects
 AIIMS Medical 2019 - Solved Papers, Notes
 NEET (AIPMT) 2019: Solved Papers, Notes
 AIPVT Medical 2019: Solved Papers, Notes
 AFMC Medical 2019: Solved Papers, Notes
 BHU-PMT, CMC Vellore 2019: Papers, Notes

GATE – ENTRANCE FOR MTECH & PSU

 GATE CSE/IT engineering Notes & Papers  GATE Electronics engineering Notes & Papers
 GATE Mechanical engineering Notes & Papers  GATE Civil Engg. Free PDF Notes & papers

SCROLL DOWN TO SEE SUBJECT NOTES

 Example (1)
−
The Fourier transform F [ ] is equal to . Therefore F [ ] is equal to
+ 𝜋 + 𝜋

Solution:

Using Duality property of Fourier Transform, we have

If x (t) X (f)
Then X (t) x (-f)
Therefore,
−
+ 𝜋
−
Then
+ 𝜋

4. Time Shifting property

Time Shifting property states that a shift in the time domain by an amount b is equivalent to multiplication by

m
−
in the frequency domain. This means that magnitude spectrum | |

Remains inchanged but phase spectrum θ w) is changed by -wb.

o
If x (t)
Then X (t-b)
X (w)
X (w) − .c
Proof: X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ − ∞
dt a
m
∞ −
And F[x(t-b)]= ∫−∞ − dt
Putting t-b=y, so that dt =dy
∞
F[x(t-b)]= ∫−∞ − + ∞
dy =∫−∞ a − −

n
dy
∞
Or F[x(t-b)]= − ∫−∞ −

y
dy
Since y is a dummy variable, we have
F[x(t-b)]= −
X(w)=X(w)d −

Or x(t-b)
u
X(w) −

t
S
5. Frequency Shifting Property

Frequency shifting property states that the multiplication of function x(t) by is equivalent to shifting its
fourier transform X(w) in the positive direction by an amount . This means that the spectrum X(w) is
translated by an amount . Hence this property is often called frequency translated theorem. Mathematically.

If x(t) X(w)
Then x(t) X(w- )
Proof: General expression for Fourier transform is
−∞
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt
∞ −
Now, F[ x(t)] = ∫−∞ dt

Page no: 4
 ∞ − −
= F[ x(t)] = ∫−∞ dt
= F[ x(t)] = X w −
= x(t) X(w- )

6. Time Differentiation Property

The time differentiation property states that the differentiation of a function x(t) in the time domain is
equivalent to multiplication of its fourier transform by a factor jw. Mathematically

If x(t) X(w)
Then x(t) jw X(w)
−
Proof: The general expression for Fourier transform is [ ]= =
∞
𝜋
∫−∞

Taking differentiation, we have

∞

m
= [∫−∞ ]
𝜋

Interchanging the order of differentiation and integration, we have

o
.c
∞
= ∫ [ ]
𝜋 −∞

= ∫
∞ a
𝜋 −∞
m
= = −
[ ]
a
=F[ ]=
n
= y
Hence proved

d
u
1.3 Transform of Gate

t
A gate function is rectangular pulse. Figure 1.3 shows gate function. The function or rectangular pulse shown
in figure 1.3 is written as rect ( ).
S 𝜏
x(t)
1

t
−𝜏 0 𝜏

Fig.1.3 A Gate Function

From the above figure it is clear that rect ( ) represents a gate pulse of height or amplitude unity and width 𝜏.
𝜏

Page no: 5
 −𝜏 𝜏
x(t)= rect ( )= { < < }
𝜏
= { ℎ }

Sampling Function or Interpolation Function or Sinc function

The functions is the si e o e a gu e t a d de oted si . This fu tio pla s a i po ta t ole
in signal processing. It is also known as the filtering or interpolating function. Mathematically,
Sinc(x)= or Sa(x)=

Sinc(x) Or Sa (x)

− 𝜋
−𝜋 𝜋

− 𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋

m
Fig.1.4 Sample function
o
From the figure, following points may be observed about the sampling function:
.c
(i)
(ii)
Sa(x) or sinc (x) is an even function of x.
a
Sinc(x) =0 when sinx=0 except at x=0, where it is indeterminate. This means that sinc(x)=0 for
x=± π , he e =± , ± ….
m
(iii) Si
a
is the p odu t of os illati g sig al si
Therefore, sinc(x) exhibits si usoidal os illatio s of pe iod 2π
of pe iod 2π a d a de easi g fu tio .
ith amplitude decreasing
continuously as 1/x. n
y
Example 2: Find the Fourier transform of the gate function shown in figure 1.5.
d
u x (t)

t 1

S t
−𝜏 0 𝜏

Fig.1.5
−𝜏 𝜏
Sol. x(t)= rect ( ) ={ < < }
𝜏

{ ℎ }
∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt

Page no: 6
 ∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ rect dt
𝜏
𝜏
𝜏
− −𝑗𝑤𝑡
−
=∫−𝜏 . dt= [ ]−𝜏

𝑤𝜏 𝑤𝜏
− −
= [ - ]
𝑤𝜏 𝑤𝜏
−
= [ - ] --------(1)

We know that 𝜃
=cos𝜃 +jsin𝜃 and − 𝜃
=cos𝜃 –jsin𝜃
𝜃 − 𝜃
Hence 2cos𝜃= +
𝜃 − 𝜃 𝜏
=2jsin𝜃= - , Putting 𝜃= , we get
𝑤𝜏 𝑤𝜏
𝜏 −

m
=2jsin = - --------(2)

From (1) and (2)

o
.c
𝜏
=X(w)= [2jsin ]

By multiplying and dividing the equation by 𝜏 a

=
𝜏
[jsin ]
𝜏
m
a
𝜏
𝜏 𝜏
= 𝑤𝜏 [sin ]
n
sin
𝑤𝜏
y
=𝜏[ 𝑤𝜏 ]
d
𝜏 u
t
= 𝜏 sinc (

Now, since sinc (x)S

=0, when x=± π
𝜏 𝜏
Therefore, sinc( =0, when =± π
=± nπ
= w=
𝜏
π
Figure 1.5 shows the plot of X(w)
𝜏

Page no: 7
 𝜏
𝜏 Sinc( )

6π π
− −
𝜏 𝜏 π
𝜏
π
π 6π
π 𝜏
0
− 𝜏 𝜏
𝜏

Fig. 1.5 Sample Function

1.4 Impulse Functions

Unit Impulse functions:
A unit impulse function was invented by P.A.M. Diarc and so it is also called as Delta function. It is denoted by
𝛿 ).
∞
m
o
Mathematically, 𝛿 =0 , t≠ and ∫−∞ 𝛿 dt=1
Figure 1.6 shows the graphical representation of an unit impulse function. The following points may be

.c
observed about an unit-impulse function:
𝛿
a
m
1

a
0 n t

y
Fig.1.6 The Unit Impulse function

i) d
The width of pulse is zero. This means that pulse exist only at t=0.
ii)
u
The height of the pulse goes to infinity
iii)
t
The area under the pulse-curve is always is always unity.

S
Shifting Property of the Impulse function:
If we take the product of unit impulse function 𝛿 and any given function x(t) which is continuous at
t=0,then this product will provide the function x(t) existing only at t=0 since 𝛿 exist only at t=0.
Mathematically,
∞ ∞
∫−∞ 𝛿 dt=x(0) ∫−∞ 𝛿 dt=x(0).1=x(0)
The equation is also known as shifting or sampling property of the impulse function because the impulse shifts
the value of x(t0 at t=0. This means that the value of x(t) has been sampled at t=0. to The shifting or sampling
may be also done at any, instant t= , if we define the impulse function at the instant. Mathematically,
∞
∫−∞ 𝛿 − dt=x( )
The above equation states that the product of a continuous function x(t) with an impulse function 𝛿 −
provides the sampled value of x(t) at t= .

Page no: 8
 Q.1 Find the fourier transform of an impulse function x(t) = 𝛿 Also draw the spectrum
Sol. Expression of the fourier transform is given by
∞ − ∞ −
X(w)=F[x(t)]=∫−∞ dt=∫−∞ 𝛿 dt
Using shifting property of impulse function
X(w)=[ − ]at t=0
X(w)=1
𝛿 1

Hence the fourier transform of an impulse function is unity.

𝛿
=
1 1 =

0 t 0 w
Fig 1.7

m
o
.c
Figure 1.7 shows an unit impulse function and its fourier transform or spectrum. From the figure1.7
it is clear that an unit impulse contains the entire frequency components having identical magnitude. This

a
means that the bandwidth of the unit impulse function is infinite. Also, since spectrum is real, only magnitude
spectrum is required. The phase spectrum 𝜃 =0, which means that all the frequency components are in

m
the same phase.

Q.(2) Find the inverse fourier transform of 𝛿(w)

a −
[ ]= =
n
Solution. Inverse fourier transform is expressed as
∞
∫
y∫
𝜋 −∞
− ∞
[𝛿 w ] = = 𝛿 w
− [𝛿 w ]= d] 𝜋 −∞

[𝛿 w ]= u
[ at w=0
𝜋

t
−
[ ]= .1 =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
F[
=
𝜋 S 𝛿 w)
]= 𝛿 w)

𝜋
= 1 𝜋𝛿 w)

=
1 =

𝜋𝛿

0 t
0 w
Fig.1.8 \

Page no: 9
 This shows that the spectrum of a constant signal x(t)=1 an impulse function 2𝜋𝛿 . This can also be
interpreted as that x(t) =1 is a d.c. signal which has single frequency. W=0(dc).

Q. (3) Find the inverse Fourier transform of 𝛿(w- )

−
Solution. Inverse Fourier transform is expressed as [ ]=
∞
𝜋
∫−∞
− ∞
[𝛿 w − ]= ∫ 𝛿 w−
𝜋 −∞
Using shifting or sampling property of impulse function, we get
−
[𝛿 w − ]= [ ]at w =
𝜋
−
[𝛿 w − ]= [ ]
𝜋
F[ ]= 𝛿 w − )
𝜋
𝛿 w− )o
𝜋

𝜋𝛿 w− )
The above expression shows that the spectrum of an over lasting exponential
m
is a single impulse at w=0.

Similarly, o
−
𝜋𝛿 w+ )
.c
a
m
1.5 Fourier Transform of Cosine wave

Q.4 Find the Fourier transform of over lasting sinusoid cos

Solutio : We k o that Eule ’s ide tit is gi e a .

𝜃 − 𝜃 n
=cos𝜃 –jsin𝜃
y
=cos𝜃 +jsin𝜃 and
𝜃 − 𝜃
=2cos𝜃= +
d 𝑗𝜃 + −𝑗𝜃

u
= cos𝜃=

= t - Or
2jsin𝜃= 𝜃 − 𝜃

sin𝜃=S
𝑗𝜃 + −𝑗𝜃

𝑗𝑤 𝑡 + −𝑗𝑤 𝑡
Hence, cos =
We know that
𝜋𝛿 w− )
𝐴 −
𝜋𝛿 w+ )
So that cos [ 𝜋 𝛿 w − )+ 𝜋 𝛿 w + ]
= cos [𝜋 𝛿 w − )+ 𝜋 𝛿 w + ]

Page no: 10
 1.6 Fourier Transform of Periodic Function
Fourier transform of periodic function could also be found out. This means that Fourier transform may be used
as a universal mathematical tool to analyze both periodic and non-periodic waveform over the entire interval.
Let us find the Fourier transform of periodic function x(t). x(t) may be expressed in terms of complex fourier
series as
x(t)=∑∞=−∞ 𝐶
Taking Fourier transform of both the side
F[x(t)]=F[∑∞=−∞ 𝐶 ]
=∑∞=−∞ 𝐶 . [ . ]
Using frequency shifting theorem, we can write
[ . ]= 𝜋 𝛿 w − )
∞
Hence, F[x(t)]= ∑ =−∞ 𝐶 𝜋 𝛿 w −
= 𝜋 ∑∞=−∞ 𝐶 𝛿 w −
Hence, the Fourier transform of a periodic function consist of a train of equally spaced impulses. These
impulses are located at the harmonic frequencies of the signal and the strength or area of each impulse is
given by 𝜋𝐶 .

1.7 Concept of Energy Density

m
o
An energy signal is one which has finite energy and zero average power. Hence, x(t) is an energy signal if

.c
0< < ∞ and P=0

a
Where, E is the energy and P is the power of the signal x(t). All the practical non-periodic signals which are
defined over finite-time (also called time limited signals) are energy signals.

For continuous time signals energy of the signal is expressed as m

∞
E=∫−∞ a
n
y
Energy Spectral Density:

d
Let us consider an low pass signal which is applied to an ideal low pass filter as shown in figure 1.9.Figure 1.10
shows the graph of transfer function H(w) of an ideal low pass filter. The response of output of a system is
expressed as
u
Y(w)=X(w)H(w) t
S
Here X(w)= Fourier transform of x(t)
Y(w)= Fourier transform of y(t)

Also the energy of the output sig al t a e e p essed as usi g Pa se al’s theo e

∞
= ∫ |
𝜋 −∞
|
= ∫ |𝐻 |
𝜋 −

Page no: 11
 x(t)
Input y(t)
Output
H(jw)
X(w Y(w)
Fig.1.9 Low pass filter (LPF)

𝐻
1

∆w

-wm 0 wm w
Fig.1.10 Transfer Function of an ideal low pass filter

From figure 1.10 it can be observed that H(w)=0 for all the frequencies except for the narrow band -wm
to wm .Therefore, the energy of the signal over this narrow band ∆ =2wm. will be

| | ∫− . | | 2wm m
o
= =
𝜋 𝜋

.c
Putting 2wm= ∆ we get
= .| | ∆ =| | ∆
a
-------(1)
𝜋

m
From the above equation it is clear that represents the contribution of energy due to the bandwidth (∆ )
of the signal including negative frequencies. Therefore energy contribution per unit bandwidth will be.

𝐸 a
=|
n
| ------(2)
∆

y
Hence, | | represents energy per unit bandwidth, and is known as Energy spectral density Or Energy
density spectrum.
It is generally denoted by Ψ(w).
d
u
Hence , Ψ(w)= | | ----(3)

t
Now, we can find the relationship between energy densities of input and output (response) as under:
Since, we know that Y(w)=H(w).X(w)
Therefore,
| S
| =| 𝐻 |
= |𝐻 | | | ------(4)
Now, let Ψy(w) be energy spectral density of output y(t) and Ψx(w) be energy spectral density of input x(t),
then
Ψy(w)= | | ------------(5)
Ψx(w)= | | ---------(6)
From equation (4) and (5)
Ψy(w)= |𝐻 | | | --------(7)
From equation (6) and (7)
Ψy(w)= |𝐻 | Ψx(w)--------(7)
This is the relationship between input and output spectral densities.

Page no: 12
 Properties of Energy Spectral density function
Property1: Total area under energy spectral density function is equal to the total energy of that signal
Mathematically,
∞
E=∫−∞ Ψ f df

Property2: If x(t) is input to a linear time invariant (LTI) system with transfer function H(w) , then input and
output energy spectral density function are related as
Ψo(w)= |𝐻 | Ψi(w)
Where,
Ψo(w)= output energy spectral density function
Ψi(w)= input energy spectral density function
|𝐻 | =energy gain at frequency w.

Property3: The auto o elatio fu tio R τ a d e e g spe t al de sit Ψ(w) form a fourier transform pair.
Mathematically,
Rτ Ψ(w).

1.8 Concept of Power Density m

o
.c
A power signal is one which has finite average power and infinite energy. Hence x(t) is a power signal if
0<P<∞
A d E=∞
Where P is the average power and E is the energy of the signal.
a
Almost all practical signals are power signals since their average power is finite and non-zero. For continuous
time signal, the average power P is defined as
m
a
𝑇

P = 𝐿 ∫ dt
𝑇 −𝑇
T→∞
n
The Power Spectral Density
y
d
The expression for power spectral density may be derived by assuming the power signal a limiting case of an
𝜏
energy signal, such that it is zero outside the interval ± . Let this terminated signal be denoted as 𝜏 (t) may
be expressed as
u| | <
t
𝜏
𝜏 (t)={ }
S ℎ
Now since terminated signal 𝜏 t is of fi ite du atio τ, therefore it is an energy signal. Let the energy of this
signal be denoted by 𝜏 and may be expressed as
∞ ∞
𝜏 =∫−∞| 𝜏 | dt=∫−∞| 𝜏 | df
𝜏 𝜏
Here, 𝜏 (w) is the Fourier transform of 𝜏 (t). It may be observed that x(t) over the interval (− , ) will be same
as 𝜏 (t) over the interval (-∞, ∞).
Therefore, we have
𝜏
∞
∫−∞| 𝜏 | dt=∫ 𝜏|
−
| dt
𝜏
∞
Therefore, ∫ 𝜏|
𝜏 −
| dt = ∫−∞|
𝜏 𝜏 | df
Taki g τ→∞ of oth sides of the e uatio

Page no: 13
 𝜏
Lim Lim ∞
∫ 𝜏| | dt = τ→∞ ∫ |
𝜏 −∞ 𝜏 | df
τ→∞ 𝜏 −

The left Hand side of the above equation represents the average power P of the function x(t). Therefore
∞ | 𝜏 |
P= ∫−∞ lim df ------(1)
𝜏→ 𝜏
| 𝜏 |
In the limit 𝜏 → , the ratio may be approach a finite value.
𝜏
Let this finite value be S (w).
| 𝜏 |
So that S (w)= lim 𝜏
--------(2)
𝜏→
From equation (1) and (2)
∞ ∞
P=∫−∞ lim 𝑆 df = ∫ lim 𝑆 dw
𝜏→ 𝜋 −∞ 𝜏→
According to the above equation, the total power of the signal is obtained by multiplying S(w) with bandwidth
Δ (dw) and integrating over the bandwidth. Hence, S(w) may be treated as average power per unit
bandwidth and so is called as power spectral density Or power density spectrum.
Since | 𝜏
m
| =| 𝜏 − |
Therefore, the power contribution by positive and negative frequencies is identical. Thus, average power is
expressed as
o
.c
∞ ∞ ∞
P=∫−∞ 𝑆 df =∫ 𝑆 df= ∫ 𝑆
𝜋

Properties of power spectral density function

a
Property1: The area under power density function is equal to the average power of that signal.
∞
P=∫−∞ 𝑆 df m
a
Property2: If x(t) is input to a linear time invariant (LTI) system with transfer function H(jw) , then input and

n
output power spectral density function are related as
𝑆o(w)= |𝐻 | Si(w)
Where,
y
d
𝑆o(w)= output power spectral density
𝑆i(w)= input power spectral density
|𝐻 | = power gain at frequency w.
u
t
Property3: The autocorrelation functio R τ a d po e spectral density 𝑆(w) form a fourier transform pair.
Mathematically,
Rτ 𝑆(w).
S

Page no: 14
Studynama’s BDS Community is one of India’s Largest Community of Dental Students. About
19,232 Indian Dental Course students are members of this community and share FREE study
material, cases, projects, exam papers etc. to enable each other to do well in their semester exams.

Links to Popular Study Material for BDS (Dental) students:

 Orthodontic Fixed Appliances - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Amalgam Restoration - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 COMPLEX NON-SKELETAL PROBLEMS IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN - BDS Lecture Notes
 Anatomy of Scalp - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Cementum - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Recent Advances in Instrumentation Techniques - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Ameloblastoma - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Prevention of Odontogenic Infection - Principles of Management - BDS Lecture Notes
 Therapeutic Dentistry Histology of Teeth Dental Charting - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
 Maxillofacial Trauma and Management - BDS Lecture Notes PDF
 Technical Endodontics - BDS Lecture Notes PDF Download
And 698 more free downloads for Dental Students.
Other Popular Links for Law Study Material:
 BDS Lecture Notes, eBooks, Guides, Projects and Case Papers FREE PDF Download
 BDS Lecture Notes, eBooks, Guides & Handouts FREE PDF Download
 BDS University Previous Year Exam Question Papers & Solutions FREE PDF Download
Studynama’s Engineering Community is one of India’s Largest Community of BE & BTECH Students. About 79,182
Indian Engineering students are members of this community and share FREE study material, notes, eBooks, major
and minor projects, exam papers etc. to enable each other to do well in their semester exams.

Links to Popular Study Material for Engineering (BE/BTech) students:

CSE & IT Engineering Electronics Engineering Electrical Engineering Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering

Computer Science Electronics Engineering BTech Civil/Structural

Electrical/EE Engineering Mechanical/Automobile/IP
(CSE/IT Engineering) (ECE/ET/EC) Engineering Second
Second/2nd Year Notes Engineering second year notes
Second/2nd Year Notes Second/2nd Year Notes Year Lecture Notes

CSE/IT Computer Electronics Engineering BTech Civil/Structural

Electrical/EE Engineering Mechanical/Automobile/IP
Science Engg. Final/4th (ECE/EC/ET) Third/3rd Engineering Fourth
Third/3rd Year notes Engineering fourth year notes
Year Notes Year Notes Year Lecture Notes

Computer Science Electronics (ECE/ET/EC) BTech Civil/Structural

Electrical/EE Engineering Mechanical/Automobile/IP
Engineering (CSE/IT) Engineering Final/Fourth Engineering Third Year
Fourth/4th Year Notes Engineering third year notes
Third/3rd Year Notes Year Notes Lecture Notes

Advanced Java Antenna & wave Electrical Machine-1 pdf Automobile engineering lecture
Surveying 1 - eBook
Programming eBook propagation eBook download notes

Web Technology - Network analysis & Electrical machines-II Engineering materials & SOM - strength of
eBook synthesis notes eBook metallurgy lecture notes materials - eBook

E-Commerce lecture VLSI engineering pdf Manufacturing Technology-1 Engineering Geology

EMI eBook
notes lecture notes lecture notes eBook

And 12998 more free downloads for BE & BTech Students.

Other Popular Links for Engineering Study Material:

• Engineering First Semester (Sem 1) Notes
• Engineering Second Semester (Sem 2) Notes
• Engineering chemistry pdf eBook
• Engineering Mechanics PDF Lecture Notes
• Electrical/EE Engineering notes
• Mechanical/Automobile/IP Engineering notes
• Powerplant Engineering Lecture Notes
• Engineering Mechanics lecture notes
Studynama’s Law Community is one of India’s Largest Community of Law Students. About
29,982 Indian Law students are members of this community and share FREE study material,
cases, projects, exam papers etc. to enable each other to do well in their semester exams.

Links to Popular Study Material for LAW (LLB & BA.LLB) students:
• Family law pdf lecture notes & eBook download for LLB students
• Jurisprudence Law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Company Law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Law of Evidence lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Contract Law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Criminal law pdf lecture notes & eBook download for LLB students
• Taxation Law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Law of torts pdf eBook & lecture notes for LLB students
• Constitutional law pdf lecture notes & eBook download
• Labour law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Administrative law lecture notes pdf & eBook download for LLB students
• Constitutional Law - I q&a notes pdf & eBook download for LLB
And 1998 more free downloads for Law & LLB Students.

Other Popular Links for Law Study Material:

• LLB/LLM Lecture Notes, eBooks, Guides, Handouts FREE PDF Download
• LLB - Law third year notes, eBooks, handouts and study material - semester 5 & 6
• LLB - Law second year notes, eBooks, handouts and study material - semester 3 & 4
• LLB - Law first year notes, eBooks, handouts and study material - semester 1 & 2
Studynama’s MBA Community is one of India’s Largest Community of MBA & PGDM Students. About 29,882 Indian
Management students are members of this community and share FREE study material, notes, eBooks, projects, case
studies exam papers etc. to enable each other to do well in their semester exams.

Links to Popular Study Material for Management (MBA/PGDM) students:

MBA General MBA Marketing MBA Finance MBA HR MBA Operations

MBA/PGDM first Enterprise resource Security analysis & Business environment MBA Operations
year notes planning (ERP) pdf portfolio Mgmt. Notes Notes

MBA/PGDM second Marketing International Fin. Human resource MIS pdf

year notes management pdf management eBook management pdf

Principles of International Advanced financial Compensation Industrial safety

management pdf marketing eBook management eBook management Notes eBook

Managerial Retail marketing Corporate taxation International human Import export

economics eBook eBook pdf eBook resource management pdf mgmt. lecture notes

Organizational Sales management Financial Human resource TQM eBook

behavior pdf eBook management eBook development eBook

Operation research Brand management Management Organization & Management

lecture notes pdf accounting notes management process pdf control systems

And 12,998 more free downloads for MBA & PGDM Students.

Other Popular Links for MBA Study Material:

• MBA/PGDM Core (General) Notes, eBooks, Projects, Cases & Reports FREE PDF Download
• MBA/PGDM Marketing Notes, eBooks, Projects, Cases & Reports FREE PDF Download
• MBA/PGDM Finance Notes, eBooks, Projects, Cases & Reports FREE PDF Download
• MBA/PGDM HR Notes, eBooks, Projects, Cases & Reports FREE PDF Download
• MBA/PGDM Operations Notes, eBooks, Projects, Cases & Reports FREE PDF Download
 Millions of University Lecture Notes, Book Solutions,
Summary, Assignments and Projects are available for FREE.