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ASSEMBLER
Dr. Biju Raveendran
BITS Pilani WILP & Department of CS & IS
Pilani Campus
Last Lecture
• System calls related to process
– fork
– wait
– exec
– exit
– signal
– kill
– raise
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Today’s Agenda
• Assembler
• Assembler directives
• Object program
• Two pass assembler
• Data structure used in assembler
– OPTAB
– SYMTAB
– LOCCTR
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Software
• software, is a collection of computer programs
and related data that provide the instructions
telling a computer what to do and how to do it
Classification
Software
Application Software System Software
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System software
• System software is computer software designed
to operate the computer hardware and to
provide a platform for running application
software.
• Examples :
– Loaders
– Assembler
– Linkers
– Operating system
– Compilers
– Editors
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Assemblers
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Assemblers
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Assembler’s functions
• Convert mnemonic operation codes to their
machine language equivalents
• Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent
machine addresses
• Build the machine instructions in the proper
format
• Convert the data constants to internal machine
representations
• Write the object program and the assembly
listing
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Pseudo code
Program copy {
save return address;
cloop: call subroutine RDREC to read one record;
if length(record)=0 {
call subroutine WRREC to write EOF;
} else {
call subroutine WRREC to write one record;
goto cloop;
}
load return address
return to caller
}
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Pseudo code
Subroutine RDREC { EOR:
character x‘00’
clear A, X register to 0;
rloop: read character from input device to A register
if not EOR {
store character into buffer[X];
X++;
if X < maximum length
goto rloop;
}
store X to length(record);
return
}
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Pseudo code
Subroutine WDREC {
clear X register to 0;
wloop: get character from buffer[X]
write character from X to output device
X++;
if X < length(record)
goto wloop;
return
}
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Assembler Directives
• Pseudo‐Instructions
– Not translated into machine instructions
– Providing information to the assembler
• Basic assembler directives
– START Specify name and starting address for the program
– END end of the program
– BYTE generate character or hexadecimal constant,
occupying as many bytes as needed to represent
the constant
– WORD generate one‐word integer constant
– RESB reserve the indicated number of bytes for a data area
– RESW reserve the indicated number of words for a data area
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Program – takes input from input device
F1 and copies them to output device 05
Line Loc Label Inst Arg Obj code
5 1000 COPY START 1000
10 1000 FIRST STL RETADR 141033
15 1003 CLOOP JSUB RDREC 482039
20 1006 LDA LENGTH 001036
25 1009 COMP ZERO 281030
30 100C JEQ ENDFIL 301015
35 100F JSUB WRREC 482061
40 1012 J CLOOP 3C1003
45 1015 ENDFIL LDA EOF 00102A
50 1018 STA BUFFER 0C1039
55 101B LDA THREE 00102D
60 101E STA LENGTH 0C1036
65 1021 JSUB WRREC 482061 13
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Program – takes input from input device
F1 and copies them to output device 05
Line Loc Label Inst Arg Obj code
70 1024 LDL RETADR 081033
75 1027 RSUB 4C0000
80 102A EOF BYTE C’EOF’ 454F46
85 102D THREE WORD 3 000003
90 1030 ZERO WORD 0 000000
95 1033 RETADR RESW 1
100 1036 LENGTH RESW 1
105 1039 BUFFER RESB 4096
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115 SUB ROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER
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125 2039 RDREC LDX ZERO 041030
130 203C LDA ZERO 001030 14
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Assembler
• Translation of source program to object code
requires following function
1. Convert mnemonics operation codes to their machine
language equivalents
• E.g: Translate STL to 14
2. Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine
address
• E.g: Translate RETADR to 1033
3. Build the machine instructions in the proper format
4. Convert the data constants specified in the source
program into their internal machine representations
• Translate EOF to 454F46
5. Write the object program and assembly listing 15
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Assembler
• All the steps except step 2 can easily be
accomplished by sequential processing of the
source program, one line at a time
• Step 2 can not be achieved by sequential
processing
– Contains forward reference
– Assembler has to make 2 passes to resolve this
• Pass 1 for label definition and assign address
• Pass 2 for translation
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Assembler
• Assembler functionality
– Translate source program to object code
– Process statements called assembler directives
• Assembler directives are not translated into machine
instructions
• Assembler directives provide instructions to the
assembler itself
• Example: BYTE, WORD, RESB, RESW, START, END
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Object Program
• Simple object program format contains 3
types of records
– Header
• Starting address, program name and length
– Text
• Translated instructions and data of the program
together with an indication of the addresses where
these are to be loaded
– End
• Marks the end of the program and specifies the address
in the program where the execution is to begin
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Object Program
Header
Col. 1 H
Col. 2~7 Program name
Col. 8~13 Starting address (hex)
Col. 14‐19 Length of object program in bytes (hex)
Text
Col.1 T
Col.2~7 Starting address in this record (hex)
Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex)
Col. 10~69 Object code (69‐10+1)/6=10 instructions
End
Col.1 E
Col.2~7 Address of first executable instruction (hex)
(END program_name) 19
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Object Code
E 001000
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Object Code
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Difficulties: Forward Reference
Forward reference: reference to a label that is
defined later in the program.
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Two Pass Assembler
Pass 1
‐Assign addresses to all statements in the program
‐Save the values assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2
‐Perform some processing of assembler directives
• determine the length of data areas defined by BYTE, RESW etc..
Pass 2
Assemble instructions
Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD
Perform processing of assembler directives not done in Pass 1
Write the object program and the assembly listing
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Two Pass Assembler
Read from input line
LABEL, OPCODE, OPERAND
Source
program
Intermediate Object
Pass 1 Pass 2
file codes
OPTAB SYMTAB SYMTAB
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Data Structures
• Operation Code Table (OPTAB)
• Used to lookup mnemonic operation codes and
translate them to their machine language equivalents
• If variable length instruction format: OPTAB contains
length of the instruction as well
• Organized as hash table with mnemonic operation code
as key
• OPTAB is a static table
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Data Structures
• Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
• Used to store values (addresses)
assigned to labels COPY 1000
• Contains the name and value (address) FIRST 1000
CLOOP 1003
for each label in the source program, ENDFIL 1015
together with flags to indicate error EOF 1024
THREE 102D
conditions ZERO 1030
• label name, value, flag, (type, RETADR 1033
LENGTH 1036
length) etc BUFFER 1039
• Organized as hash table for efficiency RDREC 2039
of insertion & retrieval
• Dynamic table (insert, delete, search) 26
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Data Structures
• Location Counter(LOCCTR)
• Used to help in the assignment of addresses
• Initialized to the address specified in the START
statement
• After each source statement is processed, the length
of the assembled instruction or data area to be
generated is added to LOCCTR
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Next Lecture
• Linker and Loader
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