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DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS:

Dr. Dinesh Kumar
CHAPTER 5:
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mech. Eng., MNIT Jaipur
STATIC FAILURE THEORY
Few major references are included here. Other references may be found in individual chapters.
1. Norton Robert L., “Machine Design: An Integrated Approach”,
Fourth Edition, Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey, 2011.
2. Shigley J. E. and Mischke C. R., Budynas R. G. and Nisbett K. J.,
“Mechanical Engineering Design“ McGraw Hill, 8th Edition, USA,
2008.
*It is impossible to write better than in the above mentioned references and paraphrasing any statements may lead to loss of technical
meanings /contents of the statements, and hence, many statements are quoted directly from these works.

Introduction Introduction…
• Why do parts fails?- A question being • Under tensile test,
answered for centuries. tensile, normal stress
accompanied by shear
• Conventional answer: Stresses exceed
stress.
strengths
• Under torsion test,
• Then, next- What kind of stresses
shear stress is
causes the failure? Tensile?
accompanied by
Compressive? Shear?
normal stresses.
• Classic answer: Depends on material and
• Then, which stress
its relative strengths, character of
failed the part in
loading (static and dynamic), presence
either of above cases.
and absence of cracks.

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Introduction…
• How to define: Failure?
• A part may fail if it yields and distorts
sufficiently (i.e., elastic failure) or by
fracturing and separating (fracture failure).
• Failure resulted by excessive deformation,
will make the machine component unfit to
perform its function satisfactorily.
• Normally, ductile materials fail by yielding,
whereas brittle materials fractured to cause
failure.
• Presence of cracks in a ductile material can
cause its failure in brittle manner.
Introduction…
• Because of the significantly different
failure mechanisms under static and
dynamic loading, related failure
theories are discussed separately.
• For the static loading case, failure
theories for ductile and brittle
materials are talked out separately.
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Introduction…
• Another significant factor in failure is
Character of the loading, means static
or dynamics.
• Dynamics loads- suddenly applied
(impact loads) or repeatedly varied with
time (fatigue loads), or both.
• Under dynamic loading, the distinction
between ductile and brittle materials’
failure behavior blurs, and ductile
materials fail in a brittle manner.
Static failure theories
• Question: How do one compare
stresses induced to the material
properties?
– Generally machine parts are subjected to
combined loading and to find material
properties under real loading condition is
impractical as well as not economical
– Thus, material properties are obtained
from simple tension/torsion test
– These data like Syt, Sut etc are available in
form of table (Design Data Book)
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Static failure theories…
• The “theory” behind the various classical failure
theories is that whatever is responsible for
failure in the standard tensile test will also be
responsible for failure under all other conditions
of static loading.
Strength of machine Strength of standard
component subjected to component subjected to
complex state of stress uniaxial state of stress
Static failure theories…
• Several theories of failure:
– the maximum normal-stress theory,
– the maximum normal-strain theory,
– the total strain-energy theory.
– the distortion-energy (von Mises-Hencky)
theory, and
– the maximum shear-stress theory.
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Static failure theories…
• In general, ductile, isotropic materials are
limited by their shear strengths.
• Brittle materials are limited by their tensile
strengths.
• If cracks are present in a ductile material, it can
suddenly fracture at nominal stress levels well
below its yield strength, even under static loads.
• Static loads are slowly applied and remain
constant with time.
• Dynamic loads are suddenly applied (impact), or
repeatedly varied with time (fatigue), or both.
Static failure theories…
Accepted failure theories for ductile materials:
• Total strain energy theory
• Distortion energy theory
• Maximum shear-stress theory
• Maximum normal stress theory (limited application)
Accepted failure theories for brittle materials:
• Maximum normal stress theory (even material)
• Maximum normal stress theory (uneven material)
• Coulomb-Mohr theory
• Modified Mohr theory
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Failure of Ductile Materials Under
Static Loading
• Under static loading, failure of machine
parts made of ductile materials is
assumed to occur when they yield.
• For ductile materials, the last two
theories agree closely with
experimental data and of those, the
von Mises-Hencky theory is most
accurate and hence, preferred.
The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-
Energy Theory…
• Total strain energy:
• Hydrostatic loading (i.e., uniform stresses
in all directions) produces only change in
shape without any distortion and hence, no
shear stress.
• Materials can sustain, without failure,
uniform, hydrostatic stresses beyond
their ultimate strengths. E.g., condition of
rocks at great depth in the earth’s crust.
• Hence, distortion is the culprit in failure.
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The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-
Energy Theory
• Yielding mechanism-sliding of the
material’s atoms within their lattice
structure- is caused by shear stress.
• Shear stresses produce distortion of
the shape of the part.
• Hence, the distortion energy stored is
an indicator of the magnitude of the
shear stress present.
The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-
Energy Theory…
• Components of Strain Energy:
– Distortion-energy (Ud): caused by shear
stresses present, producing only change in
shape of the loaded part.
– Volumetric/Hydrostatic Component (Uh):
caused by hydrostatic loading, producing
only change in volume of the loaded part.
• Volumetric/Hydrostatic Component (Uh):
:
with
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The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion- The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-

Energy Theory… Energy Theory…
• Failure Criterion: Obtained by
comparing Ud obtained for the general
• Distortion-energy (Ud): state of stress with Ud for 1-D tensile
test specimen at failure.
If uniaxial yield stress state (failure state):

Therefore: Using uniaxial yield

stress state (failure
state)

The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-

The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-
Energy Theory…
Energy Theory…
For any other state of stresses:
For a 2D stress where 2= 0,

• The 2D distortion
Failure criterion is obtained by setting: energy equation is
described in an ellipse
• The interior of the
ellipse show the biaxial
safe stress stage
Distortion energy: against yielding under
Distortion energy:
uniaxial stress at static loads
any other state of
stresses yield

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The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion- The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-

Energy Theory… Energy Theory…

•The 3D distortion energy equation is

described in cylinder inclined to principal stress
axes
•The interior of the cylinder show the region
safe against yielding for combined stresses 1,
2, & 3 under static loads

The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion- The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-

Energy Theory… Energy Theory…
Von Mises effective stress

Definition:
(Yield surface)

von Mises effective stress

von Mises effective stress: uniaxial stress that would create the
same distortion energy as is created by actual combination of
applied stresses

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The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion- The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion-

Energy Theory… Energy Theory…
Von Mises effective stress in terms of the applied stresses:
Safety Factor:
Yield strength of
≤ the material

For 2-D case:

=

in terms of the applied stresses: von Mises

effective
stress

Note: Use these effective stresses for any combined

stress situation

The von Mises-Hencky / Distortion- Maximum Shear-Stress Theory

Energy Theory… • This theory states that failure occurs when the maximum shear
stress in a part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile specimen at
Example: pure shear load as in case of torsional failure yield (one-half of the tensile yield strength).
Mohr’s circle: • This predicts that the shear yield strength of a ductile material is
pure shear
1= max : 3 =- max and 2 =0

Using:
Exercise: Draw
hexagonal failure
= 1 + 2 + 3 −
− − envelop for two
=3 2 dimension case?
1
≡ =
= 0.577
3
Maximum stress before failure, in this case, is: =
= 0.577

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Maximum Shear-Stress Theory… Maximum Shear-Stress Theory…

Maximum Shear-Stress Theory… Maximum Normal Stress Theory

• This predicts that failure of machine component, subjected to
• Maximum shear-stress failure criterion: complex loading, occurs if the maximum normal principal stress
 max  S ys tends to exceeds the uniaxial tensile yield (ductile) or the ultimate
tensile strength (brittle) of the material
• Safety Factor for the maximum shear-
• Providing a square failure boundary with Sy as the yield strength
stress theory is : for ductile materials
• Note: not a safe theory for ductile materials

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Static failure theories: experimental

Maximum Normal-Stress Theory verifications
Ductile & brittle materials

Exercise: Draw
failure envelop
for two
dimension
case?

Problem5-1: Failure of ductile materials under Problem5-1: Failure of ductile materials under
static loading static loading…

At point A:

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Problem5-1: Failure of ductile materials under

static loading… Problem5-1: Failure of ductile materials under
static loading…

Safety factors:
(as per D-E theory)

(as per max. shear

theory)

Problem5-1: Failure of ductile materials under Failure of Brittle Materials under

static loading…
Static Loading
At point B:
• Brittle materials fracture rather than yield.
• Brittle fracture in tension is caused by normal
tensile stress alone and hence, maxi. normal
stress theory is applicable.
Safety factors: • Brittle fracture in compression is due to some
combination of normal compressive stress
(as per D-E theory) and shear stress and requires a different
theory of failure.
(as per max. shear
theory)

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Failure of Brittle Materials under Failure of Brittle Materials under

Static Loading…
• Some wrought materials, such as fully
hardened tool steel, are brittle, but they are
even materials.
• Many cast materials, such as grey C.I., are
also brittle, but they are uneven materials
having compressive strengths much greater
than their tensile strengths.
• Further, cast, brittle materials have,
normally, their shear strengths greater than
their tensile strengths, unlike ductile
materials.
Static Loading…
• This difference in relative shear and tensile
strengths of ductile and brittle materials
can be seen in their failure characteristics in
the tension and torsion tests.
• Ductile specimen fails along the plane of
maximum shear, in both tension and torsion
tests, indicating a shear failure.
• Brittle specimen fails on the plane of
maximum normal tensile stress, in both the
tests, indicating a tensile failure.

Tension test

Failure along
principal shear stress
plane

Failure along principal shear stress plane Failure along principal normal stress plane

Failure along
principal normal
stress plane

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Failure of Brittle Materials under Failure of Brittle Materials under

Static Loading… Static Loading…
• Figs. 5-10 shows Mohr’s circles for both
compression and tensile tests of an even
material and an uneven material.
• In the case of even material, the failure
lines (i.e., tangents to Mohr’s circles) are
independent to the normal stress and
defined by the maximum shear strength of
the material.
• But for uneven material, failure lines are a
function of both the normal stress and shear
stress.

Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory

for Brittle Materials for Brittle Materials…
• The maximum-normal-stress (MNS) theory
states that failure occurs whenever one of
the three principal stresses equals or exceeds
the strength.
• For general state of stress with ,
the theory predicts failure whenever

• For plane stress, with the principal stresses MNS theory can be used as the failure criterion for a
the failure conditions are: brittle material in static loading if its compressive and
tensile strengths were equal (even material)

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Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory The Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Brittle

for Brittle Materials… Materials
With

The Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Brittle Experimental Test Data Superposed

Materials… on the Theoretical Failure Envelopes
Or 3
For non-zero principal stresses

Or 1

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The Modified Mohr Theory The Modified Mohr Theory…

Factor of Safety (N or n)

(For Cases A and B)

Or
3

Or
1

(For Case C)

Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under

Modified-Mohr (MM) Effective Stress Static Loading

Dowling Factors:

MM Effective Stress:

Factor of Safety:

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Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under
Static Loading… Static Loading…

The principal stresses for point A plotted

At point A: on MM diagram give a load line
corresponding to B Type and hence, the
FOS is calculated using Eq. 5.12a (p.273)
as:

Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under

Under Static Loading… Static Loading…
Alternatively, find the Dowling factors using Eq. At point B: a case of pure shear
5.12c (p.274) and determine MM effective
stress, as follows:

And, then the FOS is calculated using Eq. 5.12e

(p.274) as:

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Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under
Static Loading…
•The principal stresses for point B
plotted on MM diagram give a load
line crossing the failure envelope at
(Sut, -Sut) that means a pure shear
loading, making Eq. 5.12a (p.273)
appropriate for the FOS as follows:
Problem5-1: Failure of Brittle Materials Under
Static Loading…
Alternatively, find the Dowling factors using Eq.
5.12c (p.274) and determine MM effective
stress, as follows:
And, then the FOS is calculated using Eq. 5.12e
(p.274) as:

Introduction
Ductile

Fracture

Brittle

FRACTURE MECHANICS
Temperature

Factors affecting fracture Strain rate

State of stress

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Introduction … Introduction …
• Real materials are not free from any defects such as • As no material can sustain such high stress,
cracks, voids, or inclusions. These defects could serve as
stress raisers – Local yielding (Ductile material)
• The presence of a sharp crack in stress field creates stress – Local micro fracture (for brittle material), or
concentration that approaches infinity theoretically.
– Local crazing (for polymers), will occur at the
=1+2 crack tip.
Stress concentration and • A sudden “brittle-like” failure even in ductile
hence stress can reach
infinity as c tends to 0
materials under static loads
• Cracks commonly occur in welded structures,
bridges, ships, aircraft, land vehicles, pressure
vessels, etc.
Stress concentration at the edge of an
elliptical hole in a plate

Introduction… Introduction…

WW II, T-2 Tanker, broken in two in fitting-out dock (Poland, 1943)

Welding instead of riveting Continuity of the structure
Breaking
of Cold waters Residual stress
Liberty Ships Boston Molasses Disaster or the Great Boston Molasses Flood
High sulphur in steel Microcracks

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Introduction… Fracture Mechanics Theory

• These sudden “brittle-like” failures of ductile
• Based on the assumption of the presence of a
materials under static loading led to researchers to
crack.
seek better failure theories.
• Linear-Elastic Fracture-Mechanics (LEFM): apply
• Actually, the subject of fracture mechanics has its when the zone of yielding around the crack is
origin in the failure of WWII Liberty ships. small compared to the dimensions of the part.
• The science of fracture mechanics explain and predict • LEFM assumes that the bulk material is behaving
these sudden-failure phenomenon. as per Hooke’s law.
• Fracture-mechanics theory provide basis for an • If plasticity is significant then a more
engineering judgment once the cracks are discovered, complicated approach is required than LEFM.
– whether to repair or replace the flawed part,
• Here it is assumed that LEFM applies.
– retire the assembly, or
– to continue it in service for a further time subject to more
frequent inspection.

Modes of Crack Displacement Stress Intensity Factor K

If crack is sharp at ends, and b is much larger
• Depending on the orientation of the loading vs
than a, the stress around crack tip are expressed
the crack, applied load tend to pull the crack as:
open in tension(mode I), shear crack in plane
(mode II) Or shear out of plane (mode III)

Most studied, researched and tested and A through-crack

in a Plate in
hence, would be limited to it. Tension

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Stress Intensity Factor K…
• The quantity K is called the stress intensity
factor.
• A subscript is normally added with K to
designate the mode I, II and III of loading
as in KI, KII, KIII.
• Since we will deal only with mode I
loading, we will eliminate the subscript.
• The high stress near the crack tip cause
local yielding and create a plastic zone.
• For any radius r and angle , the stress
state in the plastic zone at the crack tip is
directly proportional to the stress
intensity factor.
Fracture Toughness Kc
• If K < Kc (a property of the material), the crack
can be considered to be
– In a stable mode (if the load is static and
environment is non-corrosive),
– In a slow growth mode (if the load is time-varying
and environment is non-corrosive), or
– In a fast-growth mode (if the environment is
corrosive).
• If K = Kc (caused by increased nominal stress
or by growth of the crack width), the crack
will propagate suddenly to failure.
• FOS for fracture-mechanics failure:
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Stress Intensity Factor K…
• If b>>>a, then K can be defined for the
center-cracked plate as
Note: Units of K are MPa-m0.5, kpsi-in0.5.
• For crack width a is not small compared to b,
and/or for complicated part geometry:
Where  is a dimensionless quantity that depends on the part’s
geometry, the type of loading and the ratio a/b. Refer handbooks
for values of  for various geometries and loadings
Fracture Toughness Kc
• Kc ranges from 20 to 200 MPa-m0.5 for
metals, and from 1 to 5 MPa-m0.5 for
polymers and ceramics.
• It generally parallels ductility and increases
substantially at high temperature.
• Higher-strength steels tend to be less ductile
and have lower fracture toughness than
lower strength steels.
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Example 5-3 Example 5-3: Solution

1. Nominal Stress of uncracked part:

Under uniaxial stress: nom = 1 = ’

2. FoS against yielding as per distortion-energy theory:

3. K for the edge crack, use Eq. 5.14d, if a/b < 0.13:

Example 5-3: Solution Example 5-3: Solution

4. FoS against sudden crack propogation: 6. Effect of Heat treatment:
(Very low FoS) Hardening will increase the yield strength but
• That predict sudden failure at just 33% overload, the ductility and the fracture toughness Kc
at which the nominal stress is still below the yield will decrease, making the part less safe
strength. against a fracture-mechanics failure.
5. Crack size necessary for failure:
Take K = Kc to find crack size a for the given nominal
stress (use Eq. 5.14b)
a = 18-mm width

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Crimping Tool Failure Analysis

Case Study 2C

Crimping Tool Failure Analysis… Crimping Tool Failure Analysis…

1. FoS against buckling of link 3: • FoS for bearing stress:
• Applied load: 1548 lb
3. FoS for the pin in single shear:
• Critical Buckling Load: 4765 lb (as calculated in Case Study 2B)
• FoS against buckling (in terms of load rather than stresses) : 3.1 , then
2. FoS for bearing stress on either hole or pin:

• Any link can fail in bearing in the 0.25-dia holes.

(Note: only the applied stress on hole or pin, this is principal as well as von-Mises
stress)

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Crimping Tool Failure Analysis… Crimping Tool Failure Analysis…

4. FoS for link 4 in bending : 5. FoS for link 1 (a curved beam) in bending :

(Note: only the applied stress on link 4, this is principal as well as von-Mises stress)

• FoS for link 4 under bending:

(at point P)
(Note: only the applied stress on the link, this is principal as well as von-Mises stress)

• FoS for link 1 under bending:

Crimping Tool Failure Analysis… Crimping Tool Failure Analysis…

6. FoS for link 1 (considering stress • FoS can be improved, if required, by following
concentration near hole):
ways:
Stress concentration factor = 2.42 – Using a stronger material,
(for a circular hole in a finite plate)
– Section sizes of the parts could be increased,
– Change the link thickness

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Flow Chart for Static Failure Analysis Flow Chart for Static Failure Analysis…

Flow Chart for Static Failure Analysis… Flow Chart for Static Failure Analysis…

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