Mechanized, Orbital

and Robot Welding

Mechanized Welding

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
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 Mechanized Welding

EWF-IAB-348-13
Minimum Requirements for the Education,
Training, Examination and Qualification

International/European Mechanized, Orbital and

Robot Welding Personnel

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
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Produced by:

Project Erasmus+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913

ASOCIAȚIA DE SUDURĂ DIN ROMÂNIA

ISTITUTO ITALIANO DELLA SALDATURA

EUROPEAN FEDERATION FOR WELDING JOINING

AND CUTTING

INSTITUTO DE SOLDADURA E QUALIDADE

INSTYTUT SPAWALNICTWA

www.futureweld.eu

Disclaimer
"The sole responsibility of this publication lies with the author. The
European Union is not responsible for any use that may be made of
the information contained therein“

Project E+ 2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913
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Table of Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................. 11

3M. MECHANIZED WELDING SYSTEMS AND PROGRAMMING............................ 13

3.1 Structures of mechanized welding equipment and systems ..................... 13

3.1.1 Mechanization – generals ............................................................ 13
3.1.2 Mechanized welding systems ....................................................... 14
3.1.3 Actions to be taken for mechanization ........................................... 16
3.1.4 Devices for fixing and positioning of the workpiece ......................... 17
3.1.4.1 Clamping devices using screws as active element ........................ 17
3.1.4.2 Toggle clamping devices .......................................................... 19
3.1.4.3 Eccentric side clamping devices ................................................. 20
3.1.5 Devices to rotate the workpiece ................................................... 20
3.1.5.1 Rotating and turning/tilting tables with chuck .............................. 20
3.1.5.2 Welding turning/tilting platforms ............................................... 23
3.1.5.3 Welding turning rollers ............................................................. 24
3.1.6 Devices to put in position and to travelling the welding head ............ 26
3.1.6.1 Welding tractors ..................................................................... 27
3.1.6.2 Welding columns ..................................................................... 33
3.1.6.3 Welding portal gantry systems .................................................. 36
3.1.7 Devices for weaving welding heads............................................... 37
3.1.8 Seam tracking systems ............................................................... 38
3.1.9 Devices for wire feeding during welding (wire feeders) .................... 43
3.2 Welding processes for mechanized welding (MIG, MAG, PAW, SAW, TIG).. 47
3.2.1 Principle and characteristics of MIG / MAG process.......................... 47
3.2.2 Principle and characteristics of TIG process .................................... 49
3.2.3 Principle and characteristics of SAW process .................................. 51
3.2.4 Principle and characteristics of PAW process .................................. 53
3.3 Joint preparation in mechanized welding.............................................. 54
3.3.1 Generals on joints preparation ..................................................... 54
3.3.2 EN ISO 9692 ............................................................................. 57
3.4 Setting up, welding parameters and programming of mechanized systems 59
3.4.1 Setting up mechanized welding system ......................................... 59
3.4.2 Programming the mechanized welding system ............................... 65
3.5 Quality assurance in mechanized welding, NDT of welds ........................ 69

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 3.5.1 Generals on quality assurance. ISO 3834 ...................................... 69
3.5.2 Potential material imperfections to meet in mechanized welding ....... 71
3.5.3 NDT of welds. Methods of NDT inspection ...................................... 75
3.6 Health and safety consideration in mechanized welding ......................... 84
3.6.1 Generals on health and safety in mechanized welding ..................... 84
3.6.2 Specific hazards when operating mechanized welding systems ......... 87
Chapter 3: Learning Outcomes ................................................................ 89
Chapter 3: Examination .......................................................................... 90
References ............................................................................................... 93

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Foreword

The present book has been developed in the scope of the project E+
2014-1-RO01-KA202-002913 – acronym: FUTUREWELD, which is a
project co-financed by the ERASMUS+ programme of the European
Commission.

It is the second of four books covering the educational materials,

dedicated to the training of personnel qualified according to the
EWF/IIW Guideline EWF-IAB-348-13 - Minimum Requirements for the
Education, Training, Examination and Qualification of European
Mechanised, Orbital and Robot Welding Personnel.

The FUTUREWELD project aims at improving the level of key

competences and skills, in the labour market, through the increasing
of the opportunities of cooperation between the world of education and
training and the world of work. Subsequently, FUTUREWELD will
improve the quality level of the training institutions through
transnational cooperation.

The targeted field is the welding process with three distinct directions:
mechanized process, orbital process and robotized process. This gives,
to the personnel involved in the welding fabrication, a large spectrum
of qualifications addressed by the project.

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 3M. MECHANIZED WELDING SYSTEMS
AND PROGRAMMING

Chapter 3M is dedicated to the mechanized welding systems. This

chapter will present the main elements that compose the structures of
the mechanized welding systems, the four main arc welding processes
that simply accept mechanization setting, the characteristics of the
joint preparation and the programming of a mechanized welding
system. In the end of the chapter are presented quality assurance and
safety measures for the mechanized systems.

3.1 Structures of mechanized welding equipment and systems

3.1.1 Mechanization – generals

Structures of Mechanization is the first step in replacing the human factor with the
mechanized participation of a machine to a technological process. Such
welding equipment
and systems
replacement is required by the levels of the required quality and
productivity, which are constantly increasing. Moreover, the increasing
diversity of the consumer needs also involve an increasing volume of
goods and services: that is possible only by applying mechanization to
the technological processes.

Mechanization of a process involves decreasing of the errors in

fabrication and that means higher quality of the products. In the same
time, mechanization of processes characterized as heavy work,
dangerous work or shameful work means a consistent improving of the
working conditions. The relation between the mechanization and the
productivity is given by the higher performance of a machine,
comparing to the human capabilities, to perform specific activities, to
operate with specific objects (heavy, oversized or harmful), or to
maintain constant a specific rhythm of production for a longer period.
Beside the named characteristics, which are undoubtable advantages,
the mechanization has important disadvantages, such as the expenses
with machines, devices and tools that are involved in the
mechanization process and are not required in manual processing.

In welding, mechanization has the same high importance as in any

other special process of fabrication. It is proved by the experience of
the last 50 years that the quality of a weld is increasing with the
decreasing of the human factor involved in fabrication. The welding
speed can be increased by using specific devices for travelling the
welding torch, as well.

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 Fig. 3.1 Evolutions brought by the mechanization

3.1.2 Mechanized welding systems

Structures of A welding system is built as in figure 3.2.

mechanized
welding equipment
and systems MATERIALS MATERIALS (welded structure,
(base materials, filler materials, shielding wastes from base materials,

WELDING PROCESS
gases, consumables, etc.) wastes from filler metal, etc.)

ENERGY (electric, mechanical, thermal, ENERGY (dissipated, transferred

etc.) for process, for equipment, for from welding process to other
auxiliary systems, etc. fabrication process, etc.)

INFORMATION (info on process, info on INFORMATION (effective

weld characteristics, info on operating characteristics of the welded
equipment, etc,) structure, experience, etc.)

Fig. 3.2 Technological welding system

To apply mechanization on a welding system, it is necessary to assure

specific devices with specific functions, organized in:
a. according to their nature: the executive functions which are mainly
characterized by transfer and transformation of energy and the
leading functions which are mainly characterized by transfer of
information
b. according to their level of involvement in the fabrication process:
base/work functions and auxiliary/helping functions

Executive functions consist of:

a. main function – involved in direct processing of the product, using
materials, energy and information from the inputs
b. installing functions – involved in the positioning of the base
materials and of the used tools (welding and cleaning heads, etc.)
c. cinematic functions – involved in the movement of the base
materials and/or the used tools, with specific speed and
acceleration
d. logistic functions – involved in the travelling of the pieces to the
welding workshop and from the welding workshop to another
workshop

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The mechanization of the welding processes could be organized on
different levels from no mechanization to full mechanization:
 Simple mechanization – the welding system contains an executive
block, which performs the operations by controlling the welding
head; the energy source being the human resource.

Welding
Process
Technological
activities

Human factor Executive block Tool(Welding Head)

Fig. 3.3 Simple mechanized system

 Fully mechanized – a system that is mechanized and it uses a

specific power source, which is not human dependent.

Welding
Process
Technological
activities

Human factor Device to travel Executive block Tool (welding head

the welding head
(i.e. welding
tractor)

Fig. 3.4 Fully mechanized system

The level of mechanization is given by the percentage level of the

power brought from another source than human sources, to fulfil the
requirements of the welding system. That can be expressed by
equation (1.1):

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 −𝑃ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛
𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∙ 100 [%] (3.1)
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
where:

 Lmechanization – level of mechanization of the welding process

 Ptotal – power necessary to perform the welding process
 Phuman – power brought from human sources

If 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛 then the welding process is fully manual, and that
means that no mechanization action was applied to the technological
system: 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.

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 If 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑃ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 then the welding process is fully mechanized,
and that means that no influence of the human factors can be met:
𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1.

To be easier, the analysis can be made on the total time of work, which
is composed of time of the mechanized operations plus the time of the
manually operations:

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘1 = 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (3.2)

To understand the benefit of the mechanization it is enough to consider

the total work time 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 as being composed of the time of the
manually operations plus the time which could be consumed if the
mechanized operations would be performed in manual regime,
𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 .

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘2 = 𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛/𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙_𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (3.3)

By just comparing the two parameters, it can be observed that:

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘1 < 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘2 (3.4)

This means that mechanization brought efficiency by decreasing the

work time:
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘2 −𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘2
∙ 100 [%] (3.5)

3.1.3 Actions to be taken for mechanization

Structures of To mechanize welding process, specific devices should be attached to
mechanized the welding system. Classification of such devices could be done
welding equipment
and systems according to the following criteria:
a. According to the destination of the devices:
 Devices for fixing and positioning of the workpiece
 Devices for travelling (moving of the welding heads or the
workpiece)
 Devices for seam tracking, etc.
b. According to the degree of specialization, the devices could be:
 Special devices – dedicated to a single type of operation and
for a single type of piece to be welded
 Specialized devices – dedicated to a single type of operation
but for several types of pieces to be welded
 Universal devices – dedicated to several types of operations
and for a larger types of pieces to be welded
c. According to the structure, the devices could be:
 Mono-block devices – containing elements which are dedicated
(in design and construction) to the device
 Modular devices – containing independent and standard
elements, which could be disassembled.

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 The choice of a specific device to mechanize a welding process is
generally based on the quality required for the mechanization and on
the price of the required device. Another criterion used to choose a
mechanization device is the flexibility to be used in different situations
(when the type of weld or the thickness of the base metal or other
characteristic of the joint are changed).

3.1.4 Devices for fixing and positioning of the workpiece

Structures of The fixing function means the technological lock of the workpiece or
mechanized the welding head in a position which is required by the welding
welding equipment
and systems technology. The fixing function is correlated with the positioning
function, which means to put the workpiece and/or the welding head
in the technologically desired position, in order to apply the welding
technology. If the technology specifies that the welding travel is
assured only by the welding head then the position of the workpiece
should be maintained unchanged for the entire period of the welding
process. If the technology specifies that the trajectory of the heat
source should be assured by both the welding head and the workpiece,
then the position of the workpiece should be modified according to a
specific schedule. If the technology specifies that the welding travel is
assured only by the workpiece, then the position of the workpiece
should be changed continuously, for the entire period of the welding
process.

The force used to fix a workpiece or a welding head should be higher

than the results of all external forces that are able to change the
technological position. Such external force could be the massic forces
(gravitational, inertial), technological forces (force brought by the
resistance welding electrodes, forces involved by the dilatation and
contraction of the workpieces, etc.) and the friction forces.
Welding travel
x Welding travel 1
x

y
Welding
y travel 2
x
Welding travel

Fig. 3.5 Examples of welding systems with fixed / mobile elements

3.1.4.1 Clamping devices using screws as active element

Structures of Also called „threaded fasteners”, they are the most used fixing devices.
mechanized
welding equipment
They are often used in welding processes when the workpiece has no
and systems large dimensions and mass.

The screws used for such devices are normal self-fastened screws.
The main advantages of such clamping devices are the quality of the
clamping, the low to medium price and the “easy to use” principles.
The main disadvantage is the low speed of operations of tightening and
loosening the screw.

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In the next pictures it can be seen some of the principles of the
clamping devices using screws and several examples of such systems.

Force Force

Workpiece Workpiece

a. Principle of simple clamping b. Principle of clamping using locking blocks

c. Examples of clamping devices

Fig. 3.6 Clamping devices dedicated to rectangular workpiece

a. Principle of bars/pipes clamping b. Examples of clamping devices for

bars / pipes

Fig. 3.7 Clamping devices dedicated to circular workpiece

a. for rectangular workpiece b. for circular workpiece

Fig. 3.8 Clamping devices with adjustable grips

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 3.1.4.2 Toggle clamping devices
Structures of The toggle clamping devices are very fast devices to fix (generally)
mechanized
welding equipment
rectangular workpieces for butt welding, especially, but for fillet
and systems welding is possible to be used, as well. They use specific articulations
in order to move a grip, which will fix the workpiece.

The main advantages when using toggle clamps are: the clamping is
very fast and very tight, the devices are easy to use and the hands are
far from the welding area and far from the workpiece and that means
lower risks to appear injuries from the heated workpiece. The main
disadvantage is a higher price comparing to the threaded fasteners.

Fig. 3.9 Horizontal handle toggle clamp

Fig. 3.10 Vertical handle toggle clamp

Fig. 3.11 Latch toggle clamp Fig. 3.12 Ratcheting Bar Clamp

Fig. 3.13 Push-Pull toggle clamp Fig. 3.14 Auto-adjust inline toggle clamp

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 Fig. 3.15 Grip locking toggle clamp pliers

The clamping force applied with the toggle clamps is generally lower
than 5 kN.

3.1.4.3 Eccentric side clamping devices

Structures of The eccentric side clamps are quick-action clamping devices, generally
mechanized
welding equipment
for rectangular workpieces. The workpieces are clamped by rotating a
and systems cam wheel which exerts pressure on the swivel jaw, simultaneously
producing a positive down force. Using the stop screw and centring
bush (see diagram), the side clamp can be mounted and positioned on
a modular grid system. The fixing force is from 2...4 kN up to 10 kN,
depending on the dimension of the clamp and on the material of the
clamp.

The eccentric side clamps have almost the same advantages and
disadvantages as the toggle clamps: the clamping is very fast, the
force si sufficient, and they are easy to use, as main advantages; they
are not cheap and that is the main disadvantage thay have.

Fig. 3.16 Eccentric side clamps

3.1.5 Devices to rotate the workpiece

Structures of If the welding technology requires a rotation of the workpiece during
mechanized
welding equipment
the welding process, then specialized devices can be used to assure
and systems the rotation. Depeding on the type of the workpiece (rectangular,
circular or else) and depending on the weight of the workpiece, the
rotating devices have different construction concepts.

3.1.5.1 Rotating and turning/tilting tables with chuck

Structures of A chuck is a specialized type of clamp used to hold an object, generally
mechanized
welding equipment
having a radial symmetry. It is most commonly used to hold and rotate
and systems for welding 2 bars or 2 pipes already tack welded. The welding head is
maintained fixed. Some chucks can also hold irregularly shaped objects
(ones that lack radial symmetry).

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Many chucks have jaws, which are dogs that are arranged in a radially
symmetrical pattern to hold the workpiece to be welded. The jaws are
individually adjustable, allowing firm gripping of odd shaped work. The
chuck body is fabricated from carbon steel, but the jaws are made of
high quality, hardened carbon steel.

Fig. 3.17 Chucks with 3 / 4 jaws to rotate bars / pipes during welding

The chuck is rotated by an electromechanically system. Together they

are often called welding positioner/turning table/pipe chuck plate or
welding positioner. Such complex devices are part of the rotation with
centre devices family. The workpiece is fixed on a rotating and turning
table and the welding head is maintained fixed or is moved with
technologically controlled speed, to create a specific weld shape,
composed of the rotation of the table with the movement of the head.
If the pipe is long, then the free end of the pipe is supported on a
specialized device (figure 3.17).

Fig. 3.18 Mechanized welding systems using rotating and turning table to hold and
rotate the pipe is involved in the welding process

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The welding head can be held by a welder or by other fixing and
positioning device.

G G

G G

L Lt
L L
Fig. 3.19 Geometrical elements to determine the parameters of the device
The necessary momentum to hold the workpiece fixed by the chuck is:

𝑀ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝐺𝑑 ∙ 𝐿𝑑 > (𝐿𝐷 + 𝐿𝑤 ) ∙ 𝐺𝑤 (3.6)

The necessary power input of the role can be determined with:

𝑀𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 ∙𝜔𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒−𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 = (3.7)
ƞ

where 𝑀𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 is the necessary momentum to rotate the workpiece, 𝜔𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒

is the angular speed and ƞ is the efficiency of the device.
To tilt the workpiece the necessary momentum is:

𝑀𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 = (𝐿𝐷 + 𝐿𝑤 ) ∙ 𝐺𝑤 ∙ cos 𝛼 + 𝐿𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 (3.8)

where 𝛼 is the angle to tilt and 𝐿𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 is the distance between the device
and the axis to turn/tilt.

The rotating and turning table is usually able to modify the angle of
the workpiece before or during the rotation action.

Because tilting is a positioning movement, it can be executed manually

or mechanically. For a mechanically executed movement, there are
specific mechanisms: screw-nut or lever, gear wheel-gear sector or
worm – worm gear. The first and the third solution provides self-
locking, whereas the second system is required to have an extra device,
which is able to ensure self-blocking. Hydraulic turning/tilting
mechanisms or tilting and lifting mechanisms, are especially used for
handling heavy loadings.

A modern rotating and turning table is equipped with adaptable turning,

tilting and height controllers. This infinite 3-axis component
adjustment ensures the perfect, productive and ergonomic working
position. Such a table is able to assure smooth and precise turning
movement in all loading conditions, due to electronical control of the
drives (AC, DC, step-by-step or digital controlled drives).

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 If the adjustment of the tilt and of the height is supported by hydraulic
operations, then the device ensures the most secure positioning of the
workpiece for optimum welding and working positions.

If the positioner is equipped with digital controllers, then all

movements can be easily controlled by the handy distant controller
and the operator can assure surveillance directly on the digital speed
indicator.

a. b.
Fig. 3.20 Rotating and turning/tilting tables for low weight workpieces (a.) and for
high weight workpieces (b.)

The rotating tables allow for weights of 15 tones and more. If a large
number of pieces need to be welded, then specific multiple rotating
tables can be used.

Fig. 3.21 Multiple turning and rotating device (3 independent chucks)

3.1.5.2 Welding turning/tilting platforms

Structures of Another type of devices used to mechanize the welding system is the
mechanized
welding equipment
welding turning/tilting platform. The welding turning/tilting platforms
and systems are dedicated to assure specified position for the workpiece and not to
assure movement of the workpiece during the welding process. The
loading range of such devices is from 0,5 to 60 tonnes, high loadings
needing two columns to sustain the platform.

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 a. one column platform b. Two columns platform
Fig. 3.22 Typical forms of platforms

Fixing of the workpiece in place can be done by using clamps, threaded

fasteners or T slots/channels.

Fig. 3.23 T slot and tilting platforms with T slots

The calculations of the parameters can be calculated using the same

formulas as in the rotating and turning devices case.

3.1.5.3 Welding turning rollers

Structures of If the subject of the welding is a shell for a pressure vessel or for a
mechanized
welding equipment
pressure tank, then, a technological solution to perform the circular
and systems welding is to maintain the welding head in fixed position and to rotate
the shell. For such an application, the fabricators usually use welding
turning rollers. They are part of the no centre rotation devices family.

Fig. 3.24 Shell ring on welding turning rollers

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The parameters to be considered when choosing to use a turning roller
are:
 Loading range: 2...500 t. Each roller is loaded with the force:

𝐺
𝐹 = 𝑛∙cos 𝛼 (3.9)

where n is the number of the rollers, 𝐺 the mass of the shell and
𝛼 is the angle between the vertical in the centre of the shell and
the line that is determined by the centre of the shell and the centre
of a roller (α range is: 30...60o)
 Shell diameter range: 250...8000 mm
 Distance between the two (pairs of) rollers (parameter A in figure
3.25 depends on the diameter of the shell:

𝐴
sin 𝛼 = 𝐷 (3.10)
3 +𝐷2

where D2 and D3 are presented in Figure 3.20. The distance can

be fixed or variable, if the device permits that. A variable distance
is possible to be done by moving a roller or both rollers.

Mobile rollers

a. fixed distance between rollers b. variable distance between rollers

Fig. 3.25 Roller blocks

a. Fixed or variable distance wheel rollers (the variation of the distance is done by
moving one or both rollers)

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 b. Ballad wheels turning rollers
Fig. 3.26 Geometrical elements of a turning roller

 Total drive momentum is given by:

𝐷2
𝑀𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 ∙ 2
∙𝜇∙𝐹 (3.11)

where ndrive is the number of the driven rollers and μ is the friction
coefficient between the roller and the shell
 Speed range: 50...1700 mm/min.
 Generally, the rollers are fabricated of steel or cast iron. If the load
is below 100 t, then the rollers are usually covered with
polyurethane strip (as friction material and shielding material)
 AC motor for larger than 100 t loading and DC motor for lower
loadings. The both are digitally controlled.

The wheels can be driven or not. If both wheels are driven, then they
are electronically controlled in order to have the same rotation speed.
The act of driving the rollers can be used for placing the shell into
specific position or to rotate the shell with a specific speed. The angular
speed can be calculated with:

𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝜔𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝜋∙𝐷2
(3.12)

where vlinear is the linear speed (tangential) of the role and,

subsequently, of the shell ring.
The necessary power to be input to the role can be determined with:

𝑀𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 ∙𝜔𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒−𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 = ƞ
(3.13)

If the load or the length of the workpiece is higher than what can be
supported by just a pair of wheels, then other pairs will be added to
assure the support and the rotation of the workpiece.

3.1.6 Devices to put in position and to travelling the welding

head
Structures of Most devices and installations for moving the welding heads are
mechanized
welding equipment
designed to perform linear movements. If the weld shape is more
and systems complex than linear, then the movement of the head is combined with
the movement of the workpiece.

P a g e | 26
 There are three classes of devices dedicated to perform travelling of
the welding head(s): welding tractors, welding columns and welding
portals.

3.1.6.1 Welding tractors

Structures of Conventional welding tractors are used to do butt welds (either
mechanized
welding equipment
between the wheels or on the side of the tractor) and fillet welds,
and systems (using lateral guide rollers). Also, they can be used for internal or
external circular welds, the shells rotating at a peripheral speed equal
to the speed of travel of the tractor.

The welding tractors are, generally, dedicated to the following welding

processes:
 tractors for submerged arc welding
 tractors for shielding gas arc welding (MIG/MAG or TIG)
 tractors for submerged and shielding gas arc welding.

They can also be used for flame or plasma cutting, for heat treatment
or for pre or post-heating to reduce distortions after the welding
thermal cycle.

a. tractor for SAW process b. tractor for GMAW process

c. Tractors with weaving possibility and moving on specific driveway

Fig. 3.27 Tractors for welding with or without weaving

The welding tractors move on their own rail/track or directly on the

workpiece. The wheels of the tractors can be smooth or with a channel
guide, or covered with rubber strip / tire. The rolling system is
generally composed of two rigid axes, each having two wheels. One of
them or both are driven. Other concept consists in one rigid axis with
two wheels and the other wheels being orientable wheels.

P a g e | 27
The diversity of the welded structures requires the tractors to have the
following constructive/functional characteristics:
 Manually moving the welding head, minimum 60 mm
perpendicularly to the direction of welding;
 Manually moving the welding head, minimum 100 mm in vertical
direction
 The inclination of the welding head sideways, ± 45o from the
vertical,
 The inclination of the welding head longitudinally, in the direction
of welding, in the range of -15 ... + 45°;
 Disconnecting the wheels from the drive, in order to permit a
manually executed movement of the tractor.

The control system of the tractor must assure:

 Start and stop sequences of the welding process
 Command of the forward and backward movement of the tractor
 Driving up and down the wire
 Adjustment of the travel speed of the tractor
 Adjustment of the wire feed speed
 Indication of the travel speed of the tractor.

Adjustment of the travel speed and of the wire feed speed can be
achieved in steps, continuous or mixed.
The power of the drives is fairly low: 120 ... 150 W. The drives have
low dimensions and weight. They are DC motors operating at 4000 ...
5000 rot / min. After the DC motors gears are considered, in order to
assure specific required momentum, it can be calculated with:

𝑃
𝑇 = 9.55 ∙ 106 ∙ 𝑛 (3.14)

As already presented, after the motor a gear should be inserted, and

the momentum after the gear is given by the transmission ratio. After
the gear, usually, a coupling system is used. The role of the coupling
system is to connect or remove the connection of the drive with the
driven axis.

If the designer considers that both axis should be driven, then the
movement and the energy is transmitted from the first axis to the
second one. The transmission from the first axis to the second one can
be done by using a chain gear, wheel gear or synchronous belts.

To move, the tractor must defeat the inertia given by the friction with
the workpiece or with its own driveway. The friction is given by its own
mass, the mass of the welding head and the mass of the cables
necessary to be moved together with the tractor. The total resistance
is estimated at about 150 ... 200 N.

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 3.28 Two rigid axis both driven by using chain transmission

Fig.

a. axis 1 – direct driven from coupling system

b. axis 2 – indirect driven by using chain gear

Fig. 3.29 The entire driven system

Fig. 3.30 Gear after the motor of the drive, the coupling system and the chain gear

P a g e | 29
 Fig. 3.31 Chain gear used to transfer energy and movement from axis to axis

The active driven force of the tractor must be greater than the force of
resistance:
𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (3.15)

Where 𝜇 is the friction coefficient between the wheel and the driveway
/ workpiece (which is 0.15...0.25 for steel wheels and 0.2...0.3 for the
wheels having rubber cover) and 𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the total mass to be moved,
according to the numbering above. If the movement is on inclined
surface, inclination given by the angle of inclination 𝛼 , then the
necessary force to move is:

𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝐺𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∙ cos 𝛼 (3.16)

The main used methods to drive a welding tractor are: by using driven
wheels (2 or 4 wheels driven) or by using a rack-gear system in
conjunction with 4 wheels.

The wheels could be simply metallic or covered with rubber for better
friction. They can be, also, with special profile on the active
circumferential side, in order to rotate on a specialized rail. In the case
of the rack-gear solution, the most usual practice is to use 4 wheels on
the side of the rail.

a. rack-gear device for driven and 4 wheels on the sideways of the rail

P a g e | 30
 b. 2 or 4 driven wheels covered with rubber for better friction

c. channel wheel to move on specific profile

Fig. 3.32 Different types of solution for driven the welding tractor, from the
wheels point of view

The rack used to drive the tractor can be a rigid one or flexible one. It
is composed of multiple identical elements having specific length
(usually 1000 mm or 2000 mm). The rack is usually fixed to the
workpiece using permanent magnets. The magnets are located in
specific slots, which are fixed on the rail by screws.
The welding torch is fixed on the tractor using holders with screws.
Such devices are able to assure 2-3, even 4 degrees of freedom for the
torch, in order to adjust the best position relative to the groove. The
holders are usually built of aluminium, alloying to have low weight and
sufficient mechanical resistance.

a. b. c.

P a g e | 31
 a. b. c.
Fig. 3.33 Rails for rack – gear driven

Fig. 3.34 Different types of torch holders

Certain types of tractors are able to assure the weaving of the torch,
which is an important technological aspect of the welding process. The
weaving is created by combining the welding travel movement with an
alternating movement transverse to the welding direction. By adjusting
the speeds of the two movements, it is possible to obtain several
shapes of weaving. Adjusting the amplitude of the transverse
movement allows to adjust the amplitude of the weaving, as
subsequently shown.

P a g e | 32
 Fig. 3.35 Possible weaving modes assured by the tractor

The technological parameters relative to the movement of the welding

torch are adjustable from the tractor.

a. Control panel b. remote control for adjustments

Fig. 3.36 Devices to adjust the movement and technological parameters

3.1.6.2 Welding columns

Structures of The welding columns are devices dedicated to the positioning of the
mechanized
welding equipment
welding torch in certain coordinates and angles, and, sometimes, to
and systems assure the travel of the welding torch, alone, or in conjunction with a
specific movement of the workpiece.

They are used mainly to carry automatic welding heads, which could
be: TIG, Plasma, MIG or submerged arc welding heads, to weld either
longitudinal seams or circumferential seams with rotators.

When choosing column with transverse booms, it is essential to achieve

minimal deflection at the end of the boom and of course minimal
vibration of the welding head. Therefore, the size of the machined
guide ways and guide way rollers are important to guarantee these
movements. Furthermore, the size of the column and booms are also
essential to guarantee their stability.

The advantages of using columns are: they are very efficient in solving
the movement of the welding head(s), they require low space to be
installed, they can be fixed or mobile, and because of using DC motors
their movement is very smooth which brings high quality to the weld.
The main disadvantage is related to the initial costs.

P a g e | 33
Such column manipulators have a rated load capacity that must be
considered. This load is expressed as a value at either or both ends of
the boom/ram, and is rated directly at the end. No over-hung capacity
is stated.

All additional weights, including operator, catwalks, operator chairs,

cross slides, and welding equipment must be considered when
calculating the weight capacity required. The loading range usually is
200-1000 kg.

The lift and reach requirement (moving up and down the welding head)
is determined by the most extreme vertical and horizontal arc location.
This is based on the work envelope size. There is a minimum and
maximum dimension; the lift and reach size represents the total range
provided and depends on the type of column device and of how large
is this total range.

a. simple column b. Column with console

y
x

c. Full sketch of a column with 2 consoles d. Image of a column

Fig. 3.37 Welding column – different types

P a g e | 34
The welding column and booms could have a modular construction.
Depending on the employed welding process, used material and the
geometry of manufactured products, every column and boom can be
modularly tailored to best suit the task at hand. In addition to column
and boom dimensions, e.g. the welding equipment, cross slide, welding
head mounting, flux handling in case of SAW, wire reel size and
position, seam tracking method, etc. are selected to optimise the
device for maximum productivity characteristics.

In both rotation and tilting, and their massive frames ensure safety at
all times. The non-mobile columns are fixed to the ground using screws
and they can only rotate beside the movements of the booms and of
the welding head. The mobile columns can create a linear movement
on specific rail sliding system.

Fig. 3.38 The rail – wheel system and examples of wheels

The columns are nearly all mounted on slewing rings to allow the whole
column to be rotated through 360 degrees.

All the linear guiding on column and boom permit smooth movement
of the boom and of the welding head, which makes it ideal for gas
metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and
submerged arc welding (SAW) processes. The welding head can be
mounted on movable carriage or it can be as fixed stand on the boom.
The console can be a telescopic one.

Fig. 3.38 Column with telescopic console

P a g e | 35
 Naturally, the columns with a console are used in conjunction with
welding rotators to carry out longitudinal and circumferential welding
in the optimum position of down hand welding. When the column
and/or the boom is moving the cables are moved also, using cable
chains.

The columns, as special devices (working high and being very slim)
have mounted on them standard safety features including anti-fall
device and limit switches for all motions.

3.1.6.3 Welding portal gantry systems

Structures of A welding portal gantry is the next step from the welding columns, and
mechanized
welding equipment
are developed for: higher loadings, longer movements of the welding
and systems heads, increased stability and more flexibility in terms of the pieces to
be welded.

4 axis
robotic arm

Fig. 3.39 Welding portal gantry system with two welding heads

The portal gantry systems range from a track gage of 3 to 25 m with

vertical tracks (lift and reach) of up to 6 m positioning range.

One or two specific welding tractors with fixed welding heads may be
mounted on the portal; since the portal axis is controlled by automated
control system, it may also be used for positioning during execution of
a welding step. Usually, robotic arms are mounted on the portals to
hold and operate the welding heads. The standard portal design
includes a double-sided rack drive with AC servo motors, stable wheel
house with integrated edge guide control on massive rails, moving
control cabinet, power source, and a control console, if requested.

Generally, all the structural and constructive characteristics, which

have already been presented in the chapter related to the welding
columns, are specific to the welding portal gantries, too.

P a g e | 36
 3.1.7 Devices for weaving welding heads
Structures of The weaving of the welding head is a technological movement required
mechanized
welding equipment
when the opening of the groove is wide. Weaving is a technique used
and systems to increase the width and volume of the weld deposit. Enlarging the
size of the weld deposit is often necessary on deep grooves or fillet
welds where a number of passes must be made. Figure 3.40 illustrates
several weaving patterns. The patterns used depend largely on the
position of the weld. When manually welding the weaving pattern is
chosen by the welder according to its skills, but in mechanized welding
not all the patterns can be produced.

To create weaving using mechanical systems, several disadvantages

could appear: a limited frequency, high inertia of the mechanism,
complex system to build, new consumer of energy. The main
mechanical weaving systems used are: rack-gear transverse
movement combined with the welding movement, a system using
crank mechanism, system using hydraulic piston, system using
eccentric wheels with variable radius and system using
electromagnetic force. In the first case, the pattern of the weaving is
done by combining two movements: the welding travel and a
transverse movement. In this manner, several patterns can be
obtained. (Figure 3.40).

Welding
travel

Transverse
movement

a. weaving during welding b. combination of 2 movements to obtain the

desired shape of weaving
Fig. 3.40 Weaving in mechanized welding

When using a crank mechanism to create a weaving of the welding

head, the head is mounted on the element which is linearly moving
(figure 3.41a). In this case the pattern of the weaving is a V (zigzag).
When using an eccentric wheel, a problem occurs: the length of the
arc is changing, the end of the welding wire creating a circle arc (figure
3.41b). In the both cases, the amplitude of the oscillation depends on
the radius of the crank / eccentric wheel. The step of the oscillation is
adjusted by modifying the angular speed of the drive, 𝜔:

𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 = 2 ∙ 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 ∙ 𝜋/𝜔 (3.17)

P a g e | 37
 where 𝑣𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 is the welding speed.

a. weaver with crank mechanism b. weaver with eccentric wheel

c. weaver with piston (viscous oil) b. weaver with electromagnet

Fig. 3.41 Mechanisms for mechanical weaving

When using a piston to move the head, the hydraulic liquid that moves
the piston under pressure is a high viscosity oil. The oil is introduced
and extracted under pressure, moving the piston, linearly, in the both
ways, depending on the way of the oil.

In the case of using electromagnetic force, an electromagnet is used

to push and pull the welding head, through a short bar. The action of
the electromagnet is possible by applying impulses of alternating
current.

3.1.8 Seam tracking systems

Structures of Even if a system which has a specific degree of mechanization doesn’t
mechanized
welding equipment
work as an automated system, sometimes it requires sensors for seam
and systems tracking. Seam tracking helps the operator, decreasing its
responsibility regarding to the instant positioning of the welding wire
inside the welding seam. Without that responsibility, the operator can
focus on the arc, parameters, weaving and weld pool only. A welding
tractor, carrying a welding head or more, during its welding travel, may
slip out from the specified route. That is possible due to the eventual
damages of the wheels, or low quality of the seam, or the eventual
sliding of the wheels due to unsteady friction, or to any instability of
the tractor or of the workpiece. If the tractor slips out of the route, the
welding head is not able to perform a correct weld.

P a g e | 38
That is why seam tracking is very important even for mechanized
systems.

Tactile (contact) seam trackers

The simplest seam tracking process is the direct tracking that is done
when the welding head is solidary to an adjustable swivel guide wheel
to contact the work surface. It is usually known as mechanical system
for seam tracking. Generally, it is not necessary that the tactile piece
is a wheel: a sphere has the same effect.

A problem related to such tactile sensors is the existence of the tack

welds. They are able to remove the tactile sensor from the seam. To
avoid that situation the width of the wheels and radius of the spheres
are increased, in order to penetrate the joint up to the superior surface
of the tack welds, without touching it.

Fig. 3.42 Seam tracking system using profiled wheels as tactile sensor

Fig. 3.43 Seam tracking system using spheres as tactile sensor

Fig. 3.44 Tactile sensors for direct sensing

P a g e | 39
The advantages of mechanical direct tactile systems are:
 their principle and structure and construction are very simple
 deliver precise automated seam tracking for submerged arc
welding and for all the shielding gas welding processes,
 ideal for repetitive welding applications
 they are easy to set up – often installed and ready for operating in
one day.
 they are easy to operate – most operators, having a welding
background, can quickly learn to program and operate.
 rare damages tend to appear: mainly wear of the wheel/sphere
 they are recommended from manual to semiautomatic welding to
improve quality and consistency while reducing operational costs.

Such scanning systems have a long distance between the sensor and
the welding head and this is a major disadvantage reducing the
application range. They can be used for grooves with large dimensions
and relatively straight seam path, only.

Fig. 3.44 Situation in which a tactile system has low performance

Capacitive and inductive non-contact seam trackers

There are electrical seam tracking systems, as well. They use capacity
or inductivity for sensing.

Inductive sensors are graded as non-contact measurement systems.

Due to their functioning principle, they can be applied for metallic and
electrically conductive materials. The simplest type is a ring coil. If an
alternating current flows though the coil, a magnetic field is generated
close to the workpiece. When the coil approaches the workpiece
surface, the magnetic field weakens. Such simple sensors are used to
recognize the workpiece position. Using several distance sensors, a
welding seam can be tracked.

With multiple coil arrangements in a single inductive sensor, it is

possible to receive information on the relative distance and angle
between the sensor and the welding groove. The principle of function
is: a transmitter coil generates a magnetically alternating field, which
induces alternating currents in two receiver coils. When the process is
stable in the axis of the groove (distance and angle of the relative
position between the welding head and the workpiece), these currents
are phase-shifted by 180° and they neutralise each other. If the sensor
is moved in transverse direction above the welding groove, the
magnetical symmetries disappear and the specific electrical signal is
received.

P a g e | 40
 a. type of sensors with variable inductivity

b. sensor acting as electrical transformer

Fig. 3.45 Inductive and capacitive seam tracking systems

The transformer type sensor function is based on the inserting and

extracting of a core into and from a coil. This variation creates a voltage
variation, which is recorded.

Through-the-arc seam trackers

Another seam tracking system is the through-the-arc sensing system.
They are based on the determined relation between the length of the
arc and the arc voltage or welding current. When moving a welding arc
across the welding groove, the arc modifies its length, as follows: when
it leaves the surface of the workpiece and enters the groove, the arc
length is increased, the maximum length being in the axis of the
groove. When it passes from the axis of the groove the length starts
to decrease until the initial length, which is on the surface of the
workpiece and it is the minimum one. The reaction of the power source
is as follows: when the length is increasing, the voltage is increasing
and the current is decreasing; after the axis of the groove when the
arc length is decreasing, the voltage is decreasing and the current is
increasing.

P a g e | 41
 Ua [V]
Ua [V]

l [mm]

Fig. 3.46 Principle of function for the through-the-arc seam tracking systems

The tracking system can be used, even if not only one arc but two
welding arcs are used for the welding process.

Fig. 3.47 Principle of function for the through-the-arc seam tracking systems when
weld in twin-arc system

The through-the-arc seam tracking is simple, does not require physical

elements attached to the welding head, easy to use and very precise.
The electronic component could be expensive, depending on the
required resolution. Another problem of the through-the-arc seam
tracking is the inertia at the end of the move, when changing the
direction of the movement. If a low vibration of the head is happening,
the recorded signal is sometimes blurred.

BM1 BM2

The axis of the groove

Fig. 3.48 Effects of the inertia when the head stops and changes its direction of
movement

P a g e | 42
 The newest types of seam tracking systems are based on laser beam
measurement of the distance between the lens and the workpiece. To
make these measurements, the system requires a CCD or CMOS
camera vision. They are very precise sensors for seam tracking, but
they are expensive, as result of the excellent precision. Due to their
prices, the laser seam trackers are often used in automatic and robot
welding systems and rarely in mechanized welding systems.

Fig. 3.49 Principle of function for the laser seam tracking systems

3.1.9 Devices for wire feeding during welding (wire feeders)

Structures of The shielding gases processes, even TIG process, and the submerged
mechanized
welding equipment
arc welding process require wire feeding. Involving mechanized wire
and systems feeding in the welding system is the first mechanization measure
implemented to the arc welding systems (exception being the Manual
Metal Arc process), comparing to the Manual Metal Arc and classic TIG
processes, where the filler metal is brought to the arc by the welder.

A device for wire feeding has the following components: a wire spool
or a pail pack / drum / basket and a roller for the spool rotation,
electro-mechanical system with specific rollers, guiding tubes and
mechanical system to press the rollers to the wire, in order to assure
the friction necessary to transport the wire.

The advantage of using wire feeders is that the human factor is not
involved in this process and the wire feeding speed can be maintained
continuously according to a specific specification: it can be maintained
constant for the entire welding time or it can be modified according to
specific algorithm. The law that regulates the wire feeding speed is the
next: the wire feeding speed should be equal to the wire melting speed,
in order to maintain constant arc length. That law is difficult to be
applied when manually adding the wire to the welding arc. The use of
mechanized feeders is the best solution to this problem.

The main disadvantage is related to the cost of such system, which

usually has an electronic controller and specific electromechanical
elements.

P a g e | 43
The wire spool can be metallic or plastic, having standard dimensions
and weights (2 - 10 – 15 – 16 – 18 – 25 – 30 kg or others for MIG/MAG
wire and 75 – 100 – 300 kg for SAW wire when steel wire).

A pail pack / drum / basket is usually fabricated of wood and carton

and it has over 100 kg of wire inside (200 kg, 250 kg, 475 kg or other
when steel solid wire and 140 kg when aluminium wire), being usually
in three types: the mini version, the standard version, and the jumbo
version. They are key in maximising production efficiency and quality;
in manual welding and especially in mechanised and robotic welding.
The welding wire can be covered by a copper layer or by graphite
powder.

Fig. 3.50 Wire spools and wire pail pack / drum / basket

The roller for the spool rotation is mounted on the wall of the wire
feeder and it is braked to avoid the detachment of the wire due to
inertia when the feeding stops.

Fig. 3.51 Wire feeding systems with spools mounted on the rollers

The last three components, the electro-mechanical system with

specific rollers, the guiding tubes and the mechanical system to press
the rollers to the wire, in order to assure the friction necessary to
transport the wire, they all form single unit which is directly responsible
for the wire movement and it is considered as the wire feeder.

P a g e | 44
 Fig. 3.52 Wire feeder

The wire feeders are, usually, activated by a DC motor or other types

of electronically regulated motors. The motor directly rotates a gear
wheel that is in connection with other driving rollers dedicated to the
movement of the wire. The rollers can be all driven or only part of them
can be driven, the others being pressing rollers in order to assure the
necessary friction.

Fig. 3.53 Wire feeder with all the rollers driven

The number of the roller depends on the wire feeding speed.

Fig. 3.54 Wire feeders with 2, 4 and 5 rollers

The pressing rollers are pressed on the wire by using specific levers or
coil springs. The pressing force should be correct adjusted in order to
avoid the blocking of the feeder by the wire.

P a g e | 45
 Fig. 3.55 Pressing force adjustment and a blocked wire feeder

The rollers are profiled in order to efficiently transfer the wire.

Pressing roller Pressing roller Pressing roller

Driving roller for solid steel Driving roller for solid Driving roller for fux cored
wire – V profile aluminum wire – U profile wire – U knurled profile
Fig. 3.56 Types of feeding rollers

The guiding tubes are used to introduce and to extract the wires from
the rollers. They need to be tangential to the roller positioned and
lower than 3 mm to be the distance between the end of the tube and
the roller. The tubes are generally metallic, but Teflon can be used.

Fig. 3.57 The guiding tubes

P a g e | 46
 If the distance between the wire feeding device and the welding area
is very long (exceeding for example 6-7 m), than second feeding
device is intermediary connected. The new created system is usually
known as „push-pull” system. The first feeding device is pushing the
wire and the intermediary one is pulling the wire. That is possible by
creating synchronization of the driven motors of the two. Most of the
times the pulling system is mounted on the welding torch.

For manual TIG welding specific rods are used as filler metal. When the
TIG process is mechanized, the rods are not usable anymore and wire
feeding devices similar to MIG/MAG processes are applicable.

Fig. 3.58 The „pull” element of the Fig. 3.59 Wire feeding device for
„push-pull” system TIG welding

3.2 Welding processes for mechanized welding (MIG, MAG, PAW, SAW, TIG)

3.2.1 Principle and characteristics of MIG / MAG process

Welding processes MIG/MAG process is the most used arc welding process. That is due to
for mechanized the very large ranges of base metallic materials, base materials
welding
(MIG,MAG, PAW,
thicknesses, length of the welds and welding positions.
SAW, TIG) The principle of the process is presented in Figure 3.60.

Fig. 3.60 Principle of MIG/MAG process

P a g e | 47
 The characteristics of the process are presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 The main characteristics of the MIG/MAG process

Arc
Welding current, Welding speed,
Parameter Wire diameter, Dwire, [mm] voltage,
Is [A] Vwelding [cm/min]
Ua [V]
0,8–0,9(robot)-1,0–1,2-1,6–
25-400
2,0–2,4 15-30
Usually c.c.+
Wire types: solid and tubular Ua  14  0.05  Is 15-300
Very rare DC- or AC
(flux cored)
The chemical composition of When Determines the Together with the
the wire should be similar to increase penetration. High arc voltage and the
the chemical composition of voltage the current means high current determines
the base metal. arc length is penetration and lower the heat input (the
If use active gas, then the increasing, width of the weld. quantity of heat that
content of the deoxidizing and the Together with the is introduced in the
elements should be increased noise voltage determines base metal).
with 5-10% (usually Mn and becomes the metal transfer
Ranges Si) softer; the mode. The increasing of
The wires should be covered width of the The increasing of the the welding speed
Characteristics by copper layer or by graphite weld current means a means the
powder. The reason: to increases; decreasing of the arc decreasing of the
Technological improve the electrical contact the height of length and the noise penetration and of
aspects and to reduce the risk of the weld of the arc becomes the weld width and
oxidation. decreases as stronger the increasing of
the the height of the
penetration weld.
The wire will be delivered as Depends on the wire
The pool
spools or pack pail / drum feed speed. If too low, the pool
becomes
more fluid. is flowing on the arc
The flux-cored wires can be and the penetration
Power decreases, in the
filled with flux: rutile flux (R),
source: Determines the same time with
basic flux (B) or by Fe
constant deposition rate. High overheating of the
powder; the meaning of the
voltage, current means high pool.
flux is the same as the flux
(max deposition rate.
that covers the covered
5V/100A),
electrodes.

Shielding gas Welding arc and transfer modes

Parameter Symbol
Base Shielding
SR EN
metal Gas
439
100%CO2 The characteristic of the arc depends on: shielding gas
Carbon C pressure, current polarity, arc length, filler metal,
steels Ar+(15- temperature of the arc
20)%CO2 M2.1
Low Arc control: internal regulation for constant feeding
alloyed Ar+(8- M2.3,
steels 20)%O2 M3.3 Metal transfer modes - influences: current, polarity,
diameter of the wire, filler metal type, shielding gas type
Heat Ar+(3- M2.2,
resistan 5)%O2 M3.2
t steels +(6-
13)%CO2
Short-circuit transfer – the formed drop
Ranges
Ar+2.5% is increasing until it touches the pool
CO2 and it is pulled by the surface tension
Characteristics M1.1
Cr-Ni Ar+(8- forces.
Short arc
steels 12)%O2 It is specific to the low currents and
Technological M1.2
Ar+(1- voltages.
aspects
3)%O2 Recommended for thin sheets and/or
root passes.
Intermediary transfer – unstable,
creating important spatter
Al 100%Ar
I1 Intermediary It is specific to medium currents and
and Al Ar+max
I3 arc voltages.
alloys 50%He
Not recommended: instability and
material loss.
Globular transfer – specific to the
shielding gases with high CO2 content,
Ni
when high voltage and current.
and Ni 100%Ar I1 Long arc
Drops having diameter bigger than the
alloys
wire diameter.
Important spatter.

P a g e | 48

Gas flow rate:
 usually 9-15 l/min
 in open spaces with air
currents: 15-20 l/min
 in TWIN WIRE or T.I.M.E.
process: 18-23 l/min
The flow should be laminar and
the gas should protect the
entire arc and pool.
The gas nozzle should be
periodically cleaned to
maintain the same flow rate of
the gas.
Spray arc transfer - specific to the
shielding gases with high Ar content,
when high voltage and current.
Fine drops and high stability. No
spatter.
Recommended for welding thick and
long pieces and for filling passes.
Pulsed transfer – drops having almost
the same diameter as the wire, which
are controlled emitted (pulse/drop).
Pulsed arc High stability. Developed to replace the
intermediary transfer in medium
voltage and currents. High control of
the penetration.
Rotating transfer - specific to the
shielding gases with high Ar content,
when very high voltage and current.
The melting of the wire is so intense
Rotating arc
that no drop is formed and the molten
metal is continuously flowing. The
electromagnetic field rotates the metal
flowing.

Penetration /
Parameter Advantages Technological recommends
Deposition rate
 Universal from the
 Polarity: usually DC+; for DC– the arc
base material and
Ranges is unstable, the spatter increases and
thicknesses point of High penetration when
the penetration is lower.
view pull the arc and lower
Characteristics  Technological parameters depend on:
 High deposition when push the arc
base metal type and thickness, welding
rate
Technological position, joint type.
 Satisfactory quality Deposition rate:
aspects  When weld in other position then
of the weld 5-12(20) kg/h
horizontal the parameters should be
 Low material loss
reduced with 10-20%.
 Low fume

3.2.2 Principle and characteristics of TIG process

Welding processes TIG process is usually used when high control and very pure welds are
for mechanized
welding
required, especially for thin sheets welding, and when the productivity
(MIG,MAG, PAW, is not important.
SAW, TIG)
The arc is created between a tungsten electrode, properly prepared,
and the piece to weld. Filler metal can be used if required. The pool is
very stable and no spatter occurs. The arc is conical and its noise is
low. It can be used to weld most of the engineering metallic materials.
The principle of the process is presented in Figure 3.61. The
characteristics of the process are presented in Table 3.2.

Fig. 3.61 Principle of TIG process

P a g e | 49
 Table 3.2 The main characteristics of the TIG process
Tungsten electrode Arc voltage, Welding current, Is Welding speed,
Parameter
diameter, Dwire, [mm] Ua [V] [A] Vwelding [cm/min]
1,0-1,6-2,0-2,5-3,2-4,0-5,0-6,3 10-350 30-600
Length: 50 / 75 mm (orbital 5-30
welding) for manual welding
The value depends on the
150 / 175 mm (general). 5-50
electrode diameter and on the
Ranges for mechanized,
Diameter depends on the polarity
U a V   10  0,04  I s
automat and robot
thickness of the base metal
Characteristics welding
t[mm
2 2-5 5-8 8-12 12 Continuous or pulsed
]
Technological Together with the arc
aspects d W[m 2,4- 3,2- 4,0- 5,0- Up-limited to not melt thevoltage and the current
1,6
m] 3,2 4,0 5,0 6,4 electrode determines the heat
The end of the electrode should input (the quantity of
be prepared accordingly to the heat that is introduced
Power source: falling characteristic
type and the polarity of the in the base metal).
current (see below).

Inclination of
Shielding gas: type, flow rate Current type /
Parameter the electrode, Filler metal
[l/min] polarity
[o]
40-50 Manual welding:
to the vertical Rods having the same DC- steels,
In mechanized, chemical composition as the  Moderate Cu,
R1:
robot and base metal; heating of Ni,
Ar
automat Length of the rods: 1000 the electrode Ti,
+
processes the mm  No surface Zr,
(0…15)%H2
electrode is Diameter of the rods: electro- Ta,
(SR EN 439)

hold generally 1,0 – 1,2 - 1,6 – 2,0 – 2,4 cleaning W

vertical mm
 Pulled arc AC
R

when welding  Moderate

without filler Mechanized, automat and heating of
metal R2: robot welding: the electrode
 Pushed/pulled Ar Wire on spools - diameter: Surface Al,
arc when + 0,8-1,0-1,2-1,6 mm electro- Mg
Ranges
welding with (15…35)%H2 The wire can be introduced cleaning in
filler metal cold or hot (Joule effect) in positive
Characteristics
 To not touch the pool period of
the base current
Technological
metal with I1: The end of the filler metal is
aspects
the W Ar 100% melted in the pool and not Preparation of the
(SR EN 439)

electrode I2: in the arc. The end of the base metal

 To not touch He 100% wire is leaned on the
margin of the pool and the
I

the filler I3:

metal with Ar formed drop is pulled by the If the
the W + surface tension forces to thickness of If the
electrode (0…95)%He the pool. the base thickness of
metal is the base
Filler metal (rod The end of the wire will be lower than metal is
or wire from kept under the shielding 6 mm, then higher than
spool) should Flow rate: (5…12) l/min and it gas protection during the no groove 6 mm, then
be positioned shall be increased if welding in process. is required V groove is
under open spaces with air currents
if strong usually
(90…120)o D = (2…3) x delectrodW
power used
angle to the W source
electrode.

Penetration / Tungsten electrodes

Preparation of
Parameter Welding arc Deposition
the W electrode Type Alloying [%] Colour
rate
Arc ignition: WP - - Green
 LIFT-ARC: touching the (pure)
c.c.-
base metal with the High WT4 0.35-0.55 ThO2 Blue
electrode at low penetration WT10 0.80-1.20 ThO2 Yellow
Ranges
currents (15A) when pull the WT20 1.70-2.20 ThO2 Red
 HF: high frequency arc and lower c.c.+ WT30 2.80-3.20 ThO2 Purple
Characteristics
impulse that creates when push WT40 3.80-4.20 ThO2 Orange
electrical discharge and the arc
Technological WZ3 0.15-0.50 ZrO2 Brown
helps the ignition of the
aspects WZ8 0.70-0.90 ZrO2 White
arc. Deposition
WL10 0.90-1.20 LaO2 Black
The arc characteristics rate: c.a.
depend on the current 0,5-5 kg/h WC20 1.80-2.20 CeO2 Grey
and of the gas
pressure.

P a g e | 50
 3.2.3 Principle and characteristics of SAW process
Welding processes Due to the specific high welding currents used, the SAW process is
for mechanized
welding
usually dedicated to the long and thick workpieces. The productivity of
(MIG,MAG, PAW, SAW process is higher than the productivity of other arc welding
SAW, TIG) processes.

The arc is ignited between a wire-electrode and the workpiece, the

entire area of welding being covered by thick flux layer. Due to that,
the process is not visible and less protection for the welder is required.
It is generally used to weld steels.

The principle of the process is presented in Figure 3.62.

The characteristics of the process are presented in Table 3.3.

Fig. 3.62 Principle of SAW process

Table 3.3 The main characteristics of the SAW process

Welding current, Welding speed,
Wire diameter, Dwire, Arc voltage, Ua
Parameter Is Vwelding
[mm] [V]
[A] [cm/min]
2,0–2,5-3,2–4,0-5,0–6,0–
25-45
8,0
The chemical composition of 15-200
de, mm
the wire should be similar to Depending on
Is, A 2,0- ≥4,0
the chemical composition of version
3,2
the base metal. It should be 180- 32-34 -
referred to: „couple wire- 200-1400 Together with the
300 32-34 - arc voltage and
flux”, and not to choose a 301- 36-40 - Ismin  162,5  d e  190
wire separately from flux the current
Ranges 500 38-40 - Ismax  13  d 2  147  d e  87
e
determines the
501- - 40- heat input
Characteristics 600 - 42 Usually DC+ The increasing
601- - 40- Very rare DC- or AC of the welding
Technological 700 43 speed means
aspects 701- 40- Determines the the decreasing
The diameter of the wire 850 44 penetration and the of the
depends on the thickness of 851- rate deposition. penetration and
the base metal and on the 1000 of the weld
welding current. 1001- width and the
1200 increasing of the
Power source: constant height of the
voltage characteristic and weld.
falling characteristic

P a g e | 51
 The wires should be covered
by copper layer or by
graphite powder to improve
the electrical contact and to and the noise becomes
reduce the oxidation.
The wire is deliverable in big
spools
The increasing of the
When increase voltage the current means a
arc length is increasing, decreasing of the arc
length and the noise
softer; the width of the of the arc becomes
weld increases; the height stronger
of the weld decreases as The width of the weld
the penetration decreases and the
The pool becomes fluid. penetration
increases.

Parameter Welding flux Main characteristics

 Arc ignition: by touching the piece with
Main function: ensuring the protection of the molten pool;
the end of wire.
Additionally: arc stabilization, metal alloying, weld metal
cooling rate decreasing.
 Exclusively in mechanized/automated
Flow Classification (SR EN 760): molten fluxes,
version
agglomerated fluxes and mixed fluxes.
The molten fluxes – the components are melt and
 Penetration higher than welding with
granulated. They have good homogeneity, high
covered electrode
mechanical strength, non-hygroscopic, but they do not
Ranges
participate to the alloying of the pool.
 Possibility to alloying by flux and / or
The agglomerated fluxes are done by mixing granular
Characteristics wire
powders of different components. They are classified
according to the temperature at which their drying is
Technological  Possibility to automation the welding
done: ceramic fluxes (300-400oC) and sintered flows
aspects
(800-900oC).
 Welding position: horizontal only, at
The mixed fluxes are done by combining the other two
most rarely, horizontally on vertical wall
types of flux, and combining their advantages.
After the chemical composition there are: silico-
 Applicability: relatively thick welds with
manganese fluxes, calcium silicate fluxes, silico-zirconate
easy access to the place of welding,
fluxes, silico-rutile fluxes, aluminium-rutile fluxes,
carbon steels, low alloyed steels and
aluminium-basic fluxes and fluoro-basic fluxes.
alloyed steels
High / low welding current: grain small / large for the
fluxes.
 Minimum weldable thickness: 2 mm.

Penetration
Advantages of the
Parameter / Deposition Technological recommends
process
rate
 Universal from the base
 weld metal characteristics depend on the wire-flux
metal and position points of
combination. The choice of the combination of wire-
view High
flow is based on the chemical composition of the base
 High deposition rate penetration
Ranges metal, and the type of connection (the fillet joints will
 Very good quality of the when pull the
use low degassing fluxes and when weld with multiple
welds arc and lower
Characteristics passes there is required flux that provides small
 Quality of the welds is low when push
variations of the chemical composition of the weld
depending on the welding the arc
Technological metal from one pass to another.
operator
aspects  weld geometry is influenced by the welding
 High degree of using filler Deposition
current, arc voltage, welding speed, the granulation
metal rate:
of the flux and the angle of inclination of the wire.
 Protection of the welder is 3-40 (60) kg/h
 the height of the flux layer is such that arc to be
not necessary
fully covered
 Low fume

Parameter Chemical composition of the wires – ranges and effects [%]

0,05- Remain
C Hardness, Tensile strength Al Deoxidation
0,25 s
Ranges
0,05- Remain
Si Deoxydation Cu Surface protection
0,45 s
Characteristics
Resilience at low
Mn 0,5-3,0 Hardness, Tensile strength Ni 1,0-2,0
temperatures
Technological
Plasticity, Resilience, Thermal Remain
aspects Mo 0,5-1,0 V Fine grain
resistance s
Remain
Cr 1,0-2,9 Thermal resistance, Hardness Ti Fine grain
s

P a g e | 52
 3.2.4 Principle and characteristics of PAW process
Welding processes PAW process is similar to the TIG process with higher concentration of
for mechanized
welding
the thermal source, due to a constriction of the arc which is done by
(MIG,MAG, PAW, using specific cooled nozzle. Due to the columnar almost cylindrical arc
SAW, TIG) that is obtained, the entire power of the arc is concentrated on a lower
cross section than in the TIG process.

As the TIG process, PAW is used when high control and very pure welds
are required. It is not a productive process. There are two modes of
connection to the power source: plasma-arc (plasma-transferred arc)
and plasma-jet, both being used for welding. When plasma-jet mode
is used, it is possible to create „key-hole” phenomenon which is
obtained by the over-heated gases thermo-dynamically activated
inside the molten area and is characterized by a very high penetration.
When using currents below 15 A the process is called „microplasma”
process.

It can be used to weld most of the engineering metallic materials.

The principle of the process is presented in Figure 3.63.
The characteristics of the process are presented in Table 3.4.

Fig. 3.63 Principle of PAW process

Table 3.4 The main characteristics of the PAW process

Tungsten electrode diameter, Arc voltage, Welding current, Is Welding speed,
Parameter Dwire, Ua [A] Vwelding [m/min]
[mm] [V]
0,1-400
1,0-1,6-2,0-2,5-3,2-4,0-5,0-6,3 20-40 If I<15A: microplasma 0,2-2,5
Ranges
Length: 50 mm Together with the arc
The end of the electrode should be Power voltage and the current
Characteristics
prepared by sharping source: hard The value depends on the determines the heat
falling electrode diameter and on input (the quantity of
Technological
characteristic the polarity heat which is
aspects
Diameter depends on the Thermal Up-limited to not melt the introduced in the base
thickness of the base metal source: 5 x electrode metal).
104 W/cm2

P a g e | 53
 Plasma gas;
Shielding gas: type, flow rate Current type /
Parameter type and flow Filler metal
[l/min] polarity
rate, [l/min]
Manual welding:
Argon
R1: Rods having the same steels,
He DC-
Ar + chemical composition as the Cu,
Ar+He  Moderate
(0…15)%H2 base metal; Ni,
Ar+He+H2 heating of the

(SR EN 439)
Length of the rods: 1000 Ti,
electrode
Pulled arc when mm Zr,
welding without Diameter of the rods: Ta,

R
filler metal R2: 1,0 – 1,2 - 1,6 – 2,0 – 2,4 W
 Pushed/pulled Ar mm AC
arc when + Mechan./automat/robot  Moderate
Al,
welding with (15…35)%H2 welding: heating of the
Ranges Mg
filler metal Wire on spools - diameter: electrode
 To not touch 0,8-1,0-1,2-1,6 mm
Characteristics
the base I1: The wire can be introduced
cold or hot (Joule effect) in
(SR EN 439)
metal with the Ar 100%
Technological
W electrode I2: the pool
aspects
 To not touch He 100% The end of the filler metal is
I

the filler melted in the pool and not

I3: DC+
metal with the in the arc. The end of the
Ar+(0…95)%He (very rare)
W electrode wire is leaned on the
 Excessive
margin of the pool and the Al
heating of the
formed drop is pulled by the
electrode
Flow rate: (0,1- surface tension forces to
Flow rate: (3…20) l/min and it
3,0) l/min the pool.
shall be increased if welding in
to avoid The end of the wire will be
open spaces with air currents
turbulence kept under the shielding
gas protection during the
process.

Penetration / Tungsten electrodes

Parameter Welding arc
Deposition rate Type Alloying [%] Color
WP (pur) - - Green
In jet-plasma mode WT4 0.35-0.55 ThO2 Blue
Very good stability
Ranges it si obtained the WT10 0.80-1.20 ThO2 Yellow
Columnar, almost cylinder
„key-hole” WT20 1.70-2.20 ThO2 Red
Arc ignition by HF (high frequency
Characteristics phenomenon, which
impulse which creates electrical WT30 2.80-3.20 ThO2 Purple
increases the
discharge and helps the ignition of WT40 3.80-4.20 ThO2 Orange
Technological penetration
the arc). WZ3 0.15-0.50 ZrO2 Brown
aspects
The arc characteristics depend on WZ8 0.70-0.90 ZrO2 White
Deposition rate:
the current and of the plasma-gas WL10 0.90-1.20 LaO2 Black
2-9 kg/h
pressure. WC20 1.80-2.20 CeO2 Grey

3.3 Joint preparation in mechanized welding

3.3.1 Generals on joints preparation

Joint preparation The mechanical properties of a weld depend on:
in mechanized a. metallurgical aspect – compatibility of the filler metal with the base
welding
metal on one hand and the thermal treatment on the other hand
b. technological aspect – the penetration of the weld, ensured by the
welding technology

If the metallurgical aspect is ensured by measures taken during

welding, the technological aspect is initiated before starting the
welding process by providing appropriate access to the welding arc and
to the filler material so that melting takes place over the entire
thickness of the material or on a specific thickness

P a g e | 54
In addition, the technological aspect further aims to avoid the
contamination with various substances existing on the surface of the
workpieces or the environment in which the welding process is carried
out: dust, grease, moisture, various gases, etc.

Overall, all these technological measures, involve prior specific

preparation of the workpiece.

Weld preparation is generally seen as being composed of two

components:
 Cleaning of the areas participating to the welding process and the
areas from the immediately surrounding of their various possible
impurities
 Creation of a specific groove between the two workpieces in order
to allow appropriate access of the arc and of the filler material
down on a certain thickness of the base metal.

Cleaning dirt
Any dust, grease, moisture adversely affects the quality of the welded
joint.
Dust is still in the solid state when subjected to the welding
temperature and, usually, it can be found in the welded joint trapped
as solid inclusions.

Fats are organic substances containing mainly carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen elements, which cause embrittlement and discontinuities of the
welded joints. Moisture contains hydrogen and oxygen whose negative
effect is well known (porosity, susceptibility to cold cracking and
corrosion).

Considering these negative influences of dirt, the welding technologist

is obligated to prescribe the cleaning of the areas that will participate
to the welding process and to the surrounding areas.

The reason of the welding groove preparation

The welding groove is a shaped space between the workpieces which
participate to the welding process, space created by shaping the
workpieces edges and putting them together by tack welding.

The main purpose of the groove is to allow access to the arc, as well
as the filler material, to the entire thickness of the welded components.
Creating a groove means spending time, money and extra filler metal,
together with an increasing of the stress and strain in the weld. From
this point of view, it is best that the groove is as small as possible and
less open.

Between these opposing viewpoints, the designer must decide the joint
geometry so as to ensure minimum conditions of good welding and in
the same time minimizing the reported disadvantages.

P a g e | 55
 When designing a groove the following factors are involved:
 the welding process, the technological parameters and the
operating mode welding technique);
 the welding position;
 the thickness of the workpieces and the type of joint;
 the required penetration;
 the ability or inability to prevent deformation of the workpiece and
of the resulting welded product;
 the quality of the base material and of the filler material.

Economically, it is desirable that the groove section to be as small as

possible (Figure 3.64), the ideal groove being in this regard the
unprocessed groove (I groove) without opening.

From the point of view of the produced stresses and strains, the
grooves are preferably to be symmetrical (I or X) and not asymmetrical
(V, U, ½ V, U ½, ½ X).

The sizes of these grooves are closely related to the thermophysical

properties of the material to be welded.

If the base metal has a high coefficient of expansion and contraction,

the risk associated with residual stress and strain of welding is high;
then the opening of the grooves will be limited and noticeably lower
than those of different materials. The purpose is to produce a small
amount of heat during the welding process in these materials with
higher coefficients of expansion.

Groove type Formula to calculate section

Rost II Ar  b  s (1)

Rost VV Ar  b  s  s  tg
2
(2)
2

Ar  b  s  s  c   tg
2
Rost YY (3)
2
 r2
Ar  b  s   2  r  s  c  r   s  c  r   tg
2
Rost UU (4)
2

 s  c   tg
1
Ar  b  s 
2
Rost XX (5)
2 2
Ar  b  s   s  c   tg
1 2
Rost KK (6)
4
Ar  b  s   s  c   tg
1 2
Rost ½ K
1/2K (7)
2
Îmbinări în colţ 1
Fillet Ar  a 2 sau Ar   k 2 (8)
nepătrunse 2

Fig. 3.64 Table with formulae to calculate the area of the groove section

P a g e | 56
 If the base metal has a relatively low thermal conductivity (they are
able to maintain longer the heat concentrated in the welding area) then
the shoulder of the groove will be relatively large. The recommended
measure is to avoid the exceeded melting of the shoulder and the pool
to flow down.

3.3.2 EN ISO 9692

Joint preparation EN ISO 9692 „Welding and allied processes — Recommendations for
in mechanized
welding
joint preparation” is the standard dedicated to the regulation of groove
preparation. It has been prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 44
"Welding and allied processes" in collaboration with Technical
Committee CEN/TC 121 "Welding".

ISO 9692 consists of the following parts, under the general title
Welding and allied processes — Recommendations for joint
preparation:
Part 1: Manual metal-arc welding, gas-shielded metal-arc welding, gas
welding, TIG welding and beam welding of steels
Part 2: Submerged arc welding of steels
Part 3: Metal inert gas welding and tungsten inert gas welding of
aluminium and its alloys
Part 4: Clad steels

ISO 9692 defines the parameters characterizing the joint preparation

and the collection of frequently recurring values and shapes. The
recommendations given by ISO 9692 have been compiled on the basis
of experience and contain dimensions for types of joint preparation
that are generally found to lead to suitable welding conditions.

The dimension ranges specified represent design limits and are not
tolerances for manufacturing purposes. Manufacturing limits depend,
for instance, on welding process, parent metal, welding position,
quality level, etc. Because of the common character, the examples
given cannot be regarded as the only solution for the selection of a
joint type.

Specific fields of application and manufacturing requirements (e.g.

pipeline construction) may be covered by selected ranges specified in
other standards adapted from ISO 9692.

The recommendations of ISO 9692 apply to joint preparation for full

penetration butt welds and for fillet welds. For partial penetration butt
welds, types of joint preparation and dimensions differing from those
specified in ISO 9692 may be stipulated.

The root gaps referred to in ISO 9692 are those gaps presented after
tack welding, if used. Next types of the grooves recommended by ISO
9692 will be presented.

P a g e | 57
Table 3.5 Examples of ISO 9692-1 recommendations for joint preparations
dedicated to 13 and 141 welding processes, possible to be used in mechanized
version of the processes

Joint preparation for butt welds (single and both sides access)
Symbol Sketch of the groove Symbol Sketch of the groove

P a g e | 58
 Joint preparation for fillet welds (single and both sides access)
Symbol Sketch of the groove Symbol Sketch of the groove

3.4 Setting up, welding parameters and programming of mechanized

systems

3.4.1 Setting up mechanized welding system

Setting up, To setup a mechanized welding system it is necessary to start with the
welding workpieces / product to weld. That factor influences the structure of
parameters and
programming of
the future mechanized welding system: to weld a plate the system will
mechanized have a structure; to do a circular weld in a pipe the system should have
systems a different structure. Next, a brief analysis of the mechanized system
structure will be provided.

P a g e | 59
a. Setting up the system for welding single direction linear weld on flat
surface
Straight linear welds are often met when weld beams, or panels or
even small pieces. They can be butt and fillet welds.

a.1. Small workpieces and short welds

For small pieces, the workpiece and/or the welding head can be moved
to create the welding speed.

a.1.1 Mobile welding head and fixed workpieces

The workpieces will be fixed on fix tables or tilting platforms (with T
slots or else) by clamping devices. The welding head connected to
power source and to the wire feeder will be mounted on a device that
is able to create short translations: tractors with weaving possibility (if
required) and moving on specific driveway or columns.

Fig. 3.65 Setup for linear short welds and mobile welding head

a.1.2 Mobile workpieces and fixed welding head

The workpieces will be fixed on mobile table by clamping devices. The
table should be driven by electronically controlled motors. The welding
head connected to power source and to the wire feeder will be mounted
on fixed device.

Fig. 3.66 Setup for linear short welds and mobile workpieces

a.2. Large workpieces and long welds

For large pieces, the welding head is generally moved to create the
welding speed.

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The workpieces will be fixed on fix tables or tilting platforms by
clamping devices. The welding head connected to power source and to
the wire feeder will be mounted on a device that is able to create short
linear movement: tractors with own wheels, tractors with weaving
possibility and moving on specific driveway or columns.

Fig. 3.67 Setup for linear long welds

Sometimes, both the welding head and the workpieces could be

linearly moved in order to prolong the welding distance or to increase
the maximum welding speed of the tractor.

b. Setting up the system for welding bi-directions linear weld

on flat surface
The bi-directions linear welds are met when curved welds or corner
welds should be done. They can be butt and fillet welds.

b.1. Circular welds

When welding circular welds on a single plane, the workpieces will be
fixed on rotating (with or without tilting) tables by using specific
clamping devices. The welding head connected to power source and to
the wire feeder will be mounted on fixed device.

Fig. 3.68 Setup for circular welds on plate

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b.2. Corner welds
When performing corner welds on a single plane, the workpieces will
be fixed on mobile tables by using specific clamping devices. The table
should be able to move the workpieces in one directions and two ways.
The welding head connected to the power source and to the wire feeder
will be mounted on a fixed device which is able to create short
translations: tractors with own wheels, tractors with weaving
possibility (if required) and moving on specific driveway or columns.

Fig. 3.69 Setup for linear non-straight welds on plate

c. Setting up the system for welding hollow shells

The hollow shells are elements of pressure / non-pressure vessels or
pipes. They can be butt welds when build the vessels from a series of
two or more hollow shells and fillet welds when weld flange at the end
of a pipe. They are circular welds and there are two setups in such
situation: fixed welding head and mobile hollow shells and mobile head
and mobile / fixed hollow shells.

c.1. Welding circular welds on hollow shells by using fixed welding head
and mobile hollow shells
The hollow shells are leaned on turning rollers, which are set to rotate
with specific speed and to rotate the hollow shells with an angular
speed that creates at the groove points the desired linear welding
speed.

The welding head connected to the power source and to the wire feeder
will be mounted on a fixed device as fixed manipulator or fixed gantry.

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 Fig. 3.70 Setup for circular welds on hollow shells using fixed welding head and
mobile hollow shell

c.2. Welding circular welds on hollow shells by using mobile welding

head and mobile hollow shells
This situation is specific to the high diameter hollow shells, in which
welding tractor can be introduced. The hollow shells are leaned on
turning rollers, which are set to rotate with an angular speed that
creates at the groove points the desired linear welding speed.

The welding head connected to the power source and to the wire feeder
will be mounted on a tractor which is introduced in the hollow shell to
weld on the inside the joint. Both the hollow shell and the tractor are
moving in opposite ways with the same speed and due to that the
tractor will stay in the same position and the groove is moving under
the welding head.

Fig. 3.71 Setup for circular welds on hollow shells using both the welding head and
the hollow shell in mobile status

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c.3. Welding circular welds on hollow shells by using mobile welding
head mounted n special tractor
There are tractors able to move on specific driveway. Such driveway
can be set in circular shape, due to their flexibility. The driveway is
mounted around the hollow shell and the tractor will rotate around the
hollow shell with the welding speed. During the welding operation, the
hollow shell is leaned on fixed blocks. This is a version of orbital welding
of pipes and hollow shells.

Fig. 3.72 Setup for circular welds on hollow shells using a fixed hollow shell and a
mobile welding head

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 3.4.2 Programming the mechanized welding system
Setting up, A mechanized welding system has two sets of parameters which
welding influence the welding process: the welding technological parameters
parameters and
programming of
and the functioning parameters of the devices that compose the
mechanized mechanized system. All the parameters are set before welding by the
systems operator, but some of these parameters are maintained automatically
by the system and the others should be corrected on-line by the
operator in respect with the instant conditions of welding.

Table 3.6 Sub-systems of welding system in different modes

(Welding Handbook, 2001)
Semi-
Manual Mechanized Automatic
automatic
Arc start and
H M M M
maintenance
Wire feeding H M M M
Heat control to
obtain H H M M
penetration
Arc motion
H H M M
along the joint
Guide the arc M
H H H
along the joint (with pre-programmed track)

Torch
manipulation
H H H M
to
direct the arc
Arc
corrections to
H H H M
compensate
errors

The main parameters of mechanized system are presented below, for

TIG, MIG/MAG, PAW and SAW welding processes.

Table 3.7 Mechanized TIG process – parameters*

TIG process

Parameter On-line adjustments / corrections

Welding process parameters
Welding current Adjustable by the operator on-line
Arc voltage Adjustable by the operator on-line
Wire feed speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line if
different than the wire melting speed
Diameter of the filler metal Not-adjustable
Welding speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Type of the electrode Not-adjustable
Diameter of the electrode Not-adjustable
Type of the shielding gas Not-adjustable
Shielding gas flow rate Adjustable by the operator on-line
Pulse time (if use pulsed current) Not-adjustable on-line
Base time Not-adjustable on-line
Pulse current Not-adjustable on-line
Base current Not-adjustable on-line
Current up-slope Not-adjustable on-line
Current down-slope Not-adjustable on-line

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 Backfill function for crater filling at the Not-adjustable on-line
end of the weld
Time for gas pre-flow Not-adjustable on-line
Time for gas post -flow Not-adjustable on-line
Mechanization parameters
Torch position steering Adjustable by the operator on-line
Torch height Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation width (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time left Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time right Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece rotation – angular speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Way to weld Adjustable by the operator on-line
Program for intermittent welding Adjustable by the operator on-line
Length of weld and distance between welds
High-speed travel between welds
*Depending on the structure of the mechanized system, other parameters could occur

Table 3.8 Mechanized MIG/MAG process – parameters*

MIG/MAG process
Parameter On-line adjustments / corrections
Welding process parameters
Welding current Adjustable on-line by wire feeding
Arc voltage Adjustable by the operator on-line
Wire feed speed Adjustable by the operator on-line if the
melting is excessive or insufficient
Type of the filler metal Not-adjustable on-line
Diameter of the filler metal Not-adjustable on-line
Welding speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Type of the shielding gas Not-adjustable on-line
Shielding gas flow rate Adjustable by the operator on-line
Pulse time (if use pulsed current) Not-adjustable on-line
Base time Not-adjustable on-line
Pulse current Not-adjustable on-line
Base current Not-adjustable on-line
Current up-slope Not-adjustable on-line
Current down-slope Not-adjustable on-line
Backfill function for crater filling at the Not-adjustable on-line
end of the weld
Time for gas pre-flow Not-adjustable on-line
Time for gas post -flow Not-adjustable on-line
Burn-back Not-adjustable on-line
Mechanization parameters
Torch position steering Adjustable by the operator on-line
Torch height Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation width (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time left Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time right Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece rotation – angular speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Way to weld Adjustable by the operator on-line
Program for intermittent welding Adjustable by the operator on-line
Length of weld and distance between welds
High-speed travel between welds
*Depending on the structure of the mechanized system, other parameters could occur

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Table 3.9 Mechanized PAW process – parameters*
PAW process
Parameter On-line adjustments / corrections
Welding process parameters
Welding current Adjustable by the operator on-line
Arc voltage Adjustable by the operator on-line
Wire feed speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line if
different than the wire melting speed
Diameter of the filler metal Not-adjustable on-line
Welding speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Type of the electrode Not-adjustable on-line
Diameter of the electrode Not-adjustable on-line
Type of the plasma gas Not-adjustable on-line
Plasma gas flow rate Adjustable by the operator on-line
Type of the shielding gas Not-adjustable on-line
Shielding gas flow rate Adjustable by the operator on-line
Pulse time (if use pulsed current) Not-adjustable on-line
Base time Not-adjustable on-line
Pulse current Not-adjustable on-line
Base current Not-adjustable on-line
Current up-slope Not-adjustable on-line
Current down-slope Not-adjustable on-line
Backfill function for crater filling at the Not-adjustable on-line
end of the weld
Time for gas pre-flow Not-adjustable on-line
Time for gas post -flow Not-adjustable on-line
Mechanization parameters
Torch position steering Adjustable by the operator on-line
Torch height Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation width (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time left Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time right Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece rotation – angular speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Way to weld Adjustable by the operator on-line
Program for intermittent welding Adjustable by the operator on-line
Length of weld and distance between welds
High-speed travel between welds
*Depending on the structure of the mechanized system, other parameters could occur

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Table 3.10 Mechanized SAW process – parameters*
SAW process
Parameter On-line adjustments / corrections
Welding process parameters
Welding current Adjustable on-line by wire feeding
Arc voltage Adjustable by the operator on-line
Wire feed speed Adjustable by the operator on-line if the
melting is excessive or insufficient
Type of the filler metal Not-adjustable on-line
Diameter of the filler metal Not-adjustable on-line
Welding speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Type of the shielding gas Not-adjustable on-line
Shielding gas flow rate Adjustable by the operator on-line
Mechanization parameters
Torch position steering Adjustable by the operator on-line
Torch height Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation width (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time left Adjustable by the operator on-line
Oscillation dwell time right Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece speed (if use) Adjustable by the operator on-line
Workpiece rotation – angular speed Adjustable by the operator on-line
Way to weld Adjustable by the operator on-line
Program for intermittent welding Adjustable by the operator on-line
Length of weld and distance between welds
High-speed travel between welds
*Depending on the structure of the mechanized system, other parameters could occur

Most of the mechanized systems have intuitive programming consoles.

The task of the operator is to set the parameters before welding and
the monitoring on all the parameters during welding. If a problem
occurs, the operator should be ready to apply the appropriate
adjustments.

Several problems that could occur during welding are presented next.

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 Table 3.11 Examples of problems that could occur during welding
Problem Potential causes
- roll pressure too low, causing wire slippage
- roll pressure too high, deforming the wire
- worn drive rolls
- misalignment of rolls or guide tubes
- damaged or worn liner
Erratic wire feed
- incorrect liner type/diameter
- incorrect contact tip size
- damaged or worn contact tip
- spool brake too tight
- spool brake too loose (tangled wire)
- incorrect parameters
Unstable arc - erratic wire feeding
- incorrect gas flow
- magnetic arc blow, due to poor work cable
- incorrect parameters
Wire stubbing - voltage too low for wire feed speed or wire feed
speed too high for voltage
- spool brake too tight
- incorrect parameter settings
Wire burn-back - damaged/worn contact tip
- incorrect machine burn back setting
- slipping in feed rolls
- incorrect parameter settings
- wrong shielding gas
Excess spatter - incorrect gas flow
- erratic wire feed
- damaged or worn contact tip
- the speed of the tractor / gantry / column is non-constant
Non-constant
- the wheels of the tractor / gantry / column slip
welding speed
- the driveway is damaged
- the tractor / gantry / column is damaged
Vibration of the
- the turning rollers are damaged
system
- the driveway is damaged

3.5 Quality assurance in mechanized welding, NDT of welds

3.5.1 Generals on quality assurance. ISO 3834

Quality assurance To ensure a required and specified quality of the weld is recommended
in mechanized to implement a quality assurance system. The standard EN ISO 3834
welding,
NDT of welds
sets out requirements for manufacturers to meet, in order to apply
good practice to their welding operations. EN ISO 3834 is a framework
describing how to achieve a well-functioning quality system in welding
operations. The standard defines three quality levels, depending on
which type of welding operation to be performed. EN ISO 3834 adapts
the vital elements of ISO 9000 set for welding:
 Quality Management - co-ordinated activities to direct and control
an organisation with regard to quality.
 Quality Assurance - part of quality management focused on
providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled.
 Quality Control - part of quality management focused on fulfilling
quality requirements.

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 Requirement – a necessity or an expectation that is stated,
generally implied or obligatory.
The pillars of EN ISO 3834 are the following:
 Welding coordination (EN ISO 14731)
 Qualification test of welders and welding operators (EN 287 and
EN 1418)
 Specification and qualification of welding procedures (EN ISO
156XX)
 Non-destructive testing (ISO 9712)
 Validation of equipment (EN ISO 17662 and EN ISO 50504)
 Quality levels for imperfections (EN ISO 5817)
The reasons of the certification are:
 Fulfil the requirements of the clients
 All the activities related to welding are according to a quality
system specific to welding operations that is well-known and which
is used and accepted worldwide
 Demonstrate all the technical competences related to welding
fabrication
 Reduce the costs and the risks related to failure, accidents and
rejection of the products
 Ensure a continuous development of the welding system and of
the production

The welding system is designed, developed, maintained, operated and

refreshed by the Welding Coordinator. It can be one or more Welding
Coordinators that depending on the dimension of the welded structure
producer. International Institute of Welding (IIW) elaborated guideline
to help the welding fabricators: Guidance for the Implementation of
ISO 3834 Oriented to Welded Product Standards.

According to EN ISO 3834:

1. Welders and welding operators shall be properly qualified: this shall
apply to shop and site welders and shall include operators welding
temporary attachments and tack welds. For welding hollow section
lattice structures, welders shall also be qualified by a single-side
welding test carried out on a branch connection.
2. Co-ordination personnel shall have a technical knowledge according
to ISO 14731 with a level of knowledge (Comprehensive, Standard
or Basic) dependent on the execution class and the steel grade
involved in the manufacture process.
3. The welding procedures specification shall be qualified according to
the relevant standard as specified in EN 1090-2.
4. The welding consumables, to be mentioned in the welding
procedure specification, are chosen by the manufacturer in order
to satisfy all design, fabrication and service conditions; in particular
the weld metal fitness must be evaluated in combination with the
parent metal, with reference to possible fracture mechanics, fatigue
and corrosion phenomena that can arise during the whole expected
service period of the steel structure.

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 The manufacturer must verify that the welding consumables are in
conformity with the applicable requirements and must request from
the producer the appropriate documentation demonstrating such
conformity.
5. When required, the PWHT shall be performed in accordance with a
written procedure describing and defining the parameters
considered as critical for the process itself. When applicable, in
addition to the type of heat treatment, heating rate, maintenance
temperature and time, cooling rate the following conditions shall
also be properly defined: heating methods, type and location of
thermocouples on the piece, fixing methods of thermocouples on
the piece, position of the thermocouples in the furnace, highest
allowed temperature difference among thermocouples, technical
personnel qualification.
6. Inspection and testing:
6.1 Preheating - When tack welds are to be performed, due to the
localized thermal intervention, the preheating temperature
calculated to be applied for the relevant joint should be increased
by 25°C.
6.2 Welding inside hole and slot - Due to the difficulty of performing
this type of welding, a documented procedure should be produced
where weld shape and dimension, welding process and relevant
techniques and NDT are defined.
7. The steel structures manufacturer shall have and maintain an
Identification and Traceability Scheme (ITS) for materials that will
be subject to heavy static or dynamic loads are to be welded. This
includes the use of welding consumables.

3.5.2 Potential material imperfections to meet in mechanized

welding
Quality assurance Welding creates material imperfections, against all expertise of the
in mechanized
welding,
welding operator and against all the taken technological measures.
NDT of welds Avoiding material imperfections in arc welding is a continuous desire
of the welding coordinators, but almost impossible to reach. To reduce
the dimensions and the number of the materials imperfections, that is
the most important target of each welding specialist.

Welding imperfections are classified according to ISO 6520, while their

acceptable limits are specified in ISO 5817 and ISO 10042. If a
material imperfection exceeds the limits given by ISO 5817 and ISO
10042, then we refer to „welding defect”.

Next, the main material imperfections that can be met in mechanized

arc welding are presented.

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Lack of fusion / cold lapping / cold shut
Lack of fusion occurs when there is no fusion between the weld metal
and the surfaces of the base plate.

Fig. 3.73 Lack of fusion in butt and fillet welds

Table 3.12 Factors that help to occur and measures to be taken

Factors that help to occur Measures to be taken
The welding speed will be reduced
Welding speed too high and the dwell time at
Edges will be increased
The parameters to be modified in
Incorrect parameter setting
correct manner
Backhand technique to be used
Using of forehand technique
instead, 70-80° torch angle.
Ceramic backing can cause root cracking,
longitudinal cracks in the centre of the To enlarge the root gap at min 4
weld, when the groove is too narrow at the mm
root
In fillet welds can be met lack of fusion at
standing leg, due to incorrect position of
To be changed torch orientation
the torch (torch directed too much towards
horizontal leg)

Lack of penetration
Lack of penetration occurs when:
 the arc is unable to melt the entire thickness of the base metal or
it is unable to melt the entire toe when fillet weld is done
 a bead is not able to melt the previous bead with which is in contact

Fig. 3.74 Lack of penetration in butt and fillet welds

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 Table 3.13 Factors that help to occur and measures to be taken
Factors that help to occur
Welding current is too low
Arc voltage is too high
Welding speed is too high
Welding speed is too low and due to
that the slag is running ahead of
weld pool
Using of forehand technique
The inclination angle of the torch is
too small
The root gap is too small
The angle of the groove is too small
Measures to be taken
To increase the wire feed speed and the
arc voltage
To reduce the arc voltage
To reduce the welding speed
To increase the welding speed
To use backhand technique
To correct the angle (70-80o)
To increase the gap with 1-2 mm when
weld without backing and with 3-4 mm
when weld using ceramic or metallic
backing
To increase the angle of the groove
according to ISO 9692

Gas inclusions / Porosity in the weld metal

The gas inclusions are material imperfections easy to produce in the
welding metal due to the large number of factors that are able to help
their formation. The gases which are not able to travel to the surface
of the pool and they are not dissolved by the metal remain in the weld
material as spheroidal gas bubbles.

Fig. 3.75 Gas inclusions with or without exit at the surface

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Table 3.14 Factors that help to occur and measures to be taken
Factors that help to occur Measures to be taken
Existence of important air movements Secure the welding area with specific
on the welding area panels or tents
Existence of paint, grease or dirt on the Prepare by cleaning and drying the
surface of the workpieces or on the filler workpieces in the weld area and in a
material close neighbourhood
The gas nozzle / diffuser is clogged and
The gas nozzle should be cleaned or
due to that the shielding gas flow rate is
replaced
lower than specified
The gas nozzle / diffuser is distorted and
due to that the shielding gas flow rate is The gas nozzle should be replaced
lower than specified
The gas nozzle / diffuser is too small
The gas nozzle should be replaced
and due to that the shielding gas flow
with larger one
rate is lower than specified
The angle of the torch is too small and
Correct the angle of the torch
the flow introduces air by depression
The gas flow rate is too high and due to
Correct the gas flow rate to avoid the
that its pressure is too high and creates
aspiration of the air
turbulences
Cooling liquid drops leak inside the
Repair the body of the torch or
torch body and they enter into the gas
replace the torch
flow
Correct the gas flow rate and if the
Gas flow rate is too low or there is no
gas bottle is empty, than replace the
shielding gas at all
gas bottle

Slag inclusions
Slag inclusions occur when molten slag is allowed to run ahead of the
welding arc and gets trapped below the solidifying weld pool.

Fig. 3.76 Gas inclusions with or without exit at the surface

Table 3.15 Factors that help to occur and measures to be taken

Factors that help to occur Measures to be taken
Welding current too low Increase welding current
Arc voltage too high Reduce arc voltage
Increase travel speed; avoid slag
Travel speed too low
running ahead of weld pool
Forehand technique Use dragging technique
Use 70-90° torch angle; keep slag
Torch angle too small
behind arc
Increase arc voltage or apply some
Convex beads
weaving

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 Cracks
Cracking happens in mechanized welding due to the difficulty to fill the
start/end craters and due to the high welding speed used. Especially
in long welds, the mechanized system may be subjected to stress.
When no or low distortion is allowed in the welds then cracking occurs.
This often results in longitudinal cracks as well as crater cracks.
Longitudinal cracks can also appear when the root bead is in contact
with a ceramic backing.

Fig. 3.77 Different types of cracks

3.5.3 NDT of welds. Methods of NDT inspection

Quality assurance Welding is a „special process” due to the impossibility to directly
in mechanized
welding,
evaluate the quality of its result. The quality of a weld and of a welded
NDT of welds structure can be evaluated by:
 destructive tests
 non-destructive examination.

Destructive tests cannot be applied on welded structures so, no matter

the applied standard of quality, all the welds should be examined by
non-destructive tests. Non-destructive examination (NDT) permits the
evaluation of the surface of the weld, of the interior of the weld and the
close neighbourhood of the weld, without modifying the shape, the
dimensions and the structure of the weld / product.

The main used NDT tests are:

 Visual Inspection (VT)
 Radiographic Inspection (RT)
 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT or LPI)
 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
The mentioned testing methods are not in competition with each other,
they complete themselves one another. In most of the situations, the
inspection is done using a minimum of two methods (for ex: VT and MT,
VT and UT, VT and PT and UT, etc.). Fig. 3.78 shows several
recommendations regarding the choice of the method against the type
of the material imperfection.

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 Fig. 3.78 Method of NDT against the type of the imperfection

Visual Inspection (VT)

A visual inspection or visual examination of welds is the oldest and the
most used non-destructive testing method, due to its specific cost-
effectiveness. Visual scanning, inspection or testing can successfully
detect the surface opening discontinuities without applying expensive
test methods. In EU, VT is regulated by EN 13018:2001 (+ later
versions).

VT requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper

eyesight of the tester, to achieve the required effectiveness. Visual
inspection does however, merit special attention because it requires
training (knowledge of product and process, anticipated service
conditions, acceptance criteria, record keeping, for example) and it has
its own range of equipment and instrumentation.

It is also a fact that all defects found by other NDT methods must
ultimately be verified by visual inspection.
VT can be classified as:
 Direct visual testing - using the eye at 600mm max and at an angle
of not less than 30 degrees to the surface; the use of wording like
x10 magnifying lenses has been avoided, as this is too specific for
a general standard to be quoting and is open to abuse, although it
has been used in standards in the past to their detriment. For
example, an operator may use a set of x10 binoculars to inspect a
pipe, not for getting further surface detail but because he could
not get close enough as quoted in the procedure for general
examination, thus not improving the inspection by their use but
just achieving it.
 Remote visual testing - use of remote visual testing may be
considered where applicable i.e. the use of endoscopes and fibre
optics coupled to cameras or other suitable instruments.
 Translucent visual testing.

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Often the equipment needed is simple for internal inspection; light lens
systems such as bore scopes allow remote surfaces to be examined.
More sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics permit the
introduction of the device into very small access holes and channels.
Most of these systems provide attachments for a camera to permit
permanent recording. To be very efficient, VT must be applied prior to,
during and after welding.

The personnel involved in VT shall be proven familiar with relevant

standards. This can be verified with the training records or
incorporating the information in the procedure. In addition, the
personnel should be informed about the relevant manufacturing
procedure. Vision tests shall have been performed to EN 473 and
adjusted to include a far vision test when performing general visual
testing using the standard optotype in accordance with EN ISO 8596
to visual acuity grade 0.63.

Radiographic Inspection (RT)

Radiography (X-ray) is one of the most important, versatile and widely
accepted of all the non-destructive examination methods. Radiography
is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass through metal
and other materials opaque to ordinary light, and produce
photographic records of the transmitted radiant energy.

All materials will absorb known amounts of this radiant energy and,
therefore, X-rays and gamma rays can be used to show discontinuities
and inclusions within the opaque material. The permanent film record
of the internal conditions will show the basic information by which weld
soundness can be determined.

Fig. 3.79 Principle of RT method

The ability of an observer to detect a flaw depends on the sharpness

of its image and its contrast with the background. To be sure that the
radiographic exposure produces acceptable results, a gauge known as
an Image Quality Indicator (IQI) is placed on the part so that its image
will be produced on the radiograph.

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IQIs used to determine radiographic quality are also called
penetrameters. A standard hole-type penetrameter is a rectangular
piece of metal with three drilled holes of set diameters.

The thickness of the piece of metal is a percentage of the thickness of

the specimen being radiographed. The diameter of each hole is
different and is a given multiple of the penetrameter thickness. Wire-
type penetrameters are also widely used.
The standards that regulate the RT are:
 ISO 5579, Non-destructive testing - Radiographic examination of
metallic materials by X- and gamma-rays - Basic rules
 ISO 10675-1, Non-destructive testing of welds - Acceptance levels
for radiographic testing - Part 1: Steel, nickel, titanium and their
alloys
 ISO 17636-1: Non-destructive testing of welds. Radiographic
testing. X- and gamma-ray techniques with film
 ISO 17636-2: Non-destructive testing of welds. Radiographic
testing. X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors
 ISO 19232, Non-destructive testing - Image quality of radiographs
 EN 444, Non-destructive testing; general principles for the
radiographic examination of metallic materials using X-rays and
gamma-rays
 EN 462-1...5: Non-destructive testing - image quality of
radiographs
 EN 1330-3, Non-destructive testing - Terminology - Part 3: Terms
used in industrial radiographic testing
 EN 2002-21, Aerospace series - Metallic materials; test methods -
Part 21: Radiographic testing of castings
 EN 10246-10, Non-destructive testing of steel tubes - Part 10:
Radiographic testing of the weld seam of automatic fusion arc
welded steel tubes for the detection of imperfections
 EN 12517-1, Non-destructive testing of welds - Part 1: Evaluation
of welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys by
radiography - Acceptance levels
 EN 12517-2, Non-destructive testing of welds - Part 2: Evaluation
of welded joints in aluminium and its alloys by radiography -
Acceptance levels

Radiography can be used to obtain permanent image of surface and

sub-surface (embedded) discontinuities. The same discontinuities can
be radiographed again after a period of service life and the radiographs
can be compared to measure the change in the size and shape of the
discontinuity.

Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps:

detection, interpretation, evaluation.

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All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual
acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability
of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected
by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience
level for recognizing various features in the image. The following
material was developed to help students develop an understanding of
the types of defects found in welds and how they appear in a
radiograph.

Fig. 3.80 Lack of penetration Fig. 3.81 Porosity

Fig. 3.82 Cluster porosity Fig. 3.83 Slag inclusions

Fig. 3.84 Lack of penetration Fig. 3.85 Incomplete fusion

Fig. 3.86 Root undercut Fig. 3.87 Marginal undercut

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 Fig. 3.88 Cracks Fig. 3.89 Tungsten inclusions

Fig. 3.90 Slag inclusions

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT/MPI)

Magnetic Particle Inspection can detect surface and slightly subsurface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt
and some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the
part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.
Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed
through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material.
Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed
through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside
source. When ferromagnetic material (typically iron or steel) is defect-
free, it will transfer lines of magnetic flux (field) through the material
without any interruption.

However, when a crack or other discontinuity is present, the magnetic

flux leaks out of the material. As it leaks, magnetic flux (magnetic field)
will collect ferromagnetic particles (iron powder), making the size and
shape of the discontinuity easily visible.

N S

Fig. 3.91 Principle of MT method

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MT/MPI is regulated by the next standards:
 ISO 3059, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing and
magnetic particle testing - Viewing conditions
 ISO 9934-1...3, Non-destructive testing - Magnetic particle testing
- Part 1: General principles, Part 2: Detection media, Part 3:
Equipment
 ISO 10893-5, Non-destructive testing of steel tubes. Magnetic
particle inspection of seamless and welded ferromagnetic steel
tubes for the detection of surface imperfections
 ISO 17638, Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle
testing
 ISO 23279, Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle
testing of welds - Acceptance levels
 EN 1330-7, Non-destructive testing - Terminology - Part 7: Terms
used in magnetic particle testing

Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT/LPI)

Liquid Penetrant Inspection / Dye Penetrant Testing is one of the most
popular Non-destructive Examination (NDE) methods in the industry.
It is economical, versatile, and requires minimal training when
compared to other NDE methods. Liquid penetrant exams check for
material flaws open to the surface by flowing very thin liquid into the
flaw and then drawing the liquid out with a chalk-like developer.

Fig. 3.92 Principle of PT/LPI method

The main steps of the LPI are:

1. Cleaning of the surface before testing - to remove any dirt, paint,
oil, grease or any loose scale that could either keep penetrant out
of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning
methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapour
degreasing, or media blasting.
2. Application of penetrant on the surface to test - the penetrant is
sprayed on the surface and it is allowed dwell time to soak into any
flaws (5...20 min).
3. Removal of the penetrant which is in excess – the removal is done
by washing with water / solvent / emulsifier, depending on the type
of the penetrant
4. Application of the white developer – the developer is sprayed on
the surface to test and it will form a semi-transparent, even coating
on the surface which draws the penetrant from defects out onto the
surface to form a visible indication

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5. Inspection of the result - using visible light with adequate intensity
(100 cd or 1100 lux) for visible dye penetrant or ultraviolet
radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 μW/cm2), along with low
ambient light levels (less than 2 cd) for fluorescent penetrant
examinations.
6. Cleaning of the surface after testing - the surface will be cleaned
after the inspection.

The inspection method is regulated by the following standards:

 ISO 3059, Non-destructive testing - Penetration testing and
magnetic particle testing - Viewing conditions
 ISO 3452-1...6, Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Part 1.
General principles, Part 2: Testing of penetrant materials, Part 3:
Reference test blocks, Part 4: Equipment, Part 5: Penetrant testing
at temperatures higher than 50 °C, Part 6: Penetrant testing at
temperatures lower than 10 °C
 ISO 10893-4: Non-destructive testing of steel tubes. Liquid
penetrant inspection of seamless and welded steel tubes for the
detection of surface imperfections.
 ISO 12706, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing -
Vocabulary
 ISO 23277, Non-destructive testing of welds - Penetrant testing of
welds - Acceptance levels

Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be
used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,
material characterization, and more. The sound energy is introduced
and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When
there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave
signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is
displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength
is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo
was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance
that the signal travelled. From the signal, information about the
reflector location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes
be gained. Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT
method.

Fig. 3.93 Principle of the UT method

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Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited
include:
 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique
is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to
flaw detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations,
which include:
 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of
sound energy into the test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse-grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to low sound transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration
and the characterization of flaws.

UT inspection method is regulated by:

 ISO 7963, Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic testing -
Specification for calibration block No. 2
 ISO/DIS 11666, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic
testing of welded joints - Acceptance levels
 ISO/DIS 17640, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic
testing of welded joints
 ISO 22825, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing -
Testing of welds in austenitic steels and nickel-based alloys
 EN 583, Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic examination
 EN 1330-4, Non-destructive testing - Terminology - Part 4: Terms
used in ultrasonic testing
 EN 1712, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing of
welded joints - Acceptance levels
 EN 1713, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing -
Characterization of indications in welds
 EN 1714, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing of
welded joints
 EN ISO 2400:2012 "Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic testing -
Specification for calibration block No. 1"

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  EN 12668-1...3, Non-destructive testing - Characterization and
verification of ultrasonic examination equipment - Part 1:
Instruments, Part 2: Probes, Part 3: Combined equipment
 EN 14127, Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic thickness
measurement

3.6 Health and safety consideration in mechanized welding

3.6.1 Generals on health and safety in mechanized welding

Health and safety Welding processes present real and important potential hazards to
consideration in welders and environment, hazards that can result in physical injury,
mechanized
welding
short- or long-term adverse health effects, discomfort and even death.
That is particularly true in manual welding, where the welder is directly
facing the welding process.

In mechanized welding these potential hazards are less critical,

because the welder is now an operator, which applies monitoring of
the process and adjusts the technological parameters. Against this
relaxation appears the risks involved by the operation of the specific
devices that are components of the mechanized welding system:
clamping devices, tractors, portals, rotating tables, etc.

The main hazards involved by the arc welding processes are fumes,
heat, noise, infrared and ultra-violet radiation, electricity, electro-
magnetism, mechanical injuries and general muscular-skeletal injuries.

Fumes
Fumes come from the melting and vaporization of the base metal and
of the filler metal. It is composed of specific gases and micro/nano-
particles of metal. Prolonged exposure to welding fumes and gases at
high concentrations can cause:
 siderosis (iron oxide)
 metal fume fever (zinc oxide, magnesium oxide, copper,
aluminum)
 nervous system disorders (manganese)
 irritation of respiratory system
 eye, nose and throat irritation
 chest pain
 kidney damage (cadmium oxide, fluorides)
 cancer (cadmium oxide, nickel, chromium (VI))
 fluid in the lungs (cadmium oxide, fluorides, ozone, nitrogen oxide)
 haemorrhage (ozone)
 dermatitis, eczema (nickel, chromium (VI))
 bone and joint problems (fluorides)
 headaches and dizziness

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Table 3.16 Health affections due to welding fume
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada – Labour program
A Guide to Health Hazards and Hazard Control Measures with Respect to Welding
and Allied Processes, 2013
Fumes Source Health effects & symptoms
Pulmonary edema, nose irritation and
Stainless steel
Cadmium ulceration; chronic effects include
containing cadmium,
oxide kidney damage and emphysema, cancer
plating
(prostate, lung), pulmonary fibrosis
Stainless steel, plating, Skin irritation, respiratory tract
Chromium chromium pigment irritation, effects on nose, eyes and
(VI) manufacturing, ears; chronic effects include lung
electrode cancer, kidney and liver damage
Coating on filler wire,
sheaths on air carbon Metal fume fever, eyes, nose and throat
Copper
arc gouging electrodes, irritation
nonferrous alloys
Acute effects are nose and lung
All iron or steel
Iron oxide irritation; siderosis (pulmonary
welding processes
deposition of iron dust)
Magnesium Magnesium or Eyes and nose irritation, metal fume
oxide aluminium alloys fever
Most welding
Chemical pneumonitis; chronic effects
Manganese processes, high-tensile
include nervous system disorders
steel
Dermatitis, asthma-like lung disease;
Stainless steel, nickel- chronic effects include cancer (nose,
Nickel
clad steel, plating larynx, lung), respiratory tract irritation,
renal dysfunction
Galvanized and
Zinc oxide Metal fume fever
painted metals
Eye, nose and throat irritation, gastro-
Electrode coating, flux intestinal symptoms; chronic effects
Fluorides
material include bone and joint problems, fluid in
the lungs, kidney dysfunction
Acute effects include fluid in the lungs
Formed in the welding
Ozone and haemorrhage; chronic effects
arc
include changes in lung function
Pneumonitis, pulmonary edema; chronic
Nitrogen Formed in the welding
bronchitis, emphysema; pulmonary
oxide arc
fibrosis
Carbon dioxide
Carbon Headache, nausea, dizziness, collapse,
shielded metal-arc
monoxide death; chronic cardiovascular effects
welding, flux

Adequate ventilation must be provided for all welding and allied

processes. The combination of general dilution ventilation and local
exhaust is the most successful method in controlling welding fumes
and gases. Sometimes, specific shielding helmet with air induction can
be used.

Heat
The main heat comes from the heat source used in the welding process.
It could be a direct heat transfer when touch the base metal of the
torch or it could be an indirect heat transfer when the heat comes by
radiation or due to the air movement, The exposure to heat creates a
reaction of the body, reaction that can be single response or multiple
response. The most common signs and symptoms of the body response
to heat include:

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Table 3.17 Body reaction to heat
Signs of a heat Prolonged exposure Symptoms of Injuries
environment to heat heat illnesses
Excessive
Sweating Heat rush Burns of skin
sweating
Higher heart rate Heat edema Rapid breathing Burns of hair
Weaknesses or
Higher body temperature Heat cramp Burns of eyes
fainting
Rare urinating Heat exhaustion Tiredness
Partially dark-coloured
Heat syncope Headache
urine
Irritability Heat stroke Confusion
Lack of coordination Noise
Lack of judgement

Noise
The welding process and the operations related to welding are
generally noisy operations. The noise of the arc and the knocking of
the hammer to remove the slag are the main sources of noise.

Too much loud noise damages hearing by causing:

 deafness, or
 permanent tinnitus (ringing in the ear).

If the operator cannot hear clearly what someone is saying (in a normal
voice) 2 m away, the noise level is likely to be 85dB(A) or higher, and
then ears protection should be used by the welding operator.

Radiation
The arc welding emits intense ultraviolet, visible light and infrared
radiation. Ultraviolet radiation involves skin burning and infrared
radiation produces web eye. Using of specific protection clothes with
shielding helmet is mandatory, even the operator does not weld
directly. For the helmet, a proper glass-filter should be chosen.

Electricity and electro-magnetism

Electrical shocks and headache could occur during the welding process
or related operations.

Mechanical injuries
Mechanical injuries could occur when manipulate the workpieces, the
welding equipment or the devices used to set-up the mechanized
system.

Musculoskeletal injuries
The main musculoskeletal injuries are the backbone and back muscles
pains, and possible sprains. They are experienced by the operator due
to the non-comfortable position and due to the shielding helmet and
the shielding clothes.

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 3.6.2 Specific hazards when operating mechanized welding
systems
Health and safety When operating the mechanized welding system, specific hazards
consideration in could be experienced.
mechanized
welding
Next are presented the main priorities when analysing the hazard
possibilities in a mechanized welding system.

Ergonomic aspects to consider

For operating machinery
 make frequently operated hand controls easy to reach and work
 if seats are provided leave sufficient room for knees and legs
 avoid bending and twisting to load/unload machines by having
material/bins on racks which can be raised and lowered to keep
them at waist height
 consider ‘lean-on’ or ‘sit-stand’, wheeled, sliding, suspended or
fixed seats
For process or assembly work
 arrange the work in a semi-circle
 provide a swivel chair
 bring the work to the worker
 consider chairs with forward-tilting seats and backrests to help
workers reach further without loss of support, and consider work
surfaces and component trays which slope towards the worker
 racks for material and finished items should be adjustable so that
work is comfortable to reach and put away.

Electricity
 Most accidents arise from contact with live conductors or
equipment made live by faulty wiring and connections.
 Equipment using 240v AC may be as dangerous as that using 415V
AC, depending on circumstances.

A suitable system should be developed for maintenance of both fixed

installations and portable equipment – advice from a competent person
may be required.

Operating the clamping/fixing/rotating devices

Most accidents at all types of machine, including automatic and CNC
machines, happen to operators during normal operation when:
 loading/unloading components
 removing swarf
 taking measurements and making adjustments.

On manually operated machines, the most dangerous machine

movements are the rotating, cutting, shearing, sawing or pressing
movements of tools.

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Hands are most frequently injured, the most numerous injuries being
cuts and abrasions, some of which can be severe. Broken bones and
dislocations are numerous. Amputations of fingers and hands are not
uncommon and there are some fatalities, often arising from
entanglements, every year. Eye injuries are also common.

Most health and safety issues arise from:

 unsafe loading/unloading and handling of components, in
particular when highly repetitive, which may cause back injuries
and upper limb disorders
 skin contact with metalworking fluids, for example when preparing
fluids or handling components, which may cause skin irritation and
dermatitis
 breathing in aerosols, oil mists and fumes from metalworking fluids
during machining which may cause irritation of the eyes, nose and
throat, and occasionally breathing difficulties such as bronchitis
and asthma
 sharp edges and swarf which may cause cuts which exacerbate
dermatitis
 high noise levels which may cause deafness most frequently at
machines which generate impacts when operating, higher speed
machines or groups of machines running together
 vibration, particularly when grinding.

Safety measures
 To prevent access to dangerous movements during batch
production at manually operated machines use fixed guards with:
 jigs and fixtures (such as sliding trays) to load and unload
components away from the tools
 safe means of removing swarf (such as a hook or rake that may
be inserted through small openings in fixed guards) and
adjusting coolant (such as taps outside fixed guards).
 Use fixed and interlocking guards or safety devices providing
equivalent protection at automatic and CNC machines to ensure all
dangerous movements, not only tools, are guarded.
 Control noise by engineering means at source or adapt and extend
guards to serve as noise enclosures (e.g. by lining them with noise
absorbent materials).
 Manually operated machines used infrequently for one-off
operations such as those often found in tool-rooms may require
constant adjustment and close observation; guards may also need
to be readily adjustable and allow close observation.

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Chapter 3: Learning Outcomes

 The student will be acquainted with structures and systems

for mechanized welding
 Outline basics of typical mechanization welding systems
 Outline optimal usage of different systems
 The student will be acquainted with most common welding
processes in mechanized welding, their advantages and
disadvantages
 Outline basics of typical welding processes for mechanized welding
 Outline advantages and disadvantages in each process in
mechanization
 The student will be acquainted with different joint and edge
preparation technologies and the importance of accuracy
for mechanized welding quality
 Outline main joint preparation systems
 Outline joint preparation accuracy
 The student will be acquainted with programmable
parameters and other factors that influence weld quality
 Outline matters which influence to propel weld in mechanized
welding
 Outline parameters in mechanized welding compared to manual
welding
 The student will be acquainted with general matters that
influence welding and also will be acquainted with the main
NDT methods used in quality assurance
 Outline different NDT technologies
 Outline visual examination
 The student will understand the main hazards in arc
welding and especially in mechanized welding
 Detail the risks and hazards associated with mechanized welding
from electricity, gases, fumes, fire, radiation and noise
 Interpret correctly the health and safety regulations with respect
to the above hazards.

P a g e | 89
Chapter 3: Examination

Q 3.1 The executive functions of a mechanized system are:

a. decision functions, replacing welder functions and main functions
b. main functions, installing functions, cinematic functions and logistic
functions
c. mobility functions, decision functions, cinematic functions and main
functions
d. main functions only

Q 3.2 Recognize the threaded fastener in the next pictures

a. b. c.

a. Clamping from picture b.

b. Clamping from picture c.
c. Clamping from picture a.
d. All clampings are threaded fasteners

Q 3.3 To rotate shell rings for pressure vessels during circular

welding it can be used:
a. rotating and tilting tables
b. welding tractors
c. toggle clamps
d. welding turning rollers

Q 3.4 Which of the following sentences are correct?

a. The welding tractors are traveling by using 4 wheels covered with
rubber, only, in order to have sufficient friction
b. The welding tractors are used for circular welds only when the
welding head is fixed and the workpiece is rotating
c. The rack used to drive the tractor by gear system can be a rigid one
or flexible one and it is composed of multiple identical elements
having specific length
d. The active driven force of the tractor must be lower than the force
of resistance, in order to avoid slipping

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Q 3.5 If want to weld shell ring for pressure vessel,
longitudinally and circular, which is the correct choice?
a. Set the shell rings on welding turning rollers and the welding head
should be mounted on device which is able to realize linear
movements, as tractors or consoles of columns or portal gantries
b. Fix the shell rings on tilting table to incline the shell ring to the
welding head which is usually mounted on tractor or in a chuck; the
fixing of the shell rings can be done by using clamping devices
c. Fix the shell rings on the console of a welding column and the
welding head is usually mounted on tractor or in a chuck
d. To weld shell rings only manual process can be applied due to the
circular welding which cannot be done in mechanized mode

Q 3.6 Which are the main limitations of mechanically weaving

the welding head?
a. Difficulty to choose between the large number of weaving patterns,
the weight of the flux container, the difficulty to give rotation
movement to the welding head and the high temperature of the
welding area which could melt the weaving device
b. There is only one limitation consisting in the low amplitude of the
weaving, which is in the range of 0.1-1.0 mm
c. Difficulty to choose the proper weaving pattern, the weight of the
welding head, the difficulty to combine the travel movement with
the rotation of the welding head
d. Limited frequency of the weaving, high inertia of the mechanism,
complex system to build, new consumer of energy

Q 3.7 Which are the main disadvantages of applying weaving of

the welding head by using an eccentric wheel device?
a. During the weaving process the length of the arc is constant and
not variable as it should be; due to that changing the weld will be
variable in width
b. During the weaving process the length of the arc is changing and
the end of the welding wire is creating a circle arc
c. During the weaving process the shielding of the welding area is
decreasing and pores formation is possible to occur
d. During the weaving process the eccentric wheel gives unstable
rotation and the amplitude of the weaving is variable

Q 3.8 U profile for the feeding rollers in wire feeders is used for
a. Steel welding wires
b. Stainless steel welding wires
c. Aluminium alloys welding wires
d. Flux cored wires

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Q 3.9 Which of the next sentences are correct?
a. The welding current determines the penetration and together with
the voltage determines the metal transfer mode.
b. The welding current determines the width of the weld and together
with the welding speed determines the metal transfer mode.
c. The welding current determines the material that will be welded and
it is given by the inclination of the torch.
d. For flux-cored wires the welding current and the arc voltage should
be increased until the wire becomes red due to heating.

Q 3.10 Which of the next figures present the principle of the

TIG welding?
a. Figure a
b. Figures a and c
c. Figure b
d. Figures b and c

a.

b.

c.

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References

1. H.B. Cary, Arc Welding Automation, Taylor & Francis,1995,

ISBN: 0824796454, 9780824796457
2. R Boekholt, Welding Mechanisation and Automation in
Shipbuilding Worldwide, Woodhead Publishing, 1996, ISBN:
978-1-85573-219-3
3. W. Sudnik, Arc Welding, InTech, 2011, ISBN 978-953-307-
642-3
4. K. Weman, Welding Processes Handbook, Woodhead
Publishing Ltd, 2012, ISBN: 9780857095107
5. R.P. Singh Applied Welding Engineering : Processes, Codes,
and Standards, ELSEVIER SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, 2011,
ISBN: 9780123919168
6. *** IIW Guideline IAB-348-13: „Minimum Requirements for
the Education, Training, Examination and Qualification”
7. *** AWS, Welding Handbook, Vol. 1
8. *** ISO 3834 (series) „Quality requirements for fusion
welding of metallic materials”
9. *** ISO 6947 „Welding and allied processes - Welding
positions”
10. *** ISO 14731 „Welding coordinators tasks and
responsibilities”
11. *** ISO 15614 (series) „Specification and qualification of
welding procedures for metallic materials. Welding procedure
test”
12. *** EN 473 „Non-destructive testing – Qualification an
Certification of NDT Personnel”
13. *** EN 1011 „Welding - Recommendations for welding of
metallic materials”
14. *** EN ISO 9692 „Welding and allied processes-
recommendations for joint preparation”
15. *** ISO 4063 „Welding and allied processes — Nomenclature
of processes and reference numbers”
16. AWS D1.1 Structural Welding – Steel, 2010

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