118 Course Support PDF

Course Support
Electrofusion Welding
and
Heated Tool Welding
PLASTICS WELDER – Electrofusion welding and Heated Tool Welding

Course support produced within the project LLP-LdV-TOI-2009-RO-003
Contents
1 Polymer materials (3 hrs) ............................................................................................... 6
1.1 Generals ................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Application of polymers .................................................................................................... 7
1.1.3 Nomenclature of polymers ............................................................................................... 8
1.2 Classification of polymers ........................................................................................ 9
1.2.1 Classification by chain structure ..................................................................................... 9
1.2.2 Classification by Thermal Behavior ................................................................................ 9
1.3 Polymer structure ...................................................................................................15
1.4 Main physical properties of polymers .....................................................................16
1.5 HDPE pipes ...........................................................................................................19
1.6 Plastics Recognition ...............................................................................................24
2 Processing of Thermoplastics (2hrs) .............................................................................25
2.1 How polymers are made ........................................................................................25
2.1.1 Polymerization ................................................................................................................. 25
2.1.2 Polymerization Terms ..................................................................................................... 26
2.2 Extrusion of polymers .............................................................................................28
2.2.1 Generals ........................................................................................................................... 28
2.2.2 Equipment for Extrusion ................................................................................................. 30
2.2.3 Defects .............................................................................................................................. 34
2.3 Welding of polymers ...............................................................................................36
2.3.1 Heating element butt welding......................................................................................... 36
2.3.2 Heating element socket welding .................................................................................... 37
2.3.3 Hotgas welding ................................................................................................................ 39
2.3.4 Extrusion welding ............................................................................................................ 39
2.3.5 Infrared welding ............................................................................................................... 39
2.3.6 Laser welding ................................................................................................................... 40

2.3.7 Rotation friction welding ................................................................................................ 40
2.3.8 Vibration friction welding ............................................................................................... 41
2.3.9 Induction welding ............................................................................................................ 41
2.3.10 High frequency welding .............................................................................................. 42
2.3.11 Microwave welding ...................................................................................................... 42
2.3.12 Ultrasonic welding ....................................................................................................... 43
2.4 Injection moulding of polymers ...............................................................................43
2.4.1 Thermoplastic and thermosets injection molding ....................................................... 43
2.4.2 Thermoset compression and transfer molding ............................................................ 45
2.4.3 Thermoset Transfer and Compression Molding Pros and Cons ................................ 46
3 Welded Joints and Terminology (1hrs) ..........................................................................51
3.1 Welded Joints.........................................................................................................51
3.1.1 Prolonging a pipe ............................................................................................................ 51
3.1.2 Ramification for distribution .......................................................................................... 52
3.2 Terminology ...........................................................................................................53
4 Basics of heated tool butt welding (1 hr) ........................................................................61
4.1 Generals ................................................................................................................61
4.2 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations......................................................................62
4.3 Dummy Welds ........................................................................................................63
4.4 The Welding procedure ..........................................................................................63
4.5 Welding Equipment ................................................................................................74
5 Basics of heated tool socket and saddle welding (1 hrs)................................................81
5.1 Principle of the process ..........................................................................................81
5.2 Types of polyfusion welding ...................................................................................83
5.3 Welding Technology ...............................................................................................85
5.3.1 Preparation before welding process ............................................................................. 85
5.3.2 Heating .............................................................................................................................. 87
5.3.3 Transposition ................................................................................................................... 88
5.3.4 Joining and fixation ......................................................................................................... 88
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5.3.5 Cooling ............................................................................................................................. 88
5.4 Polyfusion welding parameters ...............................................................................89
5.4.1 Indicative values for PE and PP according to DVS 2207 – Parts 1 and 11 ................ 89
5.4.2 Indicative values for PB according to the Pipe-Life corporate literature .................. 90
5.4.3 Indicative values for PVDF according to DVS 2207 – Part 15 ..................................... 90
5.5 Technological conditions after welding ...................................................................91
5.6 Procedural mistakes in polyfusion welding .............................................................91
5.7 Welding equipment ................................................................................................92
6 Application of heated tool welding (1 hrs) ......................................................................93
6.1 Effect of material ....................................................................................................93
6.2 Welding of sheet and pipe ......................................................................................93
6.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding ........................................99
7 Testing heated tool welds and joints (1 hr) ..................................................................100
7.1 Generals ..............................................................................................................100
7.2 Visual inspection ..................................................................................................101
7.3 Bending test .........................................................................................................102
7.4 Tensile test...........................................................................................................104
8 Heated tool weld imperfections (2 hrs) ........................................................................108
8.1 Generals ..............................................................................................................108
8.2 Types of imperfection and their origins .................................................................108
8.2.1 Mis-alignment between fittings and pipe and pipes between ................................... 108
8.2.2 Not leaned burr .............................................................................................................. 108
8.2.3 Low burr ......................................................................................................................... 109
8.2.4 Deformed burr ................................................................................................................ 109
8.2.5 Unequal burrs ................................................................................................................ 110
8.2.6 Angular mis-position ..................................................................................................... 110
8.2.7 Cracks ............................................................................................................................. 111
8.3 Effect of imperfections on performance ................................................................111
PLASTICS WELDER – Heated tool welding

3 Course support produced within the project LLP-LdV-TOI-2009-RO-003
8.3.2 Not leaned burr .............................................................................................................. 111
8.3.3 Low burr ......................................................................................................................... 111
8.3.4 Deformed burr ................................................................................................................ 112
8.3.5 Unequal burrs ................................................................................................................ 112
8.3.6 Angular mis-position ..................................................................................................... 112
8.3.7 Crack ............................................................................................................................... 112
8.4 Acceptance criteria ...............................................................................................112
8.4.2 Not leaned burr .............................................................................................................. 113
8.4.3 Low burr ......................................................................................................................... 114
9 Basics of electrofusion welding (1 hr) ..........................................................................115
9.1 Generals ..............................................................................................................115
9.2 Application ...........................................................................................................117
9.3 Parameters of welding process ............................................................................117
9.4 Welding Equipment ..............................................................................................118
10 Basics of electrofusion socket and saddle welding (1 hrs) .......................................121
10.1 Principle of the electrofusion socket welding process ...........................................121
10.1.1 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations ...................................................................... 121
10.1.2 Dummy Welds ............................................................................................................ 122
10.1.3 The Welding procedure ............................................................................................. 122
10.2 Principle of the electrofusion saddle welding process ...........................................127
10.2.1 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations ...................................................................... 127
10.2.2 Dummy Welds ............................................................................................................ 129
10.2.3 The Welding procedure ............................................................................................. 129
11 Application of electrofusion welding (1 hrs) ..............................................................133
11.1 Effect of material ..................................................................................................133
11.2 Welding of sheet and pipe ....................................................................................133
11.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding ......................................138
12 Health & Safety (2hrs)..............................................................................................140
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12.1 General on Polymer health and safety issues.......................................................140
12.1.1 Main causes of injury ................................................................................................ 140
12.1.2 Necessary safety controls ........................................................................................ 142
12.2 Burns and fires .....................................................................................................144
12.3 Fume control ........................................................................................................146
12.4 Safe lifting/handling ..............................................................................................147
12.5 Basic personal protection .....................................................................................149
12.6 Consequences of misapplying critical welding parameters ...................................150
12.6.1 Deformed burr ............................................................................................................ 150
12.6.2 Unequal burrs ............................................................................................................ 151
12.6.3 Angular mis-position ................................................................................................. 151
13 Documentation (2hrs) ..............................................................................................152
13.1 Generals ..............................................................................................................152
13.2 Welding Procedure Specification ..........................................................................152
13.3 Completing welding reports ..................................................................................153
13.4 Manual and automatic reports ..............................................................................153
Annex .................................................................................................................................154

1 Polymer materials (3 hrs)
1.1 Generals
Polymers are a large class of materials consisting of many small molecules (called
monomers) that can be linked together to form long chains, thus they are known as
macromolecules (a term introduced by H. Staudinger in the 1920’s).
A typical polymer may include tens of thousands of monomers. Because of their large size,
polymers are classified as macromolecules.
Polymers occur naturally in the form of proteins, cellulose(plants), starch(food) and natural
rubber.
Engineering polymers, however, are usually synthetic polymers.
Figure 1-1 : Molecular chains
1.1.1 Definitions
Polymer
Large molecule consisting of a number of repeating units with molecular weight typically
several thousand or higher
Repeating unit
The fundamental recurring unit of a polymer
Monomer
The smaller molecule(s) that are used to prepare a polymer
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Oligomer
A molecule consisting of reaction of several repeat units of a monomer but not large enough
to be consider a polymer
Single repeat unit: MONOMER
Many repeat units: POLYMER
Degree of polymerization
The number of the repeating units
1.1.2 Application of polymers
INCPEN, Towards greener households, June 2001 p. 580.0400 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook
Figure 1-2 : Application of polymers
Figure 1-3 : Market of polymers

1.1.3 Nomenclature of polymers
1.1.3.1 Nomenclature Based on monomer source
The addition polymer is often named according to the monomer that was used to form it
Example : poly(vinyl chloride) PVC is made from vinyl chloride -CH 2 -CH(Cl)-
If “ X “ is a single word the name of polymer is written out directly

ex. polystyrene -CH 2 -CH(Ph)-
Poly-X
If “ X “ consists of two or more words parentheses should be used
ex , poly (vinyl acetate ) -CH 2 -CH(OCOCH 3 )-
1.1.3.2 Based on polymer structure
The most common method for condensation polymers since the polymercontains different
functional groups than the monomer
PC = Polycarbonat
PPE = Polyphenylether
SMA = Styrol-Maleinsäureanhydrid
ABS = Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol
PMMA = Polymethylmethacrylat
PS = Polystyrol
SAN = Styrol-Acrylnitril-Copolymere
PVC = Polyvinylchlorid
PET = Polyethylenterephthalat (PETP)
PBT = Polybutylenterephthalat (PBTP)
PA = Polyamid
POM = Polyoxymethylen
RF-PP = Resorcin-Formaldehyd-Polypropylen
PE-UHMW = Polyethylen-ultra high molecular weight
PP = Polypropylen
PE-HD = Polyethylen hoher Dichte (High Density)
PE-LD = Polyethylen niedriger Dichte (Low Density)
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1.2 Classification of polymers
1.2.1 Classification by chain structure

• Linear chains: a polymer consisting of a single continuous chain of repeat units
• Branched chains :a polymer that includes side chains of repeat units connecting onto the
main chain of repeat units
• Hyper branched polymer consist of a constitutional repeating unit including a branching
groups
• Cross linked polymer: a polymer that includes interconnections between chains
• Network polymer: a cross linked polymer that includes numerous interconnections
between chains
Linear Cross-linked Network

Branched
Figure 1-4 : Classification by chain structure
1.2.2 Classification by Thermal Behavior

From the thermal behavior point of view, there are three general groups of polymer materials:
• Elastomers
• Thermoplastics
• Thermosets
1.2.2.1 Elastomers
Elastomers are polymers possessing high elasticity - may be reversibly stretched at high
degree. Elastomers consist of long lightly cross-linked molecules.
Common elastomers are:
• Polyisoprene (natural rubber)
• Butyl

• Nitrile
• Neoprene
• Ethylene-Propylene
• Hypalon
• Silicone
Elastomers may be strengthened by vulcanization process (heat treatment in presence of

chemical agents).Vulcanization results in increase of cross-linking of the molecules.
Vulcanized elastomers are elastic for small deformations.
1.2.2.2 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are polymers, which soften (become pliable and plastic) and melt when
heated. In the melted conditions thermoplastics may be formed by various methods (injection
molding, extrusion, Thermoforming).
No new cross-links form (no chemical curing) when a thermoplastic cools and hardens.
Thermoplastics may be reprocessed (re-melt) many times.
Molecules of most of thermoplastics combine long polymer chains alternating with monomer
units.
Thermoplastic materials may contain filler materials in form of powder or fibers, providing
improvement of specific material properties (strength, stiffness, lubricity, color etc.).
Thermoplastic can be distributed by different groups:
• Polyolefines: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
Polypropylene (PP).
• Styrenics: Polysterene (PS), Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS), Styrene-Acrylonitrile
(SAN), Styrene/Acrylic (S/A), Styrene-Maleic Anhydride (SMA).
• Vinyls: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC).
• Acrylics: Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), Polyvinilchloride-Acrylic Blend (PVC/MA).
• Fluoropolymers: Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).
• Polyesters: Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), Polyester PETG (PETG),
PolybutyleneTerephtalate (PBT), Polyarilate (PAR), Liquid Crystal Polyester (LCP).
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• Polyamides (Nylons): Nylon 6 (N6), Nylon 66 (N66), Nylon 11 (N11), Nylon 12 (N12),
Polyphtalamide (PPA), Polyamide-imide (PAI).
• Polyimides: Polyimide (PI), Polyetherimide (PEI).
• Polyethers: Polyacetal (POM), Polycarbonate (PC), Polyphenylene Oxide Blend (PPO),
Polyaryletherketone (PAEK), Polyetheretherketone.
• Sulfur Containing Polymers: Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS), Polysulfone (PSF),
Polyethersulfone (PES), Polyarylsulfone (PAS).
Figure 1-5 : Thermoplastics
1.2.2.2.1 Thermoplastic High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) - Properties
Thermoplastic
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 0.95 *10³ kg/m³ 59.3 lb/ft³
Modulus of elasticity 1.86 GPa 270 ksi
Tensile strength 31 MPa 4500 psi
Elongation 100 % 100 %
Flexural strength 40 MPa 5800 psi
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 12.6*10-5 ºCˉ¹ 7*10-5 in/(in* ºF)
Thermal conductivity 0.48 W/(m*K) 3.33 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF)
Melting point 130 ºC 266 ºF
Maximum work temperature 120 ºC 248 ºF

Electric resistivity 1013-1016 Ohm*m 1015-1018 Ohm*cm
Dielectric constant 2.4 - 2.4 -
• Good strength;
• Good impact strength;
• Good chemical resistance;
• Good stiffness;
• Poor UV resistance.
Applications: packaging films, heavy duty shrink film, pipes, containers, bags, blown bottles.
1.2.2.2.2 Thermoplastic Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) - Properties
Thermoplastic
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 16*10 -5
ºCˉ¹ 9*10 -5
in/(in* ºF)
Melting point 120 ºC 248 ºF
13 16 15 18
Electric resistivity 10 -10 Ohm*m 10 -10 Ohm*cm
• Good impact strength;

• Good flexibility;
• Poor UV resistance;
• Good hot formability.
Applications: packaging films (general purpose, shrink, and lamination), containers, cable
insulation, and chemically resistant linings.
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1.2.2.2.3 Thermoplastic Polypropylene (PP)
Thermoplastic
Polypropylene (PP)
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 90*10 -6
ºCˉ¹ 50*10 -6
in/(in* ºF)
Glass transition temperature -10 ºC 14 ºF
7 9 9 11
Electric resistivity 10 -10 Ohm*m 10 -10 Ohm*cm

• Good fatigue resistance;
• Good heat resistance.
Applications: packaging, ventilators, boxes of TV and radio sets, toys, furniture components,
bumpers.
1.2.2.2.4 Thermoplastic Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Thermoplastic
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 75*10-6 ºCˉ¹ 42*10-6 in/(in* ºF)
Glass transition temperature 87 ºC 189 ºF
Electric resistivity 106 Ohm*m 108 Ohm*cm
Dielectric constant 4 - 4 -
• May be rigid or flexible (depending on formulation);

• High density;
• Environmentally durable;
• May release chlorine and hydrochloric acid when heated.
Applications: drainage pipes, water service pipes, bottles, window frames, wire and cable
insulation, resilient floors, automotive interiors, stationary, packaging, footwear.
1.2.2.3 Thermosets
Thermosets are Polymers that do not melt when heated. Thermosets molecules are cross-
linked by strong covalent intermolecular bonds, forming one giant molecule. Since cross-
linking is irreversible, thermosets can not be reprocessed (re-melt).
Cross-linking is achieved in a curing process initiated by heat, chemical agents or radiation.
Before this process occurs thermoset materials are stored in partially polymerized condition.
Vulcanization (cross-linking, curing) results in sharp increase of strength, elasticity and
stability of thermosets. Thermosets are stronger and stiffer than Thermoplastics, and in some
cases, stronger than specific types of metals (i.e. aluminum). Thermosets also have higher
thermal, chemical and creep resistance than thermoplastics.
Thermoset materials may contain filler materials in form of powder or fibers, providing
improvement of specific material properties (strength, stiffness, Modulus of Elasticity,
thermal resistance, lubricity).Common filler materials are glass in various forms, metal
powders, Graphite or molybdenum disulfide powder.
Thermosets groups:
• Epoxies (EP)
• Unsaturated Polyesters (UP)
• Phenolics (PF)
• Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
• Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
• Alkyds (AMC)
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1.3 Polymer structure
A Polymer is a substance (natural or synthetic) whose molecules consist of numerous small

repeated chemical units (monomers) linked to each other in a regular pattern.
Polymers usually combine crystalline and amorphous structures (semi-crystalline).
Degree of polymerization is an average number of monomers (mers) in a polymer molecule.
Polymer molecules may combine up to millions of monomers (mers) forming a 1D structure
(chain), 2D structure (planar molecules) or 3D structure. For organic polymers, a one-
dimensional structure is more common.
An organic polymer is a polymer compound built of hydrocarbon base monomer units. In
addition to Carbon and Hydrogen the following atoms may be incorporated in polymer
molecules: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Chlorine, Fluorine, Silicon, Phosphorous and Sulfur.
Atoms of a polymer molecule are held by covalent bonding.
Neighboring chains may form secondary bonds between them (cross-links) which are less
strong than covalent bonding between the atoms within the molecules.
Cross-links provide elasticity to the polymer, preventing sliding of the neighboring chains
when the material is stretched.
Branched polymer consists of molecules having side chains attached to the main chain.
Copolymer is a polymer molecule of which contains more than one kind of monomers.
Nylon is a common copolymer. Its molecules consist of two alternating monomers: diacid and
diamine.
Graft copolymer is a kind of branch polymer, side chains of which are made of monomers
differing from the monomer of the main chain.
A block copolymer is a polymer made of molecules built from alternating polymeric blocks
of two or more different polymers.
Structure parameters affecting polymer properties are:
• Increase of the chain length. Effect: increase of tensile strength and Modulus of Elasticity
• Increase of number and length of side chains. Effect: increase of tensile strength and
stiffness.
• Introduction of large monomers in molecules. Effect: increase of stiffness.
• Increase of number and strength of cross-links. Effect: increase of tensile strength and
stiffness.

• Orientation of the molecules as a result of deformation during manufacturing. Effect:
anisotropy of the material properties (properties along the deformation differ from those in
other directions).
Every polymer is characterized by a temperature below of which mobility of its molecules
sharply decreases and the material becomes brittle and glassy.
This temperature is called Glass Transition Temperature.
Monomer molecular structures of different polymers are presented in the picture:
Figure 1-6 : Monomer structures of different polymers
1.4 Main physical properties of polymers
1- Primary bonds: the covalent bonds that connect the atoms of the main chain
2- Secondary bonds: non – covalent bonds that hold one polymer chain to another including
hydrogen bond and other dipole –dipole attraction
3- Crystalline polymer: solid polymers with high degree of structural order and rigidity
4- Amorphous polymers: polymers with a low degree of structural order
5- Semi – crystalline polymer: most polymers actually consist of both crystalline domains and
amorphous domains with properties between that expected for a purely crystalline or purely
amorphous polymer
6- Glass: the solid form of an amorphous polymer characterized by rigidity and brittleness
7 – Crystalline melting temperature (Tm): temperature at which crystalline polymers melt
8 - Glass transition temperature (Tg): temperature at which an amorphous polymer converts to
a liquid or amorphous domains of a semi crystalline polymer melt
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9 – Thermoplastics (plastics): polymers that undergo thermally reversible Interconversion
between the solid state and the liquid state
10- Thermosets: polymers that continue reacted at elevated temperaturesgenerating increasing
number of crosslinks such polymers do not exhibitmelting or glass transition
11- Liquid – crystalline polymers: polymers with a fluid phase that retainssome order
12- Elastomers:rubbery, stretchy polymers the effect is caused by light crosslinkingthat pulls
the chains back to their original state
Semi-crystalline Amorphous
Crystalline
Glassy Rubbery
Figure 1-7 : Structure of polymers
• The glass transition, Tg, is temp. Below which a polymer OR glass is brittle or glass-
like; above that temperature the material is more plastic.
• The Tg to a first approximation is a measure of the strength of the secondary bonds
between chains in a polymer; the stronger the secondary bonds; the higher the glass
transition temperature.
Ex:
Polyethylene Tg = 0°C; Polystyrene = 97 °C
PMMA (plexiglass) = 105 °C.
Since room temp.is<Tg for PMMA, it is brittle at room temp.
For rubber bands: Tg = - 73°C.

γ γ
Amorphous Tret
Amorphous High elastic Fluid-viscous glassy state
glassy state state state
T T
Tg Tc Tg Tc
Figure 1-8 : Typical thermomecanical curve and the physical states of an amorphous polymer
with linear and flexible chain (a) Typical thermomecanical curve and the physical states of a
macromolecular substance which trends to become glassy (b)
Figure 1-9 : Curve stress = f(strain) for PP
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Physical Properties of polyethylene
Branched Low Medium Density High Linear High
Density Density Density
Optical Transparent to Transparent to Transparent to Transparent to
opaque opaque opaque opaque
Tmelt 98 – 115 C 122 – 124 C 130 – 137 C 130 –137 C
Tg -100 C -100 C -100 C -100 C

H20 Absorption Low < 0.01 Low < 0.01 Low < 0.01 Low < 0.01
Oxidation Resistance Low, oxides Low, oxides readily Low, oxides Low, oxides
readily readily readily
UV Resistance Low, Crazes Low, Crazes readily Low, Crazes Low, Crazes
readily readily readily
Solvent Resistance Resistant below Resistant below 60C Resistant below Resistant below
60C 60C 60C
Alkaline Resistance Resistant Resistant Resistant Resistant
Acid Resistance Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids
1.5 HDPE pipes
Worldwide there is a large variety of HDPE pipes and fittings, differentiated from each other
by a classification system. In UE classification of these materials is based on regulations in
force, according to:
- Coding properties (density, index of hot mass flow);
- Information on the processing method and / or use;
- Important properties, additives, dyes;
- Extruded materials;
- Reinforcing materials.
An important characteristic of HDPE pipes and fittings is the nominal wall thickness (e),
which can be expressed by the following equation:
e = K x Dn
where there was noted:

• K - factor characterizing material properties and condition of use, by quantifying the
effects of physical parameters (temperature, time, etc)., of mechanical parameters
(internal pressure, external forces, etc..) Influence of chemical reactions (contact, etc.)
and material properties (long-term behavior, depending on the temperature properties,
chemical resistance, etc.).
• D n [mm] - nominal diameter pipe.

In terms of standardization, the K factor should ensure that all practical applications by
choosing the lowest possible number of values.
Depending on applications, HDPE pipes can be classified into:
a.) the required pipes mainly to internal pressure:
- Transportation of cold water pipes (water pipes);
- Pipes for carrying water at high temperatures (hot water installations);
- Pipes that transports other fluids (chemical gases).
b) pipes for pressure applications without inner exhaust pipe comprising this group on the
surface, drainage and sewage pipes buried, operating both at room temperature and high
temperature (ISO 4065).
Nominal pressure is the pressure of a pipe running pipe carrying fluid at 20 ° C.

Operating pressure is the maximum pressure that a pipe supports in continuous function.
Pipe length is standardized under ISO4437 and if other lengths are requested they should be
established between the manufacturer and the customer.
Winding diameter as coil types of HDPE pipes should not be less than 20 times the outer
diameter with a minimum of 0.6 m (ISO 3126).
HDPE pipes must provide a smooth outer and inner surface, clean without defects that could
affect performance.
All pipes shall be visible marked directly on the outside surface without initiating cracks or
other defects.
Extrusion compounds for pipes shall be PE100 with the following properties:
• Nominal density(natural) 0.945-0.95 g/cc.
• Nominal density (pigmented) 0.95-0.96 g/cc.
• Melt flow rate index 12.5g/10 minutes.
• Pigment blue dispersion 2.5%.
• tensile strength at yield point 22.8 Mpa minimum
• Tensile strength at break point 31 Mpa minimum
• Hydrostatic design stress 12.4 Mpa
• Minimum required strength 12.4 Mpa @50 years and 20 degrees C.
• Elongation at break 890%.
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2. Polyethylene pipes shall be color black But at least with three blue/yellow strips.
Markings - The pipes shall be clearly marked with the following information:
1.The manufacturers:Tradmark
2.The dimensions (nominal outside diameterX nominal wallthickness).
3.The word “WATER” at any interval within 1 meter;
4.The designation of the pipe material PE 100;
5.The nominal pressure (PN)
6.The pipe series (S or SDR)
7.The production period.(Date or code);
8.The Resin type, Brand and Class:
9.MWCI or Manila Water
10.ISO 4427
11.PS quality marking or equivalent ISO 9002 qualitymarking.
The marking shall be shaded with white, the depth ofmarking on the pipe shall not exceed
0.15mm for pipewhose wall thickness is 12mm and below.

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1.6 Plastics Recognition
Take a small sliver or shaving of the material to be welded and light it with a flame, observe
and smell the smoke.
• For PVC: blackish smoke and acrid smell.
• For Polyethylene (PE): no smoke, the melted material drips like candle wax and
smells of wax.
• For Polypropylene (PP): no smoke, the melted material drips like candle wax and
smells of burnt oil.
• For Polyamide (PA): no smoke, melted material pulls to form a thread and smells of
burnt horn.
• For Polycarbonate (PC): yellowish sooty smoke, sweet smell.
• For ABS: blackish smoke, sooty flakes, sweet smell.
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2 Processing of Thermoplastics (2hrs)
2.1 How polymers are made
2.1.1 Polymerization
Polymers are created by forming a series of chains or strings of monomers. Processing the
polymers in one of two methods results in the formation of plastic. With the thermosetting
method, liquid monomers are poured into a mold and allowed to cool. The liquefied
monomers are permanent in shape, producing durable goods. With the thermoplastic
approach, the liquid monomers are heated and slowly molded into shape. After the heating
and manipulation into the desired shape, the product is cooled and allowed to set into a solid.
Both the thermoplastic and the thermosetting approaches are referred to as polymerization.
The process by which these monomers bond is called polymerization.
Polymerization isn't a complicated subject, but the ways in which monomers are put together
vary so much that scientists find it easier to have more than one system of describing
polymerization. One system of separating polymerization processes asks the question of how
much of the original molecule is left when the monomers bond. In "addition polymerization",
monomers are added together with their structure unchanged. Not so in condensation
polymerization. This process results in a polymer that is less massive than the two or more
monomers that joined to form it. This happens because not all of the original monomer is
allowed to stay on the polymer. Hydrogen chloride and water are usually thrown from the mix
when polymers form in this manner. A good analogy might be what happens when kids try to
make a popsicle-stick village. The popsicle itself has to be discarded (most often through
eating!) in order to be able to use the stick itself.
While the condensation versus addition systems of describing polymerization may be useful,
it is not the only way to see how polymers might form. Another way of explaining how
monomers form polymers involve observing how the monomers combine with one another. In
chain growth polymerization, one monomer is added to the collection at a time until a
polymer is formed. This is the simplest process of polymerization. A more complicated
process is called step-growth polymerization. Here, it isn't just one monomer joining the party
at a time. It can happen that way, but it's also possible for a group of monomers to show up
together. Eventually, there will be enough monomers to create a polymer.
25 PLASTICS WELDER – Heated tool welding

Polymerization is a necessary process. Only through this forming of larger molecules could
the human brain exist. In actuality, nothing at all could exist without polymerization, for
without a brain to experience life and define its processes, there would be no reason to exist.
2.1.2 Polymerization Terms

1. BLOWING AGENT OR FOAMING AGENT - Chemicals added to plastics or rubbers that
generate inert gases on heating, causing the resins to assume a cellular structure.
2. CATALYST - Chemicals often used to initiate polymerization. They are supposed to act by
their presence and not be affected by the chemical reaction which they induce. In plastics,
however, the catalyst can be combined and change its structure.
3. COMPRESSION SET - Measures the resistance of material to permanent deformation. In
this test a rubber pellet is squashed to 75% of its original height, kept at that amount of
deformation for 22 hours at 158°F, then released and allowed to return to original height. The
value reported is the percentage not returned to the original height, so the smaller the number,
the better.
4. CURE - Polymerization. A change of physical properties by chemical reaction and chain
linking of ingredients; usually accomplished by heat and/or catalysts, with or without
pressure.
5. ELASTOMER (elastomeric) - An elastic, rubber-like substance, as natural or synthetic
rubber.
6. EXOTHERM - A chemical reaction giving off heat.
7. FILLER - An inert substance added to a plastic to make it less costly, improve physical
properties such as hardness, stiffness, and impact strength.
8. FLASH - Extra material attached to a casting along the parting line.
9. GATE - Opening in a mold through which liquid is admitted.
10. HARDNESS - Shore A durometer, Shore D durometer, hardness measures the resistance
of a material to indentation. The two hardness measuring devices are basically needles on a
spring that measure how far the needle indents the material. The Shore A is a dull needle on a
weak spring for measuring elastomers. The Shore D is a sharper needle on a stronger spring
for measuring rigid materials. These devices are excellent for measuring and determining if a
cast material is curing properly. Most people, however, use the durometer measures as the
first criteria for determining the material they need as "I would like to have a Shore A rubber
that will . . ." The hardness gives an indication of the type of properties to expect from a
material but is not always the indicator of performance.
26
11. ISOCYANATE RESINS - Based on the combination with polyols (such as polyesters,
polyethers, etc.). The reaction joins members through the formation of the urethane linkage.
12. LAY-UP - Process of placing reinforcing material into position in a mold.
13. MODULUS - A key physical property than any user of a material will definitely
experience. The modulus is basically the stiffness of the material, or more specifically, the
modulus is the amount of force needed to deform a material a set amount. Modulus is
measured in psi (pounds per square inch). Modulus can be measured in any mode of
deformation, i.e., tension (stretching), compression, (crushing), flexing, (bending), or torsion
(twisting).
14. MOLD RELEASE AGENT (separator or parting agent) - A lubricant used to coat a
surface to prevent plastic from sticking to it.
15. MOTHERMOLD - A rigid material used to hold or house a flexable inner mold.
16. POT LIFE AND GEL TIME - These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably but
really have two different meanings. Pot life is the amount of time, after two materials have
been mixed, that the material remains workable, i.e., pourable for a liquid, trowelable for
paste. Gel time is the time after mixing when the materials become a continuous mass.
17. SLURRY - Mixture of a liquid and a fine filler material.
18. SLUSH CASTING - A method for casting thermoplastic in which liquid resin is poured
into a mold where a viscous skin forms.
19. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - The specific gravity of water is 1. When a resin has a lower
specific gravity than water, less than 1, it is lighter, will float, and has more volume for less
weight. Conversely, a resin with a higher specific gravity than water is heavier, will not float,
and has less volume.
20. TEAR PROPERTIES - How resistant the material is to tearing measured in pli (pounds
per linear inch).
21. TENSILE PROPERTIES - Ultimate tensile strength, elongation at break, 100% modulus.
Ultimate tensile strength is the force, measured in psi, needed to stretch a material until it
breaks. Elongation at break is how much the material stretches before it breaks, as a
percentage of its original dimensions. 100% modulus is the force, measured in psi, needed to
stretch the material to twice its original dimensions.
22. THERMOPLASTIC - Material that softens when heated and hardens on cooling.
23. THERMOSETTING - A substance that does not soften when heated.
24. THIXOTROPIC - The ability of a liquid to resist the pull of gravity. Materials that are
gel-like at rest and fluid when agitated.

25. UNDERCUT - Protuberances or indentations that lock a solid form into its mold and
prevent its removal.
26. VENT - A shallow channel or hole cut into a mold to allow air to escape as it is being
deplaced by a liquid.
27. VISCOSITY - Simply the resistance of the material to flow measured in centipoise (cpi).
A material with a low viscosity, low cps, and will flow easily. Water's viscosity is 1 cps.
Materials with a high viscosity, high cps, will not flow easily. Peanut butter has a viscosity of
about 250,000 cps.
2.2 Extrusion of polymers
2.2.1 Generals
The word “extrusion” comes from Greek roots, meaning to ‘push out’.
It is a continuous process, process which is forcing a molten materials (plastic) through a
shaped die by means of pressure- e.g. melting of plastic resin + adding mixing fillers.
In this process, screws are used to progress the polymer in the molten or rubbery state along
the barrel of the machine.
Single screw extruder is widely used, however twin screw extruder are also used where
superior mixing is needed
28
Figure 2-1 : Extrusion of polymers
Solid polymer is fed in at one end, inside the polymer melts and homogenizes and molten
extrude emerges from the other. There are 3 zones; feed zone, compression zone and metering
zone (figure 2.2)
Figure 2-2 : Equipment and specific areas of processing

Materials fed into hopper, falls through a hole in the top the extruder (feed throat) onto the
screw. The screw moves the molten plastic forward until the end of the extruder barrel to
which die has been attached. Die gives shape to molten plastics, cooled in water tank.
2.2.2 Equipment for Extrusion

The components of an extruder are:
• Drive motor-turns the screw, provides power for the operation of the extruder to push
out the plastic materials
The required extruder power increases when;
• Output increases
• Barrel diameter increases
• Screw length increases
• High output is required at high temperature
Power requirement is a function of resin type and mold design
• A large thrust bearing-mounted on the screw. Prevent the screw from moving
backwards
• Barrel- is the chamber in which the screw turns and the resin flows (made of hardened
steel.
The inside diameter of barrel indicates the capacity & size of extruder.
Outside of barrel is jacketed with electrical heating element
Heating elements are divided into different controlled zones
• Feed throat-opening in the top of the barrel, just beyond the thrust bearing (Inlet for
the resin)
• Hopper- mounted over the feed throat
• Extruder screw- attached to the drive linkage through the thrust bearing and rotates
inside the barrel. Functions:
– To convey the resin through the extruder
– To mix the ingredient together
– To build pressure in the extruder (so that resin will be pushed through the die)
– To impart mechanical energy as part of the melting process
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2.2.2.1 Extruder screw
• The screw is machined out of a solid rod.

• Like a shaft with helical screw on it,
• Each turn of the helix is called a flight.
• Important parameter= L/D of the screw (length of the flighted portion of the screw/
inside diameter of the barrel).
• L/D measures the capability of the screw to mix materials and ability of the screw to
melt hard-to-melt material. Typical L/D ratios are 16:1 to 32:1.
Figure 2-3 : Extruder screw
• Barrel diameter is constant over the entire length of the extruder

• The root is the measure of the diameter of the shaft of the screw (the root diameter can
vary along the length of screw)
• The flight rise above the shaft creating a flight depth (difference between top of the
flight and the root diameter)
• As the root diameter changes, the flight depth will correspondingly change (if the root
diameter is small, the flight depth are large and vice versa
2.2.2.2 Feed Zone
• Purpose; Preheat the polymer, and convey it to subsequent zones

• Pulls the polymer pellets from the hopper
• The screw depth is constant

• The feed section has a small, constant root diameter that results in large, constant-
depth flight to accommodate the bulky dry solid resins and other additives
2.2.2.3 Compression Zone
• The second zone- decreasing channel depth

• Usually called as ‘compression’ and ‘transition’ zone
• Compresses the material conveys from the feed zone and plasticizes it
• Can be identified as by the gradual increase in the diameter of the root along the
length of the section
• root diameter increase means the flight depth gradually decrease throughout the
compression section, compressing the resin and forcing the air/volatiles out of the
resin melt
• The volatiles escape by flowing backward through the vent port or gap between screw
and barrel
• Removal of these volatiles is important in making pore/void- free product
2.2.2.4 The Die Zone
• Located in this region is the screen pack (comprises a perforated steel plate called
breaker plate and sieve pack)
• The breaker plate-screen pack has three functions;
– To sieve out/remove unwanted particles, e.g. dirt, foreign bodies (dies are
expensive and difficult to repair)
– To develop a head pressure that provides the driving force for the die
– To remove ‘turning memory along the spiral screw’ from the melt (Polymers
are made up of long chain molecules, coiled, etc. , they have tendency towards
elastic recovery)
2.2.2.5 Metering zone
• Constant screw depth and very shallow flight depth

• The function is to homogenize the melt and supply to die region (give final mixing)
32
• Shallow flight depth ensures that high shear is added to the resin to accomplish any
melting of the residual solids.
• High shear also builds pressure on the melted resin and push out of the end of the
extruder
• Important extrusion parameter; Compression Ratio (measures of the work that is
Expanded on the resin)
• Compression Ratio = flight depth in the feed section / flight depth in metering section
(as low as 1.1/1 and as high as 5:1, typically 2.25:1)
2.2.2.6 Head Zone
• Portion of extruder follows the end of screw

• After leaving the end of screw, plastic flow through screen pack then through breaker
plate (disc of sturdy metal with many holes drilled through it)
• Screen pack – collection of wire screen (usually in different mesh), to filter out
unmolten resin or contaminants
• Screen pack will become clogged with filtered materials and must be changed (at this
point, is said to be blinded). It is noted by an increase in the back pressure in the
extruder
Figure 2-4 : Head zone

2.2.3 Defects
2.2.3.1 Melt Fracture
• Melt fracture- Skin rupture usually occurs only on the outside surface of the film when
stretching and cooling occur too fast and cause micro tears.
• Melt fracture caused by skin rupture occurs when the surface of the film is stretched
too quickly on leaving the die.
• The extrudate has a rough surface, with short cracks that are oriented at the machine
direction or helically around the extrudate.
• Occur due to low temperature of the melt, high molecular weight; die is not properly
streamlined, etc.
• Solve by; streamlined the die, raising the melt temperature, selecting resin with low
molecular weight, etc.
Figure 2-5 : The effect of streamlining ina die to prevent melt fracture
• Die exit instability

– shark skin– the outer surface of the part is rough with line running
perpendicular to the flow direction (a tearing of the outer surface- usually
associated with stresses in the extrudate from sticking to the die wall)
– orange peel- defect in a surface of an extrudate in which a small dimple are
formed
34
– Bambooing- defect in a surface of an extrudate that resembles bamboo

2.2.3.2 Degradation
• Detected by discolorations and lower physical and mechanical properties

• Caused by; too high heat for the speed of the extrusion, past resin that not fully
purged, etc.
• Solved by; good combination of heat and extrusion speed, better purging
materials/procedures, etc.
2.2.3.3 Contamination
• Detected by sports (small dimples) in the extrudate- sometimes called ‘eye-fish’

• Caused by; contamination (dust, other resin) fall into the hopper or other parts of resin
conveying system
• Solved by; keep hopper covered, inspecting the incoming materials, etc.
2.2.3.4 Bubbles in the Extrudate
• Excessive moisture/volatiles can be absorbed by resin and then vaporized when the
melt exits the die- resulting bubbling in the extrudate
• Solved by; dry the resin before fed into the hopper, store the resin in low humidity
location, etc.
2.3 Welding of polymers
2.3.1 Heating element butt welding
Figure 2-6 : Heating element butt welding
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2.3.1.1 Description of welding method
The joining areas of the plastic pieces are pressed against an accordingly heated up element
until enough material is melted.
The heating element is removed and the plastified surfaces of the plastic pieces are pressed
together. The pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified.
Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.1.2 Description of variants
Welding methods with standard temperature

The heating element temperature is in the range of the melting temperature of the plastic
materials to be welded. The heating elements are normally anti-stick coated or covered.
Thermoplastics with a melting point up to approx. 270°C can be processed.
Welding methods with high temperature
The heating element temperature is higher than the melting temperature of the plastic
materials to be welded. The heating elements are normally not coated. Practically all
thermoplastics can be processed independent from their melting point. Due to this method,
there is a high emission of smoke.
2.3.2 Heating element socket welding
Figure 2-7 : Heating element socket welding
The ends of the plastic pieces are pushed into or over an accordingly heated up element until
enough material is melted. The heating element is removed and the plastic pieces are pushed

into each other at the plastified ends. The pieces cool down while sticking together until the
melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.2.2 Description of variants
Standard welding method without heated coil

The heating element temperature is in the range of the melting temperature of the plastic
materials to be welded. The heating elements are normally anti-stick coated. Thermoplastics
with a melting point up to approx. 270°C can be processed. The energy input is performed by
means of heating element spigots and sockets.
Heated coil welding
Different thermoplastics can be processed depending on the availability of fittings. The energy
input is performed by means of an integrated heated coil which is connected to an external
source of current.
38
2.3.3 Hotgas welding
Figure 2-8 : Hotgas welding
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other at the joining areas.
The butt is melted with hot air until the surfaces are yielding under pressure.
The joint can be strengthened by means of a weld filler of the same plastic material.
2.3.4 Extrusion welding
Figure 2-9 : Extrusion welding
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other at the joining areas. The butt is melted with hot air
until the pieces can be welded with additional material. The weld filler out of the same plastic
material is melted in a barrel extruder, ejected and pressed into the preheated butt.
2.3.5 Infrared welding
Figure 2-10 : Infrared welding

The plastic pieces are positioned with the butts having a special distance to the accordingly
heated up element until enough material is melted. The input of heat is performed contactless
in form of infrared radiation and is for that reason not limited by the maximum temperature of
an anti-stick coating. The heating element is removed and the plastified surfaces of the plastic
pieces are pressed together. The pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt
is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.6 Laser welding
Figure 2-11 : Laser welding
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other and exposed to laser radiation. The input of heat is
performed by the absorption of energy on the surface exposed to radiation. The plastic pieces
cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not
needed.
2.3.7 Rotation friction welding
Figure 2-12 : Rotation friction welding
The joining areas of the rotation symmetric plastic pieces are pressed together and brought
40
into a rotating motion to each other. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the
contact zone. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is
resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.8 Vibration friction welding
Figure 2-13 : Vibration friction welding
The joining areas of the plastic pieces are pressed together and brought into an oscillating
motion to each other. This oscillating motion can be modulated in a linear, orbital or radial
manner with adjustable amplitude. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the
contact zone. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is
resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.9 Induction welding
Figure 2-14 : Induction welding
Ferromagnetic electric circuits are included in the joining areas of the plastic pieces, the
plastic pieces are pressed together and exposed to an electromagnetic field. The input of heat
is performed by electric losses within the ferromagnetic electric circuit. The plastic pieces
cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Additional welding
material is needed in form of ferromagnetic carriers.

2.3.10 High frequency welding
Figure 2-15 : High frequency welding
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with dielectric features are pressed together and
exposed to an electromagnetic field of high frequency. The input of heat is performed by
dielectric losses in the basic material. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-
limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
2.3.11 Microwave welding
Figure 2-16 : Microwave welding
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with dielectric features are pressed together and
exposed to a microwave field. The input of heat is performed by phase displacements and
effects of polarisation causing energy losses in the basic material. The plastic pieces cool
down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
42
2.3.12 Ultrasonic welding
Figure 2-17 : Ultrasonic welding
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with energy directors are pressed onto each other and
ultrasonic is inserted. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the energy director.
The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified.
Weld fillers are not needed.
2.4 Injection moulding of polymers
2.4.1 Thermoplastic and thermosets injection molding

2.4.1.1 Thermoplastics injection molding
Thermoplastic injection molding is the most common way to manufacture plastic parts.
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be heated to soften or melt, and cooled to solidify as a
physical change, rather than a chemical change that takes place during molding of thermoset
materials.
The thermoplastic injection molding process begins by adding pelletized material to a hopper.
In most cases, the material must is dried prior to molding, and frequently requires the addition
of a color concentrate before loading. The material is gravity fed into a heated barrel and
screw. Rotation of the screw results in shearing action on the raw pellets causing them to
melt. The screw rotation also pushes the molten plastic forward in the barrel toward the mold.
The material is then injected into the closed mold at high pressure through a runner system to
fill all the cavities.

The mold is clamped shut under enough force to keep the mold halves together while the
molten plastic is flowing. On a cold runner system, the plastic in the runner solidifies and
must be discarded or ground into pellets to be reused, which we refer to as “regrind.” If a hot
runner system is used, the plastic in the runner stays molten, and no material is wasted.
When the mold cavities are filled, the part cools until rigid enough to be ejected. Part cooling
within the mold is accomplished through water lines cut into the mold.
At the completion of the cooling cycle, the mold opens and the part(s) are ejected for part
removal.
Generally the producers use a process called “decoupling” for thermoplastic injection
molding. In this process, the cavities are filled to approximately 95 percent of their capacity
using high injection pressures.
At a specific programmed position of the injection screw, the pressure is reduced and the 5
percent remaining portion of the mold cavity is filled at a lower pressure. This process
eliminates over packing of the molded part and the resulting high internal stresses caused by
over packing.
2.4.1.2 Thermosets injection molding
Thermoset injection molding is an automated process transforming granular material into

molded shapes that the producers have been performing since the company’s inception. It
typically is the most economical way to mold thermoset materials.
Thermosets are materials that cure through a chemical reaction activated by heat and pressure,
thus forming a strong molecular bond. This molecular bonding enables thermoset materials to
maintain their physical properties at elevated temperatures which is why they are used in
applications such as electrical connector housings, automotive ashtrays, and cookware
appliance handles and knobs.
The thermoset injection molding process begins by adding granular or pelletized material to a
hopper. The material is gravity fed into a barrel and screw, which heats and moves the
material toward the mold. The material is injected into a hot mold which has been clamped
shut under enough force to keep the mold together while the material is forced into the cavity
under high pressure. The plastic flows through a runner system in the mold to reach all the
cavities. When the mold cavities are filled, the parts cure to a solid form. The mold then opens
44
for part removal, and some parts simply drop into a box, while others are removed by hand or
automated equipment.
2.4.1.3 Thermoset vs. Thermoplastic Injection Molding
Unlike thermoplastic injection molding, cured thermosets cannot be reground and mixed with
virgin material for reprocessing. In general, thermoset materials have a low viscosity, so when
the material fills the mold cavity under pressure, some of the material will leak between the
two halves of the mold typically at an area of the cavity where vents have been added to allow
for gas and air escapement. This is called flash. While this problem can normally be prevented
in thermoplastic injection molding by proper mold construction and processing parameters,
flashing cannot be avoided in thermoset injection molding. Therefore, flash must be removed
as a secondary operation. When possible, the parts are de-flashed in an automatic tumbling
operation rather than hand de-flashing to save costs.
Cycle times are longer for thermoset materials than thermoplastic materials due to the
chemical reaction and cure that takes place in the mold. Since thermosets are more abrasive
than thermoplastics, the producershave considerable expertise in mold design (including
choice of tool steels, heat treating and plating requirements) as well as mold maintenance will
insure a long lasting productive mold life.
2.4.2 Thermoset compression and transfer molding
Thermoset compression molding is typically a manual process that transforms granular

material into molded shapes by adding material directly into an open mold cavity and then
closing the mold. Thermoset transfer molding is a similar process that involves the extra step
of pre-forming a “pill” of material before it is injected into a closed mold through the mold’s
runner and gate system. The producers have been using both processes since the company’s
inception.
Thermosets are materials that cure via an irreversible chemical reaction under heat and
pressure, rather than cooling to a rigid state as thermoplastic injection molding materials do.
This chemical reaction results in a strong highly cross-linked molecular structure and is the
reason that thermoset materials have the ability to retain their properties at elevated

temperatures. Typical applications are electrical connector housings, automotive ashtrays,
cookware appliance handles and knobs.
The thermoset compression molding process begins by adding granular material directly into
the cavity(s) of the mold. Closing the mold provides the force necessary to flow the material
into the cavity voids; the heated mold (300° F and higher) initiates the chemical curing. Since
there is no runner and gate system in a compression mold, the mechanical properties of
compression molded parts are somewhat better than identical parts molded by transfer or
thermoset injection molding.
Thermoset transfer molding typically requires placing a preheated preform of material into the
mold “pot” before a plunger applies pressure to the material, forcing the material through a
runner and gate and into the mold cavity. Thermoset transfer molding is generally considered
more precise and creates less flash than compression molding. Transfer molding is ideal for
insert molding since the molding machine clamp opens and closes vertically and retention of
the insert is more readily accomplished through a closed mold.
Unlike thermoplastic injection molding, the extra material left behind in the mold must be
disposed of, since cured thermoset material from sprues and runners cannot be reground and
reprocessed. When the mold cavities are filled, the parts must cure to a solid form. The mold
opens for part removal, and parts are ejected and removed by hand or automated equipment.
2.4.3 Thermoset Transfer and Compression Molding Pros and Cons

The main advantage of thermoset transfer and compression molding is the use of certain very
high temperature thermoset materials. Compared to thermoplastics, these materials are more
dimensionally stable- meaning the shrinkage doesn’t change with processing or
environmental conditions and is less sensitive to wall thickness variations. Many of these
materials are not available in an injectable grade, and tooling can be less expensive than
thermoset injection molding.
Like thermoset injection molding, transfer and compression methods generate flash. In
general, thermoset materials have a low viscosity. So, when the material fills the mold cavity
under pressure, some of the material will leak between the two halves of the mold. This is
called flash. While this problem can normally be prevented in thermoplastic injection molding
by proper mold construction and processing parameters, flashing often cannot be avoided in
46
thermoset molding and in many cases is desirable. Therefore, we must remove the flash as a
secondary operation. When possible, the parts are de-flashed in an automatic tumbling
operation rather than hand de-flashing to save costs.
Figure 2-18 : Molded piece
Also similar to thermoset injection molding is the amount of material waste in thermoset
transfer molding. The cured runners and flash material cannot be melted and reused, so it is
disposed as waste. Thermoset materials also tend to wear the mold more quickly, so tooling
maintenance and replacement costs are usually higher than that of thermoplastics.

Figure 2-19 : Retrofitted stretch blow system that uses a preforming mold to condition a blow
molded parison before final blow molding of a bottle. (After G. R. Smoluk, Modern Plastics,
p. 47, McGraw-Hill, February 1981)
Figure 2-20 : Common blow-molded products with some preblown, injection molded
preforms (tubes) shown in left of center near the foreground
48
Figure 2-21 : Techniques for producing reinforced plastics and composites. (a) Hand lay-up
technique for reinforced thermosets. (b) Vacuum bag molding method. (c) Spray-up method.
(d) Matched metal die molding. (e) Filament winding. (After R. S. Morrison, Reinforce
Figure 2-22 : Transfer molding. (a) In the molding cycle, material is first placed in the transfer
pot. (b) Material is then forced through an orifice into the closed mold. (c) When the mold
opens, the cull and sprue are removed as a unit, and the part is lifted out of the cavity by
ejector pins. (After E. W. Vaill, Thermoset molding, Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, vol. 45,
no. 14a, pp. 714–731, McGraw-Hill, 1968–1969)

Figure 2-23 : Low-pressure plastics processes: (a) casting, (b) potting, (c) encapsulation, and
(d) sealing. (After H. Lee and K. Neville, Handbook of Epoxy Resins, McGraw-Hill, 1967)
50
3 Welded Joints and Terminology
(1hrs)
3.1 Welded Joints
3.1.1 Prolonging a pipe

• Heated element butt-welded joint
Figure 3-1 : Heated element butt-welded joint
• Heated element socket weld
• Electrofusion socket weld
Figure 3-2 : Electrofusion socket weld

• Heated material welded joint
Figure 3-3 : Heated material welded joint
• Hot gas air welded joint
3.1.2 Ramification for distribution
• Heated element butt-welded joint
Figure 3-4 : Heated element butt-welded joint
52
• Heated element saddle weld
Figure 3-5 : Heated element saddle weld
• Heated element socket weld
• Electrofusion saddle weld
3.2 Terminology
Aggregate pipe coefficient The aggregate pipe coefficient (C) is a safety buffer (safety
(C) reserve) to allow for the additional loads that occur in pipe
systems. It corresponds to the safety factor (SF). 1.25 for water
and 2.0 for gas.
Bead formation in butt- Visual inspection of the form in which the bead is created can
welding provide an indication of weld quality. However, such evaluation
requires sound, appropriate, practical and theoretical expertise
about the welding process.
Bending radius In bending pipe, certain bending radius should not be exceeded
(See Specification Manual table 6.3)
Brackets Brackets (See Specification Manual paragraph 6.7) have the
task of transferring the effective loads on the pipe system to the
building structure or infra structure.
Building connections Connections of building can be exposed to settling, which can
be compensated by creating deformable zones.
Burning behaviour Plastics are organic compounds and therefore combustible by
nature.
Butt-welding equipment The principle pieces of butt-welding equipment are: plane (in
pipe construction machines), hot plate, clamping tool and
hydraulic unit. Construction site (portable, e.g. trench welding
machines) and workshop machinery (stationary welding
machines) may be used. Construction-site machines are
increasingly being converted to CNC controlled machines (fully
automatic), which enable the construction-site operation to

ensure reproducibility of welding joints and the automatic
production of reports
Compensation for length The inclusion of elbows, expansion couplers or compensators
changes can compensate for length changes.
Compensators Compensators are used if other compensation options cannot or
can only be partially applied. The design depends on operating
pressure and temperature. Axial, lateral and angular
compensators are used.
Concrete-encased pipe Concrete-encased pipe systems function as a fixed restraint.
systems Fittings behave in concrete as fixed points and are therefore also
subject to the same stresses, which means that any heat stresses
must be absorbed and compensated for in the pipe system.
Connection method In plastic pipe construction, there are two types of connecting
technologies: detachable and non-detachable.
Creep tensile test The creep tensile test is used to determine the creep modulus.
Detachable connection Detachable connections, like flange joints and unions can be
technology easily disassembled and re-assembled without destroying the
connection.
Elasticity modulus (Creep The elasticity modulus is the ratio of stress to expansion.
modulus)
Elastomers Elastomers are better known as rubber. They are wide-meshed,
spaciously interlinked synthetic or natural rubber compounds.
Interlinking is enhanced by vulcanisation.
Elbow Elbows (expansion bends) absorb length changes by moving
laterally perpendicular to the expansion direction. Depending on
structural and spatial conditions, they can be U, L or Z shaped.
Electrofusion Electrofusion is a practice also known as electric "sleeve" or
"saddle" welding. The joining of the welding mates is effected
by an electrofusion coupling on the inside of which an
integrated heating coil (electrical resistance coil) is charged
with current during the welding process and is heated as a result
of its electrical resistance. As a consequence, the surfaces of
both the coupling and the pipe or fitting (i.e. the contact areas)
are plastcised. The process creates a homogeneous jointing
between electrofusion coupling and pipe/fitting.
European standards prEN 15014 Pressure Drainage & Sewerage is the harmonised
European standard for buried or aboveground pressure facilities
for general purpose water, drainage, sewerage and irrigation, as
well as for any other pressure applications involving other
fluids. National standards have been revised in order to comply
with European standards.
Evaluating welded joints Visual inspection is a non-destructive method of evaluating
welds frequently employed in practice. This evaluation is
primarily concerned with appearance (e.g. welding bead of butt-
welding). It is however a type of assessment requiring
theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as appropriate
tester experience. If more accurate indications of weld quality
54
are needed, then a more expensive non-destructive (e.g.
ultrasonic or X-ray test) or destructive testing method has to be
adopted.
Expansion couplers Expansion couplers are predominantly employed in pressureless
systems as connection elements and compensation for length
changes.
Extruder An extruder (See Specification Manual paragraph 1.5.1) is
responsible for plasticising raw materials. Used, for example, in
the manufacture of pipes, profiles and plates. Continuous
process.
Extrusion welding Four different variants of extrusion welding (See Specification
Manual paragraph 9.2.4) are used. The individual variants are
different in terms of material supply, type of welding equipment
(e.g. hand extruder) and pressure tool (e.g. plunger, welding
shoe). An extrusion welding extruder generally has the
following elements: plasticising unit, hot gas tool and device for
applying the required welding pressure.
Fixed points Fixed points in association with suitable bracket concepts
prevent shifting or movement of pipe systems.
Flange connections Can be fixed or backing ring connections. Backing ring
connections consist of the components: stub flange, backing
ring and gasket. A combination of stub flange, backing ring,
blind flange and gasket can be used to seal pipes. At higher
loads, backing ring connections are preferable to fixed flange
connections.
General quality controls In connection with general quality controls, relevant tests
should be run to ensure the quality and functionality of the
employed fittings as well as the factory-made or on-site
manufactured pipe systems. Such tests are best served by non-
destructive test procedures.
Gluing Gluing is only very conditionally meaningful and possible as an
appropriate jointing technology for polyolefin materials. A bond
is produced only with special multi-component adhesives.
These glued connections are not at all capable of withstanding
mechanical loads.
Ground water Areas having a high ground water table can load external
overpressure on the pipe system. The same holds true for
concrete-encased pipe systems, which are exposed to short-term
heightened overpressures. Both cases require the calculation of
dent resistance.
Guide brackets (Guide They serve to absorb both vertical and horizontal forces. (See
saddles) Specification Manual paragraph 6.7)
Hand welding The welding tool in which the appropriate nozzle is mounted (in
most cases a round nozzle) is moved in a fanning motion over
the surfaces to be welded. In this way, the substrate and welding
filler are heated until the material in the welding zone is
placticised. The filler (mostly in the form of a rod) is

perpendicularly pressed by hand into the welding zone. The
necessary welding or jointing pressure is applied by pushing
down the welding rod by hand during the welding process.
Appropriate welder skills and abilities are therefore required.
Health assessment of PE The health assessment of plastic is laid down in food legislation
and differs from country to country, making it necessary for
manufacturers to inquire further. In the Netherlands, regulations
have been established to govern substance quantities that can be
present in end products. Authorised Lists have been formulated
containing the materials that meet imposed requirements. PE is
found on these Authorised Lists.
Heat conductivity Variable indicating the capacity of a material to conduct heat.
Filling, reinforcements, auxiliary material and coloring affect
heat conductivity.
Heat expansion coefficient The heat expansion coefficient is an important parameter in
plastics. A statement of this mechanical value is usually
accompanied by an indication of the linear expansion
coefficient () (in literature, this is mostly expressed as the mean
linear longitudinal expansion coefficient ).
Heat resistance This term designates the temperature limits of thermoplastics
under the effects of heat. Testing procedures are Martens, Vicat
and ISO/R 75. No conclusions about working temperatures are
possible.
Heat transfer coefficient This variable is used to calculate the heat transition coefficient.
It depends on the separation plane, geometry and flow speed of
the medium.
Heat transition coefficient The heat transition coefficient (k) provides information about
the insulating capacity of a material.
Hot gas welding Hot gas welding is distinguished into hand welding, speed
technologies welding and extrusion welding. The plasticisation of the
welding zones occurs by heating the welding surfaces (and filler
material) with hot air. For this purpose, hot air is forced through
a nozzle shaped specifically to sufficiently heat and plasticise
the joint surfaces.
Impact resistance Impact resistance is determined by means of the impact flexural
test and the notched impact flexural test (the latter involving
defined notches in the sample). Most important test methods are
the "Charpy" and "Izod" tests.
Injection moulding machine Injection moulding involves a discontinuous manufacturing
process. The screw performs both a rotational and an axial
motion. Important parameters for injection moulding are:
temperature, time and pressure. Process steps are: plasticisation,
injection and cooling.
Internal overpressure Internal overpressure can result in pipe expansion, especially
under the effects of heat. Sudden changes in operation
conditions can cause pressure surges.
Internal pressure creep test Simulates the life expectancy of a plastic pipe under an internal
56
pressure load. The associated reference stress ( ref ) is a function
of the internal pressure, mean pipe diameter and wall thickness.
It is calculated using the boiler formula.
Internal pressure loads Internal pressure loads create stresses in various directions.
Radial stresses, axial stresses and tangential stresses can occur.
Internal underpressure / Exposed to internal underpressure or external overpressure, a
external overpressure pipe will tend to buckle, which means it deviates for its ideal
form (circular cross section). The critical buckle pressure
should be calculated with regard to stability.
Length change The length change of a pipe system is caused by varying
operating temperatures, varying ambient temperatures or
internal pressure loads. Frequently, several of these influences
are superposed.
Maximum operating pressure The internal pressure load capacity was formerly used to
(MOP) designate the nominal pressure "PN" of pipes and fit tings. In
the European standards, the designation has been abandoned
and replaced by (SDR) or (ISO-S).
Melt index The melt index indicates the flow capacity of a plasticised
plastic. Previously known as the MFI value, it is now referred to
as the MFR value.
Minimum required strength The minimum required strength corresponds to the reference
(MRS) stress ( ref ) of water at 20°C and a service life of 50 years.
Non-detachable connection Disassembly usually involves destruction of at least one of the
technology connecting elements. Examples are butt-welding and
electrofusion.
Notch effect The notch effect affects the strength of the component.
Grooves, scratches, inhomogenities or a component's structural
form can have adverse affects on the fittings.
Orientation Alignment of the macromolecules by external forces (e.g.
extraction speed).
PE welding Welding is for plastic pipe systems and equipment construction
a common jointing technology. PE pipe systems are
prominently jointed by butt-welding and electrofusion method.
Permeation Diffusion tendency of a material, which is the permeability of
fluids or gaseous elements through the plastic.
Pipe bending Pipe bending is usually caused by the dead weight of the pipe
and/or additionally incorporated valves and pipe fill. The
relevant bracket distances (support distances) must therefore be
determined and the suitable pipe brackets incorporated.
Pipe series number (ISO-S) The pipe series number (ISO-S) indicates the internal pressure
load capacity of a pipe, while taking a safety factor into
account.
Plastic Plastic is divisible into three main groups: thermoplastics,
thermosets and elastomers.
Plastic processing machines Extruders, injection moulding machines and calendars (not
discussed in the Akatherm Specification manual and website)

are machines used to manufacture plastic semi-finished
products.
Polyethylene Polyethylene is abbreviated "PE". PE is a semi-crystalline
thermoplastic belonging to the polyolefin group. Depending on
the average molar mass, the compound produced may be PE-
LD (low density PE), PE-LLD (linear low density PE), PE-MD
(medium density PE) and PE-HD (high density PE).
Polyolefin This compound belongs to the group of semi-crystalline
thermoplastics. Its most important representatives are
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP).
Pressure test The pressure test is only used for pressure pipe systems. It
verifies both internal pressure stability and the leak-tightness of
the system. Pressure tests consist of two test stages: the pre-test
and the main test. In exceptional cases, a short-term test can be
urn on pipe systems in which d e 50 mm and pipe length is a
max. 100 m.
Protective measures for They are used to improve the insulation properties of pipe
above ground pipe systems systems. The use of concomitant heating is necessary in many
cases. Protective measure may also be taken against UV
radiation.
Push-fit and expansion These are simple detachable connections. However, they should
sockets only be used in pressureless (under and overpressure free) pipe
systems. They are therefore appropriate for pressureless
drainage and/or sewerage systems.
Push-fit socket end thrust Plug and socket type water jointing system with push fit joints.
bearing A tough thermoplastic 'grip' ring located in a tapered groove
allows the joint to resist end-thrust. It is quick and easy to
install. No anchors or thrust blocks required. Suitable for
ground subsidence areas and to limited space installation.
Immediately serviceable.
Railway traffic loads The national guidelines for installation under railways and
(railway crossings) railway facilities as well as for railway crossings need to be
taken in account.
Residual after-pressure stress Phenomenon in injection moulding components. Residual after-
pressure stress can also occur in extrusion components when,
for example, after pressure has to be used in manufacturing
solid bars to prevent bubbles and cavities.
Residual crystallisation This occurs in semi-crystalline plastics (e.g. PE) due to
stress crystallite formation during the cooling phase.
Residual orientation stress Dependent on cooling conditions. Increasing cooling speed
raises the stress potential in pipes.
Residual stress During an extrusion process, residual stresses build up in pipes
as a result of cooling procedures at high extraction speeds, for
example. These stresses can be reduced in pipes by adopting
special temperature controls or heat treatments (tempering).
Retraction Retraction designates a longitudinal contraction (negative
length change) in the direction in which the macro molecules
58
are oriented.
Safety factor (SF) The safety factor (SF) corresponds to the aggregate pipe
coefficient (C).
Seals Seals are needed to seal connections between two connecting
elements. In the flange connections used in plastic pipe
construction, flat gaskets (with and without steel inlays) and O-
rings are mostly used. The material of the seal is adaptable to
the flow medium.
Short-term tensile test The short-term tensile test involves stretching a sample bar to
the breaking point. The result provides an indication of the
mechanical values of the tested material. The most important
mechanical values are: expansion, tensile strength, breaking
strength and breaking strain.
Shrinkage In contrast to retraction, shrinkage designates a volume
contraction (negative volume change) as a result of cooling
processes. In contrast to retraction, a volume change is
discernible in every plastic component. These volume changes
are seen in the fitting structure and in the die or mould structure.
Sliding and hanging brackets They are only able to absorb vertical forces.
(sliding and hanging bracket
sleeves)
Soil load The soil layer on top of the pipe loads weight on the pipe and
can cause it to deform. This load therefore has a significant
effect on the pipe structure and the service life of the pipe.
Speed welding The heating of the substrate and filler occurs by means of the
beak-shaped tip at the lower end of the speed-welding nozzle.
The necessary welding pressure is applied by this nozzle.
Standard dimension ratio The Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) indicates the relationship
(SDR) of the pipe outside diameter to wall thickness.
Surface hardness Designates the resistance against the penetration of the test
specimen. Most important procedures are Shore A, Shore D and
ball indentation hardness.
Temperature loads Temperature loads have a very large effect on the mechanical
properties of plastic pipe. Attention is first of all to be paid to
the relatively large thermal length change.
Tempering Heat treatment to reduce or eliminate residual stress potentials.
Tensile and compressive They are created during pipe manufacture due to differing
stresses on the pipe wall cooling conditions. Compressive stresses arise in the outer wall
of the pipe (usually the first surface to cool) and tensile stresses
on the warmer inner wall of the pipe.
Testing welds A distinction is made between destructive and non-destructive
tests. Destructive test methods are chiefly used to evaluate cases
involving damage claims.
Thermoplastics Thermoplastics can be divided into amorphous and semi-
crystalline thermoplastics.
Thermosets Thermosets possess a close-meshed interlinked macromolecular

structure. They are hard, brittle and no longer plasticisable
(meltable).
Tools used in extrusion Work performed in extrusion welding makes use of a hand or
welding stationary extruder with swivel head and transfer hose.
Traffic loads Traffic loads are additional external loads that can affect the
pipe system. They require special protective measures. If the
prescribed minimum soil layer over the pipe is not maintained,
protective pipes may have to be installed
Trench form, pipe Pipe trench design substantially influences the bearing capacity
embedding and backfill and stability of a pipe system, and therefore has a large
influence on the service life of the system.
Unions Unions are quick connection devices. They are detachable
connections and enable simple assembly, disassembly and re-
assembly without special implements and tools.
Valve fixing Valve fixings not only serve as support for valves but prevent
the transfer of reaction forces.
Water absorption Many plastics tend to absorb water (swelling). This means that
the stability of the plastic is no longer assured. PE has hardly
any tendency to absorb water.
Weld preparation Weld preparation is extremely important in all welding
procedures. It has a significant effect on the quality of the weld
and should therefore be undertaken with utmost care.
Welding Welding is one of the most commonly used jointing
technologies in plastic pipe construction. Various plastic
welding procedures are used to manufacture fittings from pipes
and pipe segments, joints made of pieces of pipe, as well as
plastic shafts, tanks and other special components. Welding
processes are non-detachable connection technologies.
Welding property of PE100 Demonstrated by extensive research: no problems have been
shown to arise in welding PE80 to PE100 pipe elements of
identical SDR values. Welding can therefore be done without
restriction.
Welding shoe / pressure tool A welding shoe or pressure tool has an effect on the appearance,
formal possibilities and quality of the weld. This equipment is
manufactured and adjusted in accordance with the desired seam
width and form. The welding shoe has the function of evenly
distributing the molten material produced in extrusion into the
joint and applying the appropriate welding pressure.
60
4 Basics of heated tool butt welding (1
hr)
4.1 Generals
Butt-welding is an economical and reliable way of joining without using additional
components requiring only butt-welding equipment.
Butt-fusion joining is a thermofusion process which involves the simultaneous heating of the
ends of two components which are to be joined until a melt state isattained on each contact
surface. The two surfaces are then brought together under controlled pressure for a specific
cooling time and homogeneous fusion is formedupon cooling. The resultant joint is resistant
to end thrust and has comparable performance under pressure to the pipe.
Figure 4-1 : Butt welding process principle

4.2 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations
• Establish a work space where the joining can be done without being effected by major
weather conditions.
• Verification if there is sufficient fuel for the generator to complete the joint and if it
iscorrectly functioning before being connected to the machine.
• Checking if the equipment functions properly. Welding equipment used on site deserves
special attention.
• Tests to reveal if the machining tool and hydraulic pump are in working order.
• Verification of the heater plate, if its clean and residues from previous welds have been
removed. If not, ít should be cleaned before each joining operation with a non clotted
paper and suitable cleaner
• Verification of the existence of a tent that could be used to provide shelter during welding.
• Checking if the machine is complete and undamaged.
• Checking the chosen welding parameters, if they ar correct for the machine and for the
pipe that will bewelded.
• Cecking if the heater element reached the correct temperature. (Connect the heater plate to
the power supply and retain for at least 20 minutes inside the thermally insulated guard).
The temperature of the heating element has to be between 190°C and 220°C. For lower
thicknesses higher temperatures are recommended. The maximum deviations can be found
in the next table.
Used surface of heating element for welding ΔT tot

Diameter d 1
d 1 = 40-160 8oC
d 1 = 200-315 10oC
The temperature of the heating element needs to be checked at several spots on the heating
element. Checking if the real temperature is the set one by using the thermostat or by
using different thermal measuring sticks or thermometers.
To remove dirt deposits, the heating element may be washed, when cold,with large
quantities of clean water at the start of the joining session. Only clean with lint free
materials. To remove grease and oily films the plate may be wiped with lint free material
dampened by a suitable solvent, eg. Isopropanol.
• Check that the pipes and/or fittings to be joined are of the same size, SDR and material.
62
4.3 Dummy Welds
Even though washing may remove large deposits of dirt, very fine particles of dust may still
remain on the heating element. To remove such dust it is necessary to make a dummy joint at
the start of each joining session, whenever the plate has been allowed to cool below 180°C, or
at a change of pipe size. Two dummy joints will be made if the pipe size is greater than
180mm. A dummy joint can be made using pipe off cuts of the same size, SDR and material
as the pipe being installed, It is not necessary to actually make a joint. The procedure can be
discontinued after the full heat cycle.
4.4 The Welding procedure

The welding procedure is performed under the cyclogramm from figure 4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Welding process cycle
64
a. Fixing the pipes
Place the pipes in the clamps with the ends against the machining tool and with the pipe
markings aligned.The fittings and or pipes need to be aligned in the welding machine to avoid
sagging in the pipe-wall.
Align and level the components using the support rollers.
Tighten the pipe clamps to gripand re-round the pipes.
Cover the free ends of the pipes to prevent cooling of the plate by internal draughts.
b. Machining the ends of the pipes
Switch on the machining tool and close the clamps slowly so that the pipe ends are moved
against the machining tool until continuous shavings are cut from each surface.
Figure 4-2 : Machining of the pipes’ ends
Keep the machining tool turning whilst opening the clamps to avoid steps on the trimmed
surfaces.
Remove the machining tool taking care not to touch the trimmed ends.
Remove loose shavings from the machine and component ends.
Check that both surfaces are completely planed. If they are not then repeat the machining
process.
Close the clamps and check that there is no visible gap between the trimmed faces.The
maximum permitted outsider diameter mismatch is:
• 1.0mm for pipe sizes 90mm to315mm
• 2,0mm for pipe sizes 316mm to800mm,
If the mismatch is greater than these values then the pipe must be realigned and re-trimmed.
66
Make sure that once the pipe and/or fitting ends have been machined, they do not get dirty.
Do not touch them with your hands. The surface needs to be clear of oil, grease and dirt.
c. Preheating under pressure
Open and then close the clamps and note the drag pressure needed to move the pipes together
using the hydraulic system.
Drag pressure is the minimum gauge pressure required to overcome the sliding frictional drag
on the rams due to the operation of the machine and the weight of the pipes/fittings being
jointed.
The drag pressure (in bar) must be assessed accurately prior to making each fusion joint and
must be added to the basic ram pressure values shown on the machine. (When fully automatic
machines are used this operation will normally be carried out automatically.)
Remove the heater plate from its protective cover. Check that it is clean and up to
temperature.
Place the heater plate in the machine and close the clamps so that the surfaces to be joined are
touching the plate. Using the hydraulic system, apply the pressure previously determined.
Figure 4-3 : Heating under pressure
Maintain the applied pressure until the pipe begins to melt and a uniform bead of 2-3mm is
formed on each end.
d. Heating under low pressure
Polymers are good insulators, therefore it is necessary that the correct heating depth of the
pipe ends is obtained. Because of that, after the initial bead up, the pressure in the hydraulic
system shall be released so that the pressure gauge registers between zero and the drag

pressure so as to control the bead growth during the heat soak time. Only a small amount of
pressure 0,01 N/mm2 is required to maintain the contact of the ends with the heating element.
Figure 4-4 : Heating without pressure
The heat will gradually spread through the pipe/fitting end. The size of the bead will increase
a little. Check that the pipe does not slip in the clamps. The pipe ends must maintain contact
with the heater plates.
e. Removing the heating tool
When the heat soak time is completed, open the clamps and remove the heater plate ensuring
that the plate does not touch the melted surfaces. Immediately close the clamps (within 8 to
10 seconds of removing the plate) and bring the melted surfaces together at the previously
determined pressure. Do not push the ends abruptly onto each other.
The removal of the heating element needs to be done quickly to prevent the ends from cooling
down.
f. Welding and cooling
After the joining areas have made contact they should be joined gradually with increase in
pressure up to the specified value. The building-up of pressure should be done linearily and
not differ more than 0,01 N/mm2.When the buildup occurs too fast the plastic material will be
pushed away. When the pressure buildup is too slow the material cools down. In both cases
the quality of the weld is questionable.
Keep the specified welding pressure at a constant level during the complete cooling period.
68
Figure 4-5 : Welding
There must not be any load or strain at the joint and it should be allowed to cool naturally.
After this time the assembly can be removed from the machine but should not be handled for
a further period equal to the cooling times.
g. Visual examination of the weld
Examine the joint for cleanliness and uniformity and check that the bead width is within the
specified limits.
Remove the external bead and if required the internal beads using suitable debeading tools.
The beads and joint shall be numbered/coded using an indelible marker pen.
Twist the beads at several positions. If the bead is seen to split at any point then the joint must
be cut out from the pipeline and remade. If a similar defecte occurs, cease all further joining
until the equipment has been thoroughly cleaned, examined and new trial joints were made
and shown to be satisfactory.
P(bar)
P1 P3
P2
t(s)
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Figure 4-6 : Welding parameters on the welding cycle diagramm

The main welding parameters used in butt welding with heating element are:
- Temperature of the heating element (T)

- Time for removing the heating element (t 3 )
- Time for heating under high pressure (t 1 )
- Time for heating without pressure (t 2 )
- Time for increasing the welding pressure (t 4 )
- Time for welding (t 5 )
- Cooling time (t 6 )
- Heating pressures (P 1 , P 2 )
- Welding pressure (P 3 )
a) Temperature of the heating element (T) - is the temperature at which the components
will be heated and maintained. It is not allowed to exceed the thermal degradation temperature
of the polymer so as not to cause structural changes in the joint with direct consequences for
its mechanical resistance. As the temperatura of the heating element increases, the mechanical
strength of the seam decreases.
b) Heating time (t 1 , t 2 ) determines the amount of heat introduced into the material. The size
of the heating time is determined by the thickness of components.
The higher heating time (t 1 , t 2 ) inside appropriate limits, the greater the amount of molten
plastic which results in a significant increase in resistance welded.
However, longer heating times can have negative repercussions , due to the resulting excess
of molten material. During welding, the material is removed from the joint which leads to
putting in contact cold surfaces.The time for heating under pressure (t 1 ) is chosen based on
the height of the initial training ring of molten material (values in the tables).
c) Removing heater time (t 3 ) is the time elapsed since reducing the pressure to zero, removal
of the components and removal of the heating element, until bringing back the pipes into
contact. Experience has shown that this time should be as small as not to produce too much
cooling of heated surfaces.
70
d) Rising time of welding pressure from zero to (P 3 ) must be respected, so that molten
thermoplastic material to gradually repressed, resulting in a seam with the desired geometric
features. If it’s too low, it can lead to an expulsion of the molten material from the joint.
e) Welding time (t 5 ) refers to the cooling under pressure of the weld. This parameter must be
wide enough to accomodate a proper cooling of the seam.
f) Heating pressure (P 1 ) provides proper contact between the surfaces that are brought into
contact with the heating element.
g) Maintaining pressure (P 2 ) is about 10% of P 1 .
h) Pressure Welding (P 3 ) results in good achievement of seam. It is chosen according to the

size of the surface subjected to weld. It should be not too large in order to prevent massive
expulsion of material from the joint, resulting directly in welded joints with large burrs and
possessing poor mechanical characteristics.
As general recommendation, it is necessary to avoid to:

• Attempt to weld together pipes of different SDR (wall thickness).
• Touch trimmed pipe ends.
• Leave machining swarf inside pipe or on welding machine.
• Allow equipment to get wet or dusty.
• Use non-approved machinery.
• Remove a weld from the machine before cooling time has elapsed.
• Allow untrained personnel to use welding equipment.

• Cut corners in any part of the welding procedure.
• Weld pipes of different material on site.
• Use a generator of inadequate capacity
.

Welding parameters. Weldingtemperature: 195˚C to220˚C
72
4.5 Welding Equipment
Heating element welding equipment generally consists of the following main parts:
a) Frameworks;
b) Fixing jaws with interchangeable reducers for standard pipe diameters;
c) System to assure the necessary pressure (mechanical system or hydraulic unit or
compressed air system);
d) Machining tool (milling cutter/trimmer)
e) System to drive the heating element - some mechanized equipment;
f) PTFE- coated heating element with uniform surface temperature;
g) Command and control system.
a. Mechanized equipment
b. Manually equipment
74
Figure 4-7 : Welding equipment
a) The framework of the welding equipment is the structure of the equipment, mounted on
different other parts of the equipment. It is done according to the destination and it is built in
modular structures.
Figure 4-8 : Frameworks
b) Fixing elements are interchangeable jaws, for each standard pipe diameter, and the fixing
system is based on mechanical clamping.
Figure 4-9 : Interchangeable jaws
c) pressure to the stages of heating, maintenance and welding is done using hydraulics.

a.
b.
c.
Figure 4-10 : Different systems to assure pressure (a. manually, b. mechanically, c.

pneumatically)
76
d) The milling cutter assures proper processing of the ends of the pipes. It provide
simultaneous machining of the both surfaces that will participate to the welding process.
Figure 4-11 : Milling cutter
e) Some mechanized welding equipment (FUSION) heating element is fixed in the welding
equipment with a device so that after the end of the heating element enables automatic
removal of heating components.
Figure 4-12 : Devices to move the heating tool

f) Heating element is usually made of aluminum, aluminum alloy incorporating an electrical
resistor by the current-carrying wire determines the amount of heat required to achieve the
welded joint. It is covered by a PTFE layer to avoid the adherence of the polymer to the
aluminum
Figure 4-13 : Heating element/tool
g) The command and control equipment welding heating element generally meets two distinct
functions:
- Ensure the achievement of the desired work cycle;
- Controls the temperature of the heating element.
Figure 4-14 : Controlling system
78
Other devices to be used in order to help prepare the process are shown in figure 4.15.
Figure 4-15 : Devices to cut the pipes before welding process

Appendix
Welding process steps
Fixing and axing the pipes Machining the end of the pipes
Heating the end of the pipes Removal of the heating element
Pressing together the hot end of the pipes Removal of te joint from the welding device
80
5 Basics of heated tool socket and
saddle welding (1 hrs)
5.1 Principle of the process
As principle, the heating element socket welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface
of the pipes and the interior surface of the fitting, in the areas that will participate to the
welding, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
Figure 5-1 : Principle of the socket welding
The heating element socket welding is recommended for pipe diameters between 16-125 mm
and SDR11,SDR17.
b.
a. outin threedistinct phases c.
The welding is carried (figure 5.2):
a. Heating of the welding components
b. Removing the heating element
c. Welding by putting the welding components in good contact.
In case of the saddle welding, the pipe is drilled before starting the welding process.

a.
b.
Figure 5-2 : Socket welding phases (a.) and saddle welding phases (b.)
82
5.2 Types of polyfusion welding
According to the material size and dimensions of polyfusion welding heating adapters, this
method is broken down into three types, which are distinguished mainly by process of
material preparation. The first two types A and B are basically the same; while type C is
different in principle and comes close to the saddle welding Differences between these types
are as follows:
• Type A – the outside surface of the pipe is not calibrated and welded areas are only
chemically cleaned. Therefore the pipes and shaped pieces must be made with precise
dimensional tolerances allowing heating on heating adapters without any excessive extrusion
of the heated material. This type of polyfusion welding is the most frequented in the Czech
Republic and domestic manufacturers supply practically exclusively plastic pipes and shaped
pieces for type A.
Figure 5-3 : Jaw (one-piece) polyfusion adapter
Figure 5-4 : Twin (segmented) polyfusion adapter
• Type B – calibration of the outside surface of the pipe along the heated area is done by
calibrating tools which cut the oxidised top layer of the pipe, while at the same time ensuring

the removal of excess material and sufficient circularity of the pipe for the future joint. It is
mainly used for welding pipes having small circular stability, e.g. made of polybutene
Figure 5-5 : Calibrating tool
• Type C – polyfusion saddle welding of branch pipes onto pipes from 50 mm in diameter,
when the shaped piece is shaped like a saddle copying the pipe surface for welding and socket
for polyfusion welding in pipe’s drilled hole. Hot bodies are adapted by their shape to heat the
part of the pipe’s surface and saddle with socket of the shaped piece being welded. Prior to
welding, the pipe is drilled through by a special forming drill in the place of the welded
branch pipe. These way additional branches are mounted on pipeline distributions.
Note: Type C is not defined in DVS directives; this has been a corporate name, now generally
used.
Figure 5-6 : Twin (segmented) polyfusion saddle adapters
84
5.3 Welding Technology
In socket welding, welded joints are between the outer surface of the pipe and the inner of the
socket. Heating components is performed using a pair of interchangeable profiles that are
mounted on the heating element.
The active surfaces of these profiles are covered by a layer of PTFE, and they are sized after
the diameter of welding components.
The main technological parameters that are used in the socket welding are:
- Temperature of the heating element
- Time for heating
-Time for removal of the heating elementsand for putting in contact the welding components
-Time for introduction thepipe into thesocket
-Time for Welding– cooling.
5.3.1 Preparation before welding process

This phase consists of several steps such as inspection of worksite and welding equipment and
inspection and preparation of material. Requirements for the suitability of piping material for
welding are given in generally applicable standards for welding plastics.
The condition of anti-adhesive layer of welding adapters and intactness of feeder cables is
checked at the welding equipment. Then the surface of active areas is cleaned and degreased.
After the temperature of hot bodies has settled, the temperature of welding adapters is
checked with a self-contained high-speed thermometer. Heating of the welded material may
start not earlier than 10 minutes after the prescribed temperature is attained. Only such
welding equipment may be used, the input of which ensures perfect soaking of welding
adapters, even at lower ambient temperatures. This is usually referred to in the instruction
manuals of welding machines manufacturers. Before welding, the parts being joined must be
tempered to the same temperature. For making a perfect joint, correct measurement of pipe
length is important, as well as vertical cutting, cutting down of the outside edge and marking
of the length of insertion (I) into the heating adapter on the pipe. Working of welded areas
must always be done immediately before the start of welding.

Figure 5-7 : Preparation of the end of the pipe
Pipe diameter Calibration diameter Calibration length

d n (mm) d l (mm) l – min. values
16 15,90 ± 0,05 13
20 19,90 ± 0,05 14
25 24,90 ± 0,05 16
32 31,90 ± 0,05 18
40 39,85 ± 0,10 20
50 49,85 ± 0,10 23
63 62,80 ± 0,15 27
75 74,80 ± 0,15 31
90 89,80 ± 0,15 35
110 109,75 ±0,20 41
125 124,75 ± 0,20 44
For certain plastic materials (piping or shaped pieces) a different dimension can be
determined by the manufacturer for working the pipe ends than given in tables for A type.
These are mostly other materials than polypropylene or polyethylene, e.g. for polybutene
where working is done according to the instructions of the manufacturer of piping and shaped
pieces. For PVDF, DVS 2207 Part 15 mentions only slightly different insertion depth. The
same case is with shaped pieces made according to the old ČSN standard, when non-standard
polyfusion welding adapters must be used that are manufactured for these shaped pieces,
because values mentioned here for A type are based on DIN standard under which pipes and
shaped pieces are manufactured also in the Czech Republic.
For B welding procedure, the calibration of the pipe’s outside surface along the heated part is
made and therefore it is not necessary to mark the depth of insertion, because this is given by
working the pipe in the length (l). Calibration tools for various pipe diameters serve for this
purpose.
Pipes must be worked evenly along the whole diameter of the pipe and without sharp notch at
the end of the part being worked.
86
Special calibration tools must be used for multi-jacket pipes and pipes with reinforcing metal
foil that enable working, including cutting of metal foils or metal jacket according to the pipe
manufacturer’s instructions. Calibration is done manually or by machine.
Preparation and working of the pipe surface for polyfusion C type welding proceeds
according to the pipe manufacturer’s instructions.
Before starting welding is necessary to proceed:
- Checking the integrity of the Teflon coating on the surface of the heating element. If it is
damaged it will proceed to repair or to replacement. Avoid it to come into contact with
objects (metal, etc.). That could damage the layer of Teflon. In this respect, to avoid soiling or
damage to, heating element is kept out of working time in specific protective support.
- Clean teflon-coated active surfaces of heating element with a soft paper soaked in a suitable
solvent (technical alcohol);
- Verifying the cutter knives - be sharp;
- Check equipment guides - are clean;
- Check the temperature of the heating element, at least once a day, before starting work
program. It is recommended to check the maintenance and uniformity of surface temperature
heating element.The temperature of various points on the surface heating element will be
measured with a contact thermometer. Measurements started after stabilization of heating
element temperature (at approx. 15 minutes) after the green light indicates that the desired
temperature is reached. There are not allowed variations in temperature with
differenceshigher than the set one ± 5oC.
- Before carrying out each welded joints, heater element is cleaned with a soft paper soaked in
a suitable solvent (technical alcohol).
5.3.2 Heating
The heating phase starts with slipping the pipe and shaped piece over the welding adapter
without turning, i.e. by applying uniform pressure, inserting the pipe into the heating
adapter’s opening until the insertion depth mark (l) and the shaped piece on the adapter’s pin.
After insertion of both parts, the heating takes place for a time period limited according to the
applicable welding tables. When molten material begins to appear, approx.1-2mm at the site
of contact between the pipe socket and heating profiles, components are extracted
simultaneously from the heating profiles. Pipe is inserted into the socket up to the mark and

maintained this position without movement relative to each other and keeping the axiality of
both elements until cooled.
5.3.3 Transposition
In the transposition phase both heated parts are removed from the heating adapter and put
close to each other to be prepared for joining as quickly as possible. Time referenced in the
tables is maximum time, so it cannot be prolonged.
5.3.4 Joining and fixation

The previous phase is immediately followed by the joining phase - fixation when again
without turning the parts against each other, we push uniformly the pipe into the conical
socket of the shaped piece. The conical socket of the shaped piece helps to generate the
pressure of materials against each other.
Over the period of fixation, the parts are maintained in their final position. It is possible,
immediately after inserting the pipe into the shaped piece and only in manual welding, to
make the axial adjustment of parts, but not by turning the parts in the joint. The joint must
have signs of a correctly made weld with two abutting collars of melt along the perimeter.
The pipe is not inserted inside as far as the shaped piece backstop or fold over the backstop,
because there must remain a gap in the socket between the backstop and the pipe’s end of 1 to
2 mm for the material collar. If the collar overflows inside the shaped piece, the flow capacity
in the place of joint is thus lowered.
In the case of the saddle welding, the connections with diameters of 20, 25, 32, 40 mm can be
welded manually.The heating element is pressed on the pipe casing (p = 0.15 N/mm2)
following its placing on the entire surface and then pressing the saddle connection surface
heating profile corresponding to its emergence to a ring of molten material approx. 1-2mm.
After that the saddle and the pipe are removed from the heating element. The heated surfaces
are put in contactand pressed one to the other with a perpendicular to the pipe axis force. The
force push will continue until the welded joints made cool (approx. 40oC).
5.3.5 Cooling
The phase of cooling, during which the joint must not be subject to strain and must cool down
naturally in a fixed position, takes place in minutes compared to other phases. However, the
prescribed time period is minimum and so it cannot be shortened.
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5.4 Polyfusion welding parameters
Parameters for polyfusion welding - temperature, pressure, and time - are given for individual
materials separately.
Common principles must be followed for all materials, especially the welding temperature
requirements:
– For larger pipe diameters, lower welding temperature within the above range is chosen, with
a possibility to prolong the time of heating leading to perfect soaking of welded parts.
– For small diameters, higher temperature from the given temperature range is chosen and the
time of heating gets shorter to avoid the collapse of the thin wall of the pipe.
– For welding at ambient temperatures lower than 10°C, it is forbidden to increase the
temperature of the welding adapter. After the required temperature and depth of material
soaking is attained, it is possible to slightly extend the time of heating.
The alteration of welding parameters is suggested by a technologist or plastics welding
specialist or may be given in the welding procedure specification (WPS). The welder enters
the actually used parameters into the welding protocol.
5.4.1 Indicative values for PE and PP according to DVS 2207 – Parts 1

and 11
Hot body temperature:

PE-LD .................................................... 190–200 °C
PE-HD (PE-MD).................................… 250–270 °C
PP-H, PP-B, PP-R .................................. 250–270 °C
Note:
1) DVS does not define the hot body temperature for PE-LD. The above-mentioned temperature is based on
recommendations of the material producers.
2) In the Czech Republic, the temperature range for PE-HD is sometimes given as must be slightly prolonged.
1 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) forPN 103 PN 6 (s) (min)
SDR2) 11 SDR2) 17, 66
16 5 4 6 2
20 5 4 6 2
1)
25 7 4 10 2
1)
32 8 6 10 4
1)
40 12 6 20 4

1)
50 18 6 20 4
1)
63 24 8 30 6
75 30 15 8 30 6
90 40 22 8 40 6
110 50 30 10 50 8
125 60 35 10 60 8
1) Regarding the thickness of the walls, which is too small, this welding procedure cannot be recommended.
2) Standard Dimension Ratio ~ d n /e n
3) With PP, the values for PN 10 apply also for PN 16 and PN 20.
5.4.2 Indicative values for PB according to the Pipe-Life corporate

literature

PB...........................250–270 °C
1 1a 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Minimum wall Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n thickness (mm) (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) (s) (min)
16 2.0 5
20 2,2 6 4 15 2
25 2,36
5.4.3 Indicative values for PVDF according to DVS 2207 – Part 15

PVDF .......................250–270 °C
1 1a 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Minimum wall Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n thickness (mm) (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) (s) (min)
16 1,5 4
20 1,9 6 4 6 2
25 1,9 8
32 2,4 10
40 2,4 12 4 12 4
50 3,0 18
63 20
75 3,0 22 6 18 6
90 25
110 3,0 30 6 24 8
90
5.5 Technological conditions after welding
After welding, it is necessary to observe conditions which greatly influence the weld quality,
i.e. spontaneous natural cooling without cold water or air or immediate priming of the
distribution system by cold water, which causes constant mechanical stressing of pipes.
Orientation time intervals for priming the pipes with water after the last weld at pipe’s
diameters:
16, 20, 25, 32 mm......................................... 60 min
40, 50, 63, 75 mm......................................... 90 min
90, 110, 125 mm ........................................ 120 min
5.6 Procedural mistakes in polyfusion welding

The list of mistakes in polyfusion welding briefly advises of possible irregularities leading to
weld defects:
– Bad selection of material and quality of parts being welded
– Wrong marking of the length of pipe insertion into the heating adapter (does not match with
the depth of the shaped piece socket)
– Insufficient cleaning of welded areas before welding
– Incorrectly set welding temperature
– Misaligned fitting of the pipe and shaped piece on the polyfusion adapter at heating
– Incorrect time of the pipe and shaped piece heating
– turning of the pipe and shaped piece on the adapter while being heated
– exceeding the time of transposition
– Insufficient fixation of parts after joining
– turning of the pipe in the shaped piece during joining and fixation
– Rapid cooling of weld immediately after welding – accelerated crystallisation, the weld gets
brittle
– The weld is subject to mechanical strain immediately after welding
– Immediate priming of the distribution system with pressure water.

5.7 Welding equipment
Generally, the welding equipment for socket welding comprises the following main parts:
- Basic car;
- Heating element,
- Mills (scraper manual);
- Interchangeable jaws.
a. b.
Figure 5-8 : Equipment for socket and saddle welding (a. for large diameters and b. for
low diameters)
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6 Application of heated tool welding (1
hrs)
6.1 Effect of material
Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature T g , specific for
each one—the midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp melting point of a pure
crystalline substance like water.
Below a second, higher melting temperature, T m , also the midpoint of a range, most
thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous regions in which the
chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the
crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for non-thermoplastic
fibrous proteins such as silk. (Elasticity does not mean they are particularly stretchy; e.g.,
nylon rope and fishing line.) Above T m all crystalline structure disappears and the chains
become randomly inter dispersed. As the temperature increases above T m , viscosity gradually
decreases without any distinct phase change.
During exploitation thermoplastics present the following advantages:
Main characteristics
- High temperature stability - Resistance to electrochemical corrosion
- Hygienic and environmental - Low thermal conductivity: λ=0,23W/mK
friendliness
- No siltation - Resistance to stray electric currents
- Easy and clean installation, easy - High heat insulating
welding
- High sound insulating - High impact rate
- Chemical resistance - Low loss of pressure
- Recyclable - Light weight
6.2 Welding of sheet and pipe

Because of that application of welded polymers is extensive. As already presented in figure
1.2 packaging has 35% of the welded polymers market, followed by the building and
construction domain with 23%, transportation, electrical and furniture each with about 8%,
agriculture, medical toy and sports each with up to 3% and else.
Agriculture and Agribusiness

• Polymeric materials are used in and on soil to improve aeration, provide mulch, and
promote plant growth and health.
Medicine
• Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacements and blood vessels, are made of
polymers like Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.
Consumer Science
• Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light weight and economically less expensive
than the more traditional containers. Clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal bags, and
packaging are other polymer applications.
Industry
• Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives, matrix for composites, and elastomers are all
polymer applications used in the industrial market.
A report published today shows a steady increase in the use of plastics by Europe’s car
manufacturing industry since the 1970s, rising to nearly two million tonnes today.
By volume, plastics are now the most widely specified material. However, plastics’ low
weight means they account for about 10 per cent of the total weight of a modern car.
The study, carried out by Mavel on behalf of the Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe (APME), examines the use of plastics in cars over the last three decades in Europe
with specific reference to France, Germany and Italy.
The report shows that this increase in the use of plastics is particularly dramatic in certain
types of cars. For example, some of the cars surveyed registered a four-fold increase in their
use of plastics between the 1970s and 1990s.
It is estimated that, on average, 100 kilograms of plastics replaces 200-300 kilograms of
conventional material, reducing fuel consumption by 750 litres over a life span of 150 000
kilometres.
Sports
• Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets
are often produced from polymers.
Piping is probably the most interesting application. Welded thermoplastics are used in:
94
• Cold and hot water supply systems
• Potable water supply systems
• Waste water transportation
• Heating systems
• Central air conditioning systems
• Water circulating and water supply systems in swimming pools
• Natural gas transportation
for both transportation and distribution.
a.

b.
Figure 6-1 : On site welding of piping system
Specific polymers, like PE, PP and PVC are mostly used for pipes, fittings and accessories of
the piping systems, in following sizes and with following parameters (but not exclusive):
• PN10 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold water transportation and floor
heating
• PN16 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold and hot water transportation and
floor heating
• PN20 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for hot water transportation and central
heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PPR multilayer composite pipes with
diameter range Ø20-75mm for cold and hot water transportation and central heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PE-RT multilayer composite pipes with
• PN20 polymer composite pipes with diameter range Ø20-63mm for cold and hot water
transportation and central heating
96
• PN20 fittings and fittings with nickel-plated brass threaded inserts and cap nuts with
diameter range Ø16-160mm
• PN20 ball valves and stop valves
Estimated service life of the polymers piping systems is over 50 years and subject to proper
installation and maintaining of material’s characteristics. Short time peak temperatures up to
100 ºС are possible.
Long time usage of piping system at temperatures ranging from 70ºС to 90ºС reduces its
service life.

Figure 6-2 : Estimated life for a polymer pipe
98
6.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding
Usually, because of the economical meanings, but for technical as well, up to 60 (75) mm it is
recommended to use socket welding when butt welding pipes. Up to 60 mm the socket is not
very expensive, but brings more safety in work.
Higher than 60 mm the socket becomes exensive enough to be used only in specific
application that require supplementary safety work assurance.

7 Testing heated tool welds and joints
(1 hr)
7.1 Generals
Welded joints are potential sites of weakness in a plastic structure. Consequently, it is
important to be able to show that a welded joint is fit for purpose. This can be achieved by
appropriate mechanical testing techniques. There are several standard test methods for welded
plastics joints. Many of these methods were developed by the plastic pipe industry as quality
control techniques for welding processes. In addition, some standard plastic test methods can
be applied to plastic welds. Some of the more common test methods are summarised below.
Tensile tests
Tensile tests are perhaps the most common methods used to characterise welds. Weld beads
are usually removed in cases where they are removed in service. Typically, a tensile weld
strength of 80-100% of parent material strength is acceptable, depending on the material and
welding process. If failure occurs away from the weld, then a specimen with reduced cross-
sectional area at the weld may be used to optimise welding parameters.
Bend tests
Butt welded joints in plastics may also be assessed using a bend test. Specimens are typically
loaded in three point bending. The weld flash on the face in contact with the centre loading
point is removed prior to testing. The angle at which either fracture occurs or a crack initiates
is recorded. The bend angle and fracture appearance provide a guide to the ductility of the
joint and the weld quality.
Impact tests
The resistance of a material to fracture under dynamic loading is often critical. A

straightforward and cost-effective approach is to use the Charpy test, a semi-quantitative
method that can be used to assess the energy absorbing characteristics of polymer welds. It
100
can sometimes be more useful than tensile tests in distinguishing between different welding
conditions. For example, a joint may show a tensile strength equivalent to its parent material,
whereas the absorbed Charpy impact energy for the weld may be less than 50% of that of the
parent material. However, when applying this test to welded plastics, accurate positioning of
the notch at the weld line is essential. Also, any weld bead present should be removed.
Creep rupture tests
Creep rupture tests can be used to compare the long-term performance of plastic welds with
those of the parent material. Normally, tests are carried out using tensile specimens under a
constant load and elevated temperature and the time to failure is measured. Tests are normally
carried out in water, but a surface-active medium can be used to accelerate failure. Although
more expensive to perform than short-term static tests, creep tests provide more useful
information when designing components which are under constant load.
Fracture mechanics tests
More rigorous fracture mechanics type test methods can be used to quantitatively characterise
plastic welds, but these are not yet fully established and require extremely accurate notch tip
positioning and test procedures. Testing can be conducted under three point bend loading
using a single edge notch bend (SENB) specimen following standard methods for plastic and
metallic parent materials. Some of the more brittle plastics can be characterised using linear
elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). However, many plastics show extensive crack tip
plasticity requiring a more complex elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) analysis.
7.2 Visual inspection

Welding is a special process because of the impossibility to fully evaluate the quality of a
weld without destroying it. In the case of the polymer welding, the visual inspection is the
first and a very important evaluation. Relation between the characteristics of the weld and the
parameters helps in the evaluation. The height and the width of the weld gives good
information on the quality of the weld.
Visual inspection can be applied with or without destroying the weld.
Each joint will be visually inspected to check that:

• Both fusion beads are of the same size and shape and project evenly above the outside
diameter of the pipe.
• The bead width is within the parameters shown in table below.
• There are no cracks in the beads.
• There are no obvious inclusions or other faults present.
h2
h1
b1 b2
B
Figure 7-1 : Visual inspection of the weld

A check sheet must be kept by the welder for each weld to show that the above items have
been checked.
• Visual inspection of welds.
• Welding within agreed welding procedures.
Note: The width of bead is the total width of the bead measured across both pipe ends.
7.3 Bending test

Bending test is performed to evaluate the cracking risk of a welded joint.
102
Standard specimen is bended by pushing with constant force, using specific tool, when the
specimen is leaned on two cylinders. The specimen is extracted from a joint or, for low
diameters is the joint itself. It can be performed by pushing the tool on the root of the weld or
by pushing the tool on the surface of the weld. In the both cases the expulsed material during
welding process is cut away from the surface/root of the pipe.
Figure 7-2 : Bending test principle

The bending is performed to an angle of 180o. During bending test, the initiation of cracks is
continuously checked. The moment (for specific angle) of initiation, the direction of the
propagation and the evolution of the crack dimension are the parameters that give information
on the cracking risk of the joint.
Figure 7-3 : Bended and cracked specimen – ductile fracture

Figure 7-4 : Bended and cracked specimen – fragile fracture
7.4 Tensile test
Tensile test is performed in order to evaluate the elasticity and the plasticity of the polymer
and more, of the welded joints.
Tensile testing of a longitudinal strip will generally be carried out in accordance with
IRS/FDIS13953 but must be modified as follows:
a) The type A test specimen must only be used for all samples exceeding 20mm in thickness.
b) All test strips for Type A tests must be machines down to 20mm thickness by removing
material evenly from each side of the pipe and then tested in the Type A test apparatus.
Samples tested in the above manner are referred to as Modified Type A testing to avoid
confusion with ISO/FDIS 13953.
c) For polyethylene pipes with a wall thickness less than 20mm a Type B test must be carried
out.
104
a.
b.
Figure 7-5 : Tensile test principle and the curve strength against strain for different polymers
During testing there are checked different mechanical characteristics as elongation, the
maximum force, the yield strength, the position of the first crack, etc.
Below it is presented several mechanical characteristics of the polymers as refference.

Typical Tensile Strength, Elongation, and Tensile Modulus of Polymers
Ultimate Tensile Tensile

Elongation
Polymer Type Strength Modulus
(%)
(MPa) (GPa)
ABS 40 30 2.3
ABS + 30% Glass Fiber 60 2 9
Acetal Copolymer 60 45 2.7
Acetal Copolymer + 30% Glass Fiber 110 3 9.5
Acrylic 70 5 3.2
Nylon 6 70 90 1.8
Polyamide-Imide 110 6 4.5
Polycarbonate 70 100 2.6
Polyethylene, HDPE 15 500 0.8
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 55 125 2.7
Polyimide 85 7 2.5
Polyimide + Glass Fiber 150 2 12
Polypropylene 40 100 1.9
Polystyrene 40 7 3
Figure 7-6 : Tensile tested specimen – ductile fracture
106
Figure 7-7 : Tensile tested specimen – fragile fracture

8 Heated tool weld imperfections (2
hrs)
8.1 Generals
Imperfection of a material, of a piece or of a welded joints is any deviation from the shape,
size, weight, appearance, compactness, structure, chemical composition and physical or
mechanical properties, that are prescribed in benchmarks, standards and product performance
documentation.
A defect is an imperfection exceeding the size allowed in class as prescribed, class that was
built based on experience.
8.2 Types of imperfection and their origins
8.2.1 Mis-alignment between fittings and pipe and pipes between

Mis-alignment means a wrong alignment of the pipes during welding. Due to a non-
appropriate position of the pipes during preparation for welding, mis-alignment means a
lower surface participating to the weld and as result low mechanical resistance of the weld.
It can be revealed from the outside, when the burr from a pipe is higher than the second burr.
Figure 8-1 : Mis-alignment
8.2.2 Not leaned burr

Not leaned burr is an imperfection that is met especially in low thickness pipes welding. It is,
generally, caused by wrong pressure during welding-cooling, or by a rapid increase of the
pressure up to the welding-cooling pressure.
Effects include:
108
• Reduction of the inner diameter with direct result in increasing the speed of the fluid,
so higher stress in the welded material
• Creates deposits of different solid particles when liquid is transported by the pipes.
Figure 8-2 : Not leaned burr
8.2.3 Low burr

Low burr is met when the pressure and/or the temperature are insufficient. If temperature is
too low, low quantity of material is heated up to the welding temperature and low burr is
forming.
If the heating pressure is too low, the pipes are not in good contact with the heating element
and low quantity of material is heated up to the welding temperature.
If the welding-cooling pressure is too low the contact between the heated surfaces is too low
and low quantity of material participates to the burr formation.
Figure 8-3 : Low burr
8.2.4 Deformed burr

During removal of the heating element it is possible to touch the burr with the heating element. Being
fluid-viscous the material of the burr is deformed.

Figure 8-4 : Deformed burrs
8.2.5 Unequal burrs

When the ends of the pipes are not uniformly touching the heating element and/or when the end sof
the pipes are not uniformly touching each other then the width of the burrs are not equal. Possible
cause of unequal burrs is a difference between the base materials (i.e. PE80-PE100, LDPE-HDPE,
etc.)
Figure 8-5 : Unequal burrs
8.2.6 Angular mis-position

There is the possibility that the pipes to have angular mis-position each other. In such case the joint is
not linear and the burr is not continuous and uniform.
Figure 8-6 : Angular mis-position
110
8.2.7 Cracks
A crack is a two-dimensional discontinuity that occurs during cooling or thereafter (transverse
longitudinal). It is generally caused by a very fast cooling and/or by a too low heating during heating
process.
Figure 8-7 : Cracked welds
8.3 Effect of imperfections on performance

Effects:
• Low surface participating to the weld, resulting in low mechanical resistance

• Reducing of the inner diameter, resulting in the increasing of the loads inside weld

Effects:
• Reducing of the inner diameter with direct result in increasing the speed of the fluid, so higher
stress in the welded material
• Creates deposits of different solid particles when liquid is transported by the pipes.
8.3.3 Low burr

Effects:
• Low resistance of the weld

• High risk of cracking if the imperfections comes from low welding temperature

8.3.4 Deformed burr
Effects:
• Possible not appropriate contact between the ends of the pipes during welding and as result low
resistance of the weld
• Low aesthetic
8.3.5 Unequal burrs

Effects:
• Possible not appropriate contact between the ends of the pipes during welding and as result low
resistance of the weld, or not-uniformly resistance for circumference
• Low aesthetic

Effects:
• Deviation of the fluid flowing, so potential increasing of the inner local pressure
• Low aesthetic
8.3.7 Crack
Effects:
• It is possible to produce the total fracture of the weld and the joint to not exist anymore
8.4 Acceptance criteria

The shape of the welding bead is an indication for the proper operation of the welding
process. Both welding beads should have the same shape and size.
The width of the welding bead should approximately be 0,5 x the height. The height of the
bead should be 0,7-0,8 x thickness of the wall. Differences between the beads can be caused
by the difference in HDPE material used in the welded components. Despite the differences in
welding bead the butt-weld can be of sufficient strength. In figure 9.8 a good weld is shown
with a uniform welding bead. At avisual inspection this would be classified as an "acceptable"
weld.
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Figure 8-8 : Acceptable weld

Acceptance criteria: difference between the heights of the burrs is lower than 10% of the
thickness of the wall.
max 0,1 x thickness
Figure 8-9 : Acceptance criteria for Mis-alignment

Acceptance criteria: the angle between the burr and the surface of the pipe should be lower
than 30o.
o
Max 30
Figure 8-10 : Acceptance criteria fornot leaned burr

8.4.3 Low burr
Acceptance criteria: the width of the welding bead should approximately be 0,5 x the height.
The height of the bead should be 0,7-0,8 x thickness of the wall.
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9 Basics of electrofusion welding (1
hr)
9.1 Generals
Electrofusion fittings employ the same basic welding principle. The socket of the fitting
incorporates an electrical heating coil. An electrofusion control unit (ECU) supplies the
electrical energy necessary to heat the coil. When the coil is energized the material adjacent to
it melts and forms an expanding pool which comes into contact with the surface of the pipe.
The continued introduction of heat energy causes the pipe surface to melt and a mixing of
pipe melt and fitting melt takes place; this is vital to produce a good weld.
Following the termination of the heat cycle, the fitting and pipe are left to cool and the melted
material solidifies to form a sound joint.
High integrity, consistently reproducible electrofusion joints will only be achieved if the
following criteria are met:
• Heating coils are as close to the joint surfaces as possible;
• Wire position is accurately controlled during manufacture and during the subsequent
fusion process;
• Heat distribution is uniform over the length of the hot zone;
• Melt pressure and temperature are both accurately controlled;
• Coils are protected from damage prior to, during and after fusion;
• Spigot ends are scraped.
The design and unique manufacturing technique of the electrofusion system ensures positive
compliance with all these criteria.

Jack-socket
Fitting
Resistor Cables
Pipe
Weld
a.
b.
Figure 9-1 : Electrofusion welding process principle
Hot and cold zones, sometimes called melt and freeze zones, are formed after energizing the
coil. The length of these zones is particularly important. Each zone ensures that fusion is
controlled to a precise length of the socket of the fitting and that the melt pressure is also
controlled throughout the entire jointing process.
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The precisely controlled pitch and positioning of the coil in relation to the inner surface of the
socket ensures uniform heat distribution.
Electrofusion fittings are supplied for mainly 39.5 volt operation although some sizes and
materials are available for 80 volt operation.
9.2 Application
Electrofusion welding can be applied to any diameter, but is especially recommended for
lower diameters as more economical.
Technically, electrofusion welding can provide higher quality welds than the heated element
tool welding, as the mechanical resistance of the end-result is higher.
Economically, because of the higher cost of the electro-fitting, the electrofusion welding is
more expensive than the heated tool welding.
More, up to 63 mm diameter the welding can be performed without special device to clamp
the pipes and the fitting, but starting with 63 mm diameter all the welds should be done in
specific clamping devices.
9.3 Parameters of welding process
The welding parameters are, generally, divided in two parts:

• Parameters that are related to the pipes that should be welded: type of the material,
diameter, thickness or SDR, and sometimes the length of the pipes.
It is recommended to not weld to distinct materials (i.e.: PE-PP, PE80-PE100) because
of the differences between the behavior of the materials during heating process. It is
not recommended to weld two pipes with different thickness or SDR because of the
step that is formed inside the pipe. Such step creates turbulences, so increasing of the
local pressure, inside the weld. The length of the weld is able to influence the cooling
speed during welding, so, a decision on closing the open ends of the pipes could be
based on the length of the pipes.
• Technological parameters:
o Resistor feeding voltage – the voltage that is used to feed the resistor, in order
to heat it, has standard values: 39.5 V or 80 V.

o Heating time – the heating time is the time when the voltage is ON and the
electrical resistor is during feeding process.
o Cooling time – the cooling time is the period that is necessary for the newly
done weld to cool down.
The parameters could be entered to the welding equipment by several methods (depending on
the equipment). The most used systems are:
• By infra-red reading of the barcode
• By using specific card reader and the card that is delivered together with the fitting
• Manually, by using the keyboard of the equipment
9.4 Welding Equipment
Electrofusion welding equipment generally consists of the following main components:

a) power source;
b) control panel;
c) master card reader and or infrared barcode reader;
d) printing device
e) kit of cables to feed the fitting;
f) scrapper.
Those can be complemented with a holding device for electrofusion socket welding,
especially for large diameters of the pipes.
Power source
Kit of cables
Digital display
Jack-sockets
Keyboard
ON/OFF switch
Master card reader
Infrared barcode reader
Figure 9-2 : Electrofusion welding machine
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Other devices to be used in order to help prepare the process are shown in figures 4.15 and
4.16.
Figure 9-3 : Devices to cut the pipes before welding process
Figure 9-4 : Scrappers
Figure 9-5 shows a holding device for electrofusion socket welding.

Figure 9-5 : Device to sustain or to clamp the pipe and the fitting
120
10 Basics of electrofusion socket and
saddle welding (1 hrs)
10.1 Principle of the electrofusion socket welding process
As principle, the electrofusion socket welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface of
the pipes and the interior surface of the electro-fitting, in the areas that will actually be
welded, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
The heat is produced according to the Joule-Lenz when an electrical current is flowing
through an electrical conductor that is positioned into the socket (figure 5.1).
Figure 10-1 : Electro-fitting / Electro-socket
10.1.1 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations

• Establish a work space where the joining can be done without being effected by major
weather conditions.
special attention, especially for high diameters when alignment devices are used.
• Verification of the code bar reader
• Verification of the existence of a tent that could be used to provide shelter during welding.
• Checking the chosen welding parameters, if they are correct for the machine and for the
pipe that will be welded.
• Check that the pipes and/or fittings to be jointed are of the same size, SDR and material.

• Checking the existence of the alcoholic paper to clean the pipes and the fitting.
10.1.2 Dummy Welds

Periodically, dummy welds are recommended to be done to check parameters and machine
10.1.3 The Welding procedure

10.1.3.1 Preparation of the pipe and of the fitting
• Pipe cutting
• Prepare the end of the pipe
Figure 10-2 : Shape of the end of the pipe
• Measuring the length of the fitting
Figure 10-3 : Measuring the length of the fitting
• Marking the end of the pipe that will enter inside the fitting
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Figure 10-4 : Marking the end of the pipe
• Scrapping the exterior of the end of the pipe. Wipe off loose swarf with clean, dry, lint
free cloth or paper towel. Do not touch the scraped pipe surface or allow surface to get
damp prior to continuing.
Figure 10-5 : Scrapping the end of the pipe
• Cleaning the exterior of the end of the pipe. Wipe loose dirt from pipe ends with clean,
dry, lint free cloth or paper towel.
Figure 10-6 : Cleaning of the pipe
• Cleaning the interior of the fitting. Wipe loose dirt from pipe ends with clean, dry, lint
free cloth or paper towel.

Figure 10-7 : Cleaning of the fitting
• Inserting the pipes into the fitting until the mark reaches to the fitting
Figure 10-8 : Prepare the assembly
10.1.3.2 Welding steps
• The not yet welded assembly is accomplished by following the steps above and the
attachment of the jack-sockets of the power source are the next step of the welding
process.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Legend: 1,6 – jack-socket, 2 – fitting, 3 – electrical resistor mounted inside the fitting, 4 – pipe, 5 – channels for welding markers
Figure 10-9 : Introducing the pipes into the fitting
• Read the welding parameters by using the barcode reader
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Figure 10-10 : Reading the parameters from the barcode
• Put the welding power source ON and feed the electrical resistor
Power feeding
Voltage: 39.5V or 80V
Hot resistor
Figure 10-11 : Power feeding
• According to Joule-Lenz law, the resistor’s temperature will increase and it will melt
the surrounding material (from the pipe and from the fitting)

Figure 10-12 : Melting of the polymer
• The expansion of the molten polymer creates a flowing through the markers channels
up to the surface.
Formation of the markers

Power OFF
Markers
The weld is cooling down
Figure 10-13 : Formation of the markers. Cut feeding
The formation of the markers means the weld is done and the process could be stopped.
The power source automatically cut the feeding of the resistor and the weld is cooling down.
10.1.3.3 Welding parameters
The electrofusion welding parameters are:

• Resistor feeding voltage – the voltage that is used to feed the resistor, in order to heat
it, has standard values: 39.5 V or 80 V. On the label of the fitting the feeding voltage
is specified. Wrong choice of the feeding voltage means the burning of the 39.5 V
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fitting if the 80 V voltage has been chosen and an insufficient heating of the 80 V
fitting if the 39.5 V voltage has been chosen.
• Heating time – the heating time is the time when the voltage is ON and the electrical
resistor is during feeding process. During heating, the pipe expands inside the fitting,
ensuring the contact between the two pieces. A too short heating time will result in an
insufficient heating of the pipe and of the fitting, so, a weld characterized by low
mechanical resistance or even the impossibility to finish the weld.
• Cooling time – the cooling time is the period that is necessary to the new done weld to
cool down. During the cooling, the fitting is contracted on the pipe and maintains the
force that was created during welding by the pipe expansion. Because of that force,
during cooling, the weld is forming in good conditions. During the cooling period the
weld should not be loaded, external or internal. A too short cooling time together with
a loading of the weld could produce the destroying of the weld.
10.2 Principle of the electrofusion saddle welding process
As principle, the electrofusion saddle welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface of
the pipe, in the place where the saddle will be attached and the sitting surface of the electro-
saddle, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
The heat is produced according to the Joule-Lenz when an electrical current is flowing
through a conductor that is positioned under the sitting surface of the electro-saddle.
10.2.1 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations

• If the welding process is not in a workshop, but on site, the first measure is to establish a
work space where the joining can be done without being effected by major weather
conditions.
special attention, especially for high diameters when alignment devices are used.
• Verification of the code bar reader or of the master card reader if one of them will be used.
• Verification of the existence of a tent that could be used to provide shelter from rain, dust,
snow or else that could bring negative effects during welding.
• Checking the chosen welding parameters, if they are correct for the machine and for the
saddle that will be welded.

• Check that the pipes and/or saddles to be joined are of the same size, SDR and material.
• Checking the existence of the alcoholic paper or paper towels to clean the pipes and the
saddle.
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10.2.2 Dummy Welds
Periodically, dummy welds are recommended to be done to check parameters and machine
10.2.3 The Welding procedure

10.2.3.1 Preparation of the pipe and of the fitting
1. Expose pipe on to which saddle is to be welded.

2. Check for excessive ovality and that vertical or horizontal curvature does not exceed a
radius of 25 times the pipe diameter.
3. Remove loose dirt with a clean, dry lint free cloth.
4. Still in its protective bag, place fitting over required position on the pipe.
5. Mark pipe surface 10mm clear all round contact area.
6. Scrape uniformly the surface within marked area, removing about 0.05-0.2mm of material.
7. Wipe away any loose swarf with a clean, dry cloth or paper towel.
8. Remove fitting from bag and attach to pipe with suitable clamping equipment.
9. Do not touch the electrofusion surface of the saddle.
10.2.3.2 Welding steps
• Welding area is located to the upper side of the pipe and on the inferior surface of the
saddle. Before scraping, fusion zone must be marked with a marker on the pipe
Figure 10-14 : Marking of the welding area
• Scrapping of the welding area. The scrapping should be done just before the heating
process

Figure 10-15 : Scrapping of the welding area
• Cleaning the welding area by decreasing and removing all the impurities as fats, dust
or other foreign particles that are on the surface of the pipe (the saddle is still
maintained in its own plastic bag, so it’s clean)
Figure 10-16 : Cleaning the pipe
• Mounting the saddle on the pipe by using it’s own system of clamping
Figure 10-17 : Mounting the saddle on the pipe
• Read the welding parameters by using the barcode reader or the master card reader, or
other possible devices; if the parameters will be introduced by using the keyboard of
the control unit, then the parameters can be read on specific labels that are delivered in
the plastic bag of the saddle
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Figure 10-18 : Reading the parameters from the barcode
• Connect the jack-sockets to the saddle and start the welding process by putting the
machine ON. The melting process is similar to the socket welding process (presented
above). The formation of the markers on the channels of the saddle means the weld is
done and the process could be stopped. The power source automatically cut the
feeding of the resistor and the weld is cooling down.
• Drilling the pipe to create the flowing circuit from the pipe to the distribution saddle.
Figure 10-19 : Drilling the pipe to create the flowing circuit
10.2.3.3 Welding parameters
Similarly to the socket electrofusion welding, in the saddle electrofusion welding the
parameters are:
• Resistor feeding voltage – the voltage that is used to feed the resistor, in order to heat
it, has standard values: 39.5 V or 80 V. On the label of the fitting the feeding voltage
is specified. Wrong choice of the feeding voltage means the burning of the 39.5 V
fitting if the 80 V voltages have been chosen and an insufficient heating of the 80 V
fitting if the 39.5 V voltage has been chosen.
• Heating time – the heating time is the time when the voltage is ON and the electrical
resistor is during feeding process. During heating, the inside fitting of the pipe
expands, resulting in the contact between the two pieces. A too short heating time will

result in an insufficient heating of the pipe and of the fitting, resulting in a weld
characterized by low mechanical resistance or even the impossibility to finish the
weld.
• Cooling time – the cooling time is the period that is necessary for the newly done weld
to cool down. During the cooling the fitting is contracted on the pipe and maintains the
force that was created during welding by the pipe expansion. Because of that force,
during cooling, the weld is forming in good conditions. During cooling period the
weld should not be loaded, external or internal. A too short cooling time together with
a loading of the weld could produce the destroying of the weld.
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11 Application of electrofusion welding
(1 hrs)
11.1 Effect of material
Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature T g , specific for
each one—the midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp melting point of a pure
crystalline substance like water. Below a second, higher melting temperature, T m , also the
midpoint of a range, most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous
regions in which the chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute
elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for
non-thermoplastic fibrous proteins such as silk. (Elasticity does not mean they are particularly
stretchy; e.g., nylon rope and fishing line.) Above T m all crystalline structure disappears and
the chains become randomly inter dispersed. As the temperature increases above T m , viscosity
gradually decreases without any distinct phase change.
During exploitation thermoplastics present the following advantages:
Main characteristics
- High temperature stability - Resistance to electrochemical corrosion
- Hygienic and environmental - Low thermal conductivity: λ=0,23W/mK
friendliness
- No siltation - Resistance to stray electric currents
- Easy and clean installation, easy - High heat insulating
welding
- High sound insulating - High impact rate
- Chemical resistance - Low loss of pressure
- Recyclable - Light weight
11.2 Welding of sheet and pipe
Because of that the application of the welded polymers are very large. As already presented in
figure 1.2 packaging has 35% of the welded polymers market, followed by the building and
construction domain with 23%, transportation, electrical and furniture each with about 8%,
agriculture, medical toy and sports each with up to 3% and else.
Agriculture and Agribusiness

• Polymeric materials are used in and on soil to improve aeration, provide mulch, and
promote plant growth and health.
Medicine
• Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacements and blood vessels, are made of
polymers like Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.
Consumer Science
• Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light weight and economically less expensive
than the more traditional containers. Clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal bags, and
packaging are other polymer applications.
Industry
• Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives, matrix for composites, and elastomers are all
polymer applications used in the industrial market.
A report published today shows a steady increase in the use of plastics by Europe’s car
manufacturing industry since the 1970s, rising to nearly two million tonnes today.
By volume, plastics are now the most widely specified material. However, plastics’ low
weight means they account for about 10 per cent of the total weight of a modern car.
The study, carried out by Mavel on behalf of the Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe (APME), examines the use of plastics in cars over the last three decades in Europe
with specific reference to France, Germany and Italy.
The report shows that this increase in the use of plastics is particularly dramatic in certain
types of cars. For example, some of the cars surveyed registered a four-fold increase in their
use of plastics between the 1970s and 1990s.
It is estimated that, on average, 100 kilograms of plastics replaces 200-300 kilograms of
conventional material, reducing fuel consumption by 750 litres over a life span of 150 000
kilometres.
Sports
• Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets
are often produced from polymers.
Piping is probably the most interesting application. Welded thermoplastics are used in:
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• Cold and hot water supply systems
• Potable water supply systems
• Waste water transportation
• Heating systems
• Central air conditioning systems
• Water circulating and water supply systems in swimming pools
• Natural gas transportation
for both transportation and distribution.
a.
b.

c.
Figure 11-1 : On site welding of piping system
Specific polymers, like PE, PP and PVC are mostly used for pipes, fittings and accessories of
the piping systems, in following sizes and with following parameters (but not exclusive):
• PN10 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold water transportation and floor
heating
• PN16 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold and hot water transportation and
floor heating
• PN20 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for hot water transportation and central
heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PPR multilayer composite pipes with
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PE-RT multilayer composite pipes with
• PN20 fittings and fittings with nickel-plated brass threaded inserts and cap nuts with
diameter range Ø16-160mm
• PN20 ball valves and stop valves
136
Estimated service life of the polymers piping systems is over 50 years and subject to proper
installation and maintaining of material’s characteristics. Short time peak temperatures up to
100 ºС are possible.
Long time usage of piping system at temperatures ranging from 70ºС to 90ºС reduces its
service life.
Figure 11-2 : Estimated life for a polymer pipe

11.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding
Main applications of the electrofusion welding are:

• pipelines and the installation of water, gas, sewer (internal and external drainage of roofs,
bridges),
• industrial installations (including chemical resistant, compressed gases),
• ventilation systems (resistant to high humidity, corrosive gases and vapors, local exhaust),
• irrigation systems,
• energy systems and telecommunications equipment (casing pipes),
• installation of rainwater (including development and use of rainwater),
• Mining - above and below ground installations
For those aplications, the material for the electrofusion sockets and saddles (PE100 of long-
term strength)should be in accordance to distinct standards:
• BS EN 1555-3:2003 (U) - systems of pipe fittings of plastic for the transmission of
gaseous fuels. Polyethylene (PE). Part 3: Fittings.
• BS EN 12201-3:2003 (U) - piping systems, plastic for transferring water. Polyethylene
(PE). Part 3: Fittings.
• PN EN 13244-1 - pressure underground and aboveground piping systems and plastic
products for general use in the sewers. Polyethylene (PE). Part 3: Fittings.
The above applications are widely met because of the next advantages of the electrofusion
joining technic:
• there is no decrease in inner diameter of the pipe
• low weight, low cost and flexibility of the equipment
• high operation rates
• fully automated operation, so need for skilled operator is at minimum level
• no reduction in strength of material at jointed parts
• waterproof;
• able to withstand axial forces initiated by axial moments of the pipe in the ground;
• able to withstand radial forces and bending forces;
• able to withstand effects of temperature and temperature variatations.
• fusion indicators for visual fusion indication
• bar Coded fittings of master card for simple installation
• extra wide fusion zones, extra long insertion depths and wall thickness
138
• can be used with all HDPE pressure pipes
• installation in the tightest space available
• only a few tools are required, no jigs to hold pipe sections
• direct heat transfer to the pipe through exposed heat coil
• cold zones on the face and the center of the couplings
Electrofusion socket welding is recommended in any piping application, but over the 110 mm
diameter the fitting becomes expensive. If difficult exploitation conditions are met, it is
recommended to use electrofusion socket welding for all the diameters.
Electrofusion saddle welding is definitely recommended to any application that involves
distribution system from a main pipeline.

12 Health & Safety (2hrs)
12.1 General on Polymer health and safety issues
12.1.1 Main causes of injury

In the Plastics Industry the main causes of injury are:
• During manual handling (the largest cause of all injuries in the industry 34%)
• Slipping or tripping (25% of major injuries)
• Machinery related (17% of major injuries)
• Struck by something including knife-cuts (14% of all injuries)
The main causes of ill health are:
• Occupational asthma, and respiratory irritation from exposure to plastic fume

• Dermatitis, in particular in fibre reinforced plastic product manufacture
• Exposure to noise at work
A range of safety hazards is associated with polymer materials and the processes involved in
their use. The hazards are common to all the materials and care should be taken at all times in
dealing with them. When using a material with which you are unfamiliar, check the
appropriate health and safety documentation before starting work.
As there are a number of features common to the different polymers, a few general guidelines
are suggested:
Uncured resins
Once fully cured or polymerised, polymeric materials present no health hazard, but care needs
to be taken with all uncured resin systems. For example, for volume uses such as floor
material, paints, or sealants, epoxy products are usually supplied in ‘two-component’ form,
with separate resin and hardener which are mixed just before application.
140
The epoxy resin base is an irritant and may give rise to allergies through contact. If product
contains solvents which are also epoxy substances (so-called ‘reactive solvents’), these may
cause an allergic reaction through inhalation.
The amine hardeners are most often corrosive, but products vary from irritant to poisonous.
Many amines are sensitising by skin contact, and volatile amines may give off sensitising
vapours.
Note that, once an allergic reaction has been suffered, the operator will remain sensitive
(potentially for life) and be unable to work with epoxy.
The ‘single-component’ epoxies used in electronic assembly operations, where the materials
are pre-mixed, are less of a hazard. This is because the materials are designed for long pot life
and extended cure, so are generally less reactive. However, care should be taken to avoid skin
contact, and a sensible level of hygiene is needed in order not to spread the substances and
contain any uncured waste.
Solvents
Many polymers contain solvent additives to vary the viscosity and prevent premature curing.
Solvents evaporate during dispensing as well as during the curing process. Solvents are
generally classed as irritants and care should be taken not to touch the materials with bare skin
and to provide sufficient ventilation (or preferably extraction) to remove the fumes. The
solvent remains an irritant in vapour form and can affect people who suffer from asthma.
Dispensing
Dispensing can use relatively high pressure air lines and care should be taken to ensure
appropriate screens or protective clothing in case of malfunction. Care should be taken to
protect eyes, by the use of safety glasses or goggles where appropriate. The high volume
dispensing machine is also mechanically dangerous as it travels at high speeds. Care should
be taken to ensure that the appropriate safety procedures are followed when working with this
type of equipment.
Moulding
The moulding process is not normally carried out as part of printed circuit assembly, but is
common in the assembly of components. Moulding machines are sophisticated machines and

incorporate many safety features, but care should be taken as the polymer materials within the
machines is heated to high temperatures under very high pressure and are therefore dangerous
if operated incorrectly or a machine fails.
Curing
UV light sources used in curing polymer adhesives are applied by controlled exposure units
which are made to the required safety standards. These units should not be operated outside
their controlled environment as exposure to high intensity UV light can be dangerous.
Read the operating instructions!
In the case of materials which require heating as part of the curing process, care should be
taken to protect the operator with the appropriate protective clothing (e.g. safety glasses and
gloves) to prevent splash damage, or burning by contact with hot surfaces.
In general the workplace is a safe environment if the appropriate precautions are taken and
instructions are followed. Machinery with moving parts is fitted with many safety features:
they are for your safety, so do not disable them.
12.1.2 Necessary safety controls

Workplace controls
Good workplace controls are essential in controlling exposure to process materials. Many of
the materials, particularly the resins, curing agents, and fibers, present a potential dermal-
exposure hazard. Many of the solvents and some of the curing agents present a potential
inhalation hazard. Some materials present both a dermal and inhalation hazard. Ingestion may
be a potential exposure hazard, but usually involves poor personal hygiene or contamination
of eating facilities. The various types of workplace controls described below may typically be
found in the advanced composite workplace.
Engineering controls
Isolation (e.g., isolated storage, separate process areas, enclosures, closed systems) and local
exhaust ventilation are the primary engineering controls found in advanced composites
processes. These controls can be found in:
 Resin mixing areas;
 Heated curing areas including autoclaves;
142
 Finishing and repair areas; and
 Controlling off-gases from exotherms
Work practice controls
Work practices, as distinguished from engineering controls, involve the way a task is
performed. Some fundamental and easily implemented work practices that can be used to
minimize exposures when working with advanced composites are:
 good employee training and education;
 following the proper procedures for production, process and control equipment;
 proper use, maintenance, and cleaning of personal protective equipment;
 good personal hygiene program;
 housekeeping;
 periodic inspection and maintenance of production, process and control equipment;
 good supervision.
12.1.2.1 Personal safety equipment
 Gloves, protective clothing, and eye protection may frequently be required, especially
when working with resins, curing agents, and solvents. Selection of the proper
protective materials should be based on permeation data, if available. This type of data
are often available for the solvents used, but very little data are available for the resins
and curing agents.
 In many advanced composites processes several chemicals or mixtures are involved.

There are essentially no permeation data available for chemical mixtures. This means
that, in many cases, glove and clothing selection must be a trial and error process.
 Generally, the resins are of a larger molecular size and so are less likely to permeate
protective materials than the curing agents and solvents. The aromatic amine curing
agents are particularly difficult to protect against. In some advanced composites
processes, close hand work and contact is required, and a glove must provide good

tactility. Often this type of glove provides the least protection against the resin and
curing agent.
 Eye protection can be provided by standard safety glasses with side shields, goggles,
or a face shield, as needed.
 Respiratory protection is not required in many advanced composites processes, due to
the low vapor pressure of the materials involved. However, respirators may be
required where:
• Airborne solvent levels are high;
• Dust levels are high (resin mixing, finishing, repair);
• Large surface areas and significant hand work are involved;
• Exotherms are experienced.
12.1.2.2 Administrative controls
Employee exposures also can be controlled by scheduling operations with the highest
exposures at a time when the fewest employees are present.
12.2 Burns and fires

In heating element butt welding / socket welding / saddle welding the polymer reaches the
fluid viscous state due to heating to a temperature that is about 60-70% of the degradation
temperature.
There is a possibility, due to the material and solvents used to clean the base material, to have
fire ignition during heating process. That results in burning of the pipes, of the socket/saddle
if applicable and specific danger of human injury is possible.
If flame will appear the clothes of the welder or the flamable materials around coud burn in
open flame.
When fire ignition is happening there is important to put away of fire ol the flammable
materials and to avoid get in contact with the fire.
Specific equipment will be used to eliminate the open fire, as fire extinguishers. The fire
extinguisher has improved hugely in recent years and, with many important developments in
extinguishants, there is a type now available for virtually any fire situation.
144
A quick guide to use extinguishers is as follows:
Class A fires (wood, paper, material, cloth, etc)
Recommended extinguishers include water (all red), water with additive (all red), AFFF foam
spray (red with cream area above label), ABC powder (red with blue area above label)
Class B (flammable liquids such as petrol, spirits and diesel)
Recommended extinguishers include AFFF foam, ABC powder, CO2 or carbon dioxide (red
with black area above label), Monnex powder (red with blue area above label)
Class C (flammable gas)
Recommended extinguishers include powder but only when the gas can be turned off
Class D (flammable metals)
Recommended extinguishers include M28 powder, L2 powder and other specialised powders
Class F (deep fat cooking oil)
Recommended extinguisher is only the wet chemical (red with yellow area above label) and
no other

12.3 Fume control
Heating element welding, electrofusion welding, laser welding and cutting and hot gas
welding of plastics are few techniques that are potentially hazardous due to the emission of
fumes.
For example, polypropylene, polyethylene and polycarbonate all generate benzene, a
carcinogen, during laser cutting. Polystyrene releases styrene, while PVC emits hydrogen
chloride. Many plastics also give off ultra fine particles, plus carcinogenic polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, the filters that are commonly used to clean up the fumes
that originate from laser cutting of metals will not remove the fumes produced from plastics.
Therefore, workers involved with these processes may potentially be exposed to unacceptable
levels of hazardous substances. Hence, the need for employers to install the correct ventilation
systems so that exposures are controlled adequately.
Exposure to fumes given off during the hot gas welding of plastics such as PVC, nylon,
PMMA, polycarbonate and polypropylene is not normally likely to give cause for concern.
However, there may be a health risk where the welding takes place in confined spaces in
which the welder's head is close to the welding operation, and where ventilation is restricted.
Of greater concern is exposure to hazardous fumes during welding of fluoropolymers such as
PVDF, ECTFE, PFA and FEP, which can cause influenza-like symptoms known as "polymer
fume fever". For this reason, it is recommended that these materials are not welded above
their recommended weld temperature and that a good standard of local exhaust ventilation
should be used.
Another fluoropolymer that can cause polymer fume fever when overheated is PTFE, which is
used as a non-stick coating for hot plates that are used for welding other thermoplastics. For
this reason, it is therefore recommended that PTFE-coated hot plates should not exceed a
temperature of 270°C.
146
12.4 Safe lifting/handling
The main recommendations regarding the handling of the thermoplastics pipe are:
 Due to mechanical characteristics of plastics, the handling, transportation and storage of
the pipes must be made carefully to avoid cracking the material.
 Polyethylene pipe will handle carefully, rolling and throwing; if the pipe is to be handled
at temperatures around 0oC hitting the pipes during handling and transport must be
avoided, and below -50oC will be prohibited from handling polyethylene pipes;
 Due to high elasticity of PE pipes, they can be rolled on drums for diameters up to 125;
their lengths is about 300 to 400m. Rolling can be hard, so it should be performed
carefully.Winding diameter must not be less than 20 times of the outside diameter;
 If the rolling of the pipes is on drums, the drums must meet the followingconditions:
-Be sufficiently rigid to permit movement by bending the pipe side walls;
-Pipe ends are fixed to the drum plate;
-Turns are linked in layers to avoid carrying pipe;
-Drum surfaces in contact with the pipe must not damage the pipe;
-Between the pipe and the ground must be a sufficient distance so as not to damage the
pipe;
 Packaging must protect the pipe coils during storage and transport as well as against
ultraviolet rays;
 Transportation of the drums on specific vehicles will consider them to be fixed on the
vehicle, and their height to not exceed the head room under the bridges, tunnels etc.
 Pipes with diameters larger than 125 mm is executed only in bars. Depending on the
possibilities of transportation,length of bars is limited to 6 to 12m, and for water
transportation is up to18m;
 PE pipes transported as bar will be put on smooth floor vehicles that have adequate
support and allow the entire pipe length (unsupported length is allowed a maximum of
1m). Transport vehicles will be equipped with side guards about 2m tall, without bumps,
and the pipes will be fixed during transportation;
 Pipes are recommended to be placed on the vehicle as a pyramid with the stack height less
than 1 m, except the diameter over 630mm which sits on two layers;

 PE pipes must be placed on a flat surface without bumps, taking care to prevent rolling;
storage is done on groups of pipes with the same dimensions and part of the same type of
pressure;
a. Handling coil of pipe
b. Way to arange the pipe into a vehicle
c. Handling pipe-bars from the vehicle to the deposit
148
d. Handling coils of pipes
12.5 Basic personal protection

Providing workers with personal protective equipment should be made in accordance with
H1048 / 2006. The following elements should be taken into consideration:
 It is forbidden to use personal protective equipment that are not made and certified in
accordance with standards and regulations in force.
 Legal entity thatprovide personal protective equipment shall:
(1) Equip workers with personal protective equipment appropriate to the nature of activity
which it carries;
(2)maintain personal protective equipment in perfect conditions of use and reliability by
storing, cleaning, repair and proper verification.
 Staff worker who performs the technical installations-plumbing and heating is required:
(1) to wear personal protective equipment;
(2)not to use personal protective equipment for purposes other than for which it was
granted;
(3) if the change request activity specific personal protective equipment.
Fire and explosion

 In rooms with danger of fire and explosion can make technical installation works-sanitary
or heating only under conditions imposed by the PSI rules in force.
 Access to hazardous premises is restricted to strangers. The doors of these rooms will be
fitted tablets with the inscription"Explosive".

 The retention in working areas, except those specially designed to: tanks, containers with
liquid fuels, carbide and vessels with fatty oils, paints, thinners.
 In all situations where the risk of fire or explosion will take preventive measures in
accordance with the current prescriptions of fire-fighting.
Lighting.Ventilation
 Lighting in the workplace shall be in accordance with H1091/2006 and if necessary will
be ventilated to eliminate the risk of injury or illness due to harmful gases or explosives;
 Traffic surfaces and areas where there are various parameters of the recording equipment
will be illuminated to be always possible to distinguish clearly the inscriptions on the dials
of measuring and control equipment, pipes and cables with conventional colors, covers
and manhole covers, stairs access, alarm, etc.
 Portable electric lamps used for lighting will be powered jobs at very low voltage
exceeding 24V.
12.6 Consequences of misapplying critical welding parameters

 Too high temperature: risks of burning and fire ignition
 To high pressure when heating: risks of expulsion of molten material and burning of the
welder
b = 0,5 x B
B = (0,7...0,8) x t
t
Figure 12-1 : Acceptance criteria for low burr
12.6.1 Deformed burr

Acceptance criteria: no deformation is allowed if modifies the dimension of the burr more than 10%
150
12.6.2 Unequal burrs
Acceptance criteria: difference between the equivalent dimensions of the two burrs should be lower
than 10%

Acceptance criteria: angle lower than 10o.
Max 10o
Figure 12-2 : Acceptance criteria for angular mis-position

13 Documentation (2hrs)
13.1 Generals
Documentation associated with welded construction fit into three broad categories, as follows:
• materials
• welding procedures
• qualifications of personnel
The topic of welding documentation must also include discussion of inspections and
associated reporting.
Documented Document
Certificate of the quality of the pipe (containing specifications of the

Material that is welded material)
Certificate of quality of the polymer (if required by the contract)
Welding personnel (welder / Welder qualification certificate

welding operator) Authorization for weldig specific structures (if required)
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)

Welding procedure
Welding Procedure Approval Record (WPAR)
Certificate of compliance with inspector qualification programs or

Inspection procedure practices
Inspection Reports
13.2 Welding Procedure Specification

In annex a WPS model is presented. It contains 6 sections:
1. identification of the owner and of the welder, as well

2. the description of the weld and the process to be applied
3. materials that will be welded
152
4. Welding parameters
5. Preparations before welding
6. Signatures of he welding coordinator and of the welding inspector
13.3 Completing welding reports

After the welding an applied WPS will be issued if modification of the approval one has been
made.
13.4 Manual and automatic reports

Specific welding machines are able to automatically report the welding parameters used
during welding process. The registration should be kept in order to presents the real
conditions of performing welding.

Annex
WPS - Model
Identification
Company Name Address
Place Date
Welder Surname (Family name) Identification Mark
Welding Operator Name (Given name)
WPS Weld description
Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR)
Welding process
Type of weld
Base materials Recommended to weld similar materials (MB1≈MB2)
Type: Type:
Standard: Standard:
BM 1 BM 2
Diameter [mm]: Diameter [mm]:
Wall Thickness [mm] Wall Thickness [mm]
T [oC] Weding temperature

p [bar]
pheating1 pwelding-cooling
Welding parameters
pheating2
t [s]
theating1 theating2 t t
tincrease1 tremovalincrease2 welding-cooling
Pressure for heating under pressure Time for increasing pressure for
154
(adapting), p heating 1 [bar] heating under pressure t increase1 [s]
Pressure for heating with low Time for heating under pressure,
pressure (maintaining), p heating 2 [bar] t heating1 [s]
Pressure for welding-cooling, p welding- Time for heating with low

cooling [bar] pressure, t heating2 [s]
Temperature for heating during Time for removal the heated tool
welding process, T [oC] t removal [s]
Time for increasing pressure

welding-cooling t increase2 [s]
Time for welding-cooling [s]
Preparations before welding
Coordinator Examination body Inspector Date of inspection


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Course Support

PLASTICS WELDER – Electrofusion welding and Heated Tool Welding

1.1 Generals ................................................................................................................. 6

1.1.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................... 6

1.1.2 Application of polymers .................................................................................................... 7

1.1.3 Nomenclature of polymers ............................................................................................... 8

1.2 Classification of polymers ........................................................................................ 9

1.2.1 Classification by chain structure ..................................................................................... 9

1.2.2 Classification by Thermal Behavior ................................................................................ 9

1.3 Polymer structure ...................................................................................................15

1.4 Main physical properties of polymers .....................................................................16

1.5 HDPE pipes ...........................................................................................................19

1.6 Plastics Recognition ...............................................................................................24

2 Processing of Thermoplastics (2hrs) .............................................................................25

2.1 How polymers are made ........................................................................................25

2.1.1 Polymerization ................................................................................................................. 25

2.1.2 Polymerization Terms ..................................................................................................... 26

2.2 Extrusion of polymers .............................................................................................28

2.2.1 Generals ........................................................................................................................... 28

2.2.2 Equipment for Extrusion ................................................................................................. 30

2.2.3 Defects .............................................................................................................................. 34

2.3 Welding of polymers ...............................................................................................36

2.3.1 Heating element butt welding......................................................................................... 36

2.3.2 Heating element socket welding .................................................................................... 37

2.3.3 Hotgas welding ................................................................................................................ 39

2.3.4 Extrusion welding ............................................................................................................ 39

2.3.5 Infrared welding ............................................................................................................... 39

2.3.6 Laser welding ................................................................................................................... 40

2.3.8 Vibration friction welding ............................................................................................... 41

2.3.9 Induction welding ............................................................................................................ 41

2.3.10 High frequency welding .............................................................................................. 42

2.3.11 Microwave welding ...................................................................................................... 42

2.3.12 Ultrasonic welding ....................................................................................................... 43

2.4 Injection moulding of polymers ...............................................................................43

2.4.1 Thermoplastic and thermosets injection molding ....................................................... 43

2.4.2 Thermoset compression and transfer molding ............................................................ 45

3 Welded Joints and Terminology (1hrs) ..........................................................................51

3.1 Welded Joints.........................................................................................................51

3.1.1 Prolonging a pipe ............................................................................................................ 51

3.1.2 Ramification for distribution .......................................................................................... 52

3.2 Terminology ...........................................................................................................53

4 Basics of heated tool butt welding (1 hr) ........................................................................61

4.1 Generals ................................................................................................................61

4.2 Pre-Welding Preparatory Operations......................................................................62

4.3 Dummy Welds ........................................................................................................63

4.4 The Welding procedure ..........................................................................................63

4.5 Welding Equipment ................................................................................................74

5 Basics of heated tool socket and saddle welding (1 hrs)................................................81

5.1 Principle of the process ..........................................................................................81

5.2 Types of polyfusion welding ...................................................................................83

5.3 Welding Technology ...............................................................................................85

5.3.1 Preparation before welding process ............................................................................. 85

5.3.2 Heating .............................................................................................................................. 87

5.3.3 Transposition ................................................................................................................... 88

5.3.4 Joining and fixation ......................................................................................................... 88

5.4 Polyfusion welding parameters ...............................................................................89

5.5 Technological conditions after welding ...................................................................91

5.6 Procedural mistakes in polyfusion welding .............................................................91

5.7 Welding equipment ................................................................................................92

6 Application of heated tool welding (1 hrs) ......................................................................93

6.1 Effect of material ....................................................................................................93

6.2 Welding of sheet and pipe ......................................................................................93

7 Testing heated tool welds and joints (1 hr) ..................................................................100